BANGLADESH WATER DEVELOPMENT BOARD

THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF BANGLADESH

THE PROJECT FOR

CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT
FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER RELATED
INFRASTRUCTURE
IN
THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF BANGLADESH

FINAL REPORT
ANNEXES

SEPTEMBER 2017

JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY

(JICA)
IDEA Consultants, Inc.
INGEROSEC Corporation
GE
EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE Co., Ltd.
JR
17-110
 LIST OF ANNEXES
ANNEX 1: Design Manual for River Embankment
ANNEX 2: Construction Manual for River Embankment
ANNEX 3: Operation and Maintenance Manual for Hydraulic Structures
ANNEX 4: User’s’ Manual for O&M GIS Database
ANNEX 5: Action Plan for Dissemination and Effective Use of Manuals
 ANNEX 1:
Design Manual for River Embankment
 BANGLADESH WATER DEVELOPMENT BOARD
THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF BANGLADESH

DESIGN MANUAL
FOR
RIVER EMBANKMENT IN BANGLADESH

September 2017

PREPARED BY
THE PROJECT FOR CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT
FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE
 Table of Content
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................ 1
1. PREREQUISITES CONCERNING RIVER EMBANKMENT DESIGN ..................................... 4
2. BASICS OF EMBANKMENT DESIGN ....................................................................................... 7
2.1 Required Functions of Embankments (General) .......................................................................... 7
2.2 Types of Embankments .................................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Embankment Design Procedure ................................................................................................... 11
2.4 Alignment of Embankment ........................................................................................................... 13
2.5 Set-Back .......................................................................................................................................... 14
2.6 Design Crest Level .......................................................................................................................... 14
2.6.1 Design Flood Level ................................................................................................................. 16
2.6.2 Selection of Design Flood Occurrence Frequency................................................................... 18
2.6.3 Free Board ................................................................................................................................ 22
2.6.4 Extra Banking .......................................................................................................................... 24
2.7 Crest Width ..................................................................................................................................... 27
2.8 Side Slope ........................................................................................................................................ 28
2.9 Berm and Borrow Pits ................................................................................................................... 28
2.10 Selection of embankment materials ........................................................................................ 29
2.11 Compaction .................................................................................................................................. 31
3. DESIGN SPECIFICATION .......................................................................................................... 32
3.1 Slope Protection work .................................................................................................................... 32
3.1.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 32
3.1.2 Projection of block .................................................................................................................. 32
3.1.3 Design of Revetments for embankment slope ......................................................................... 33
3.1.4 Block placement with open join .............................................................................................. 37
3.1.5 Toe Wall (Foundation work for slope protection blocks) ........................................................ 38
3.2 Seepage Protection Works ............................................................................................................. 39
3.2.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 39
3.2.2 Methods in Embankment Body for Seepage Protection .......................................................... 39
(1) Cross Sectional Expansion Method ..................................................................... 39
(2) Surface Covering Method.................................................................................... 40
(3) Drain Method ...................................................................................................... 40
3.2.3 Method in Foundation Ground for Seepage Protection ........................................................... 43
(1) Method for shallow permeable foundation.......................................................... 43
1) River Side Seepage Control Method ....................................................................... 43
(2) Method for intermediate permeable foundation ..................................................... 44
(3) Method for deep permeable foundation ................................................................. 44
3.3 Toe Protection Works and Foot Protection Works ...................................................................... 45

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3.4 Transition zone works and Edge Wall ......................................................................................... 45
3.5 Design of Crossing Structure of Embankment ........................................................................... 46
46
4. VERIFICATION OF EMBANKMENT SAFETY........................................................................ 47
4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 47
4.2 Verification of Embankment Safety with respect to Seepage ..................................................... 48
4.2.1 Embankment failure caused by Seepage .................................................................................. 48
4.2.2 Seepage Line and Piping .......................................................................................................... 50
4.2.3 Circular Slip (Sliding) .............................................................................................................. 51
4.3 Verification of Embankment Safety with respect to Erosion ................................................. 54
4.4 Verification of Embankment Safety with respect to Earthquake .............................................. 55
4.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................. 55
4.4.2 Basic policy .......................................................................................................................... 55
4.4.3 Determination of potential for liquefaction .......................................................................... 56
4.4.4 Liquefaction judgment and embankment stability calculation ............................................. 56
4.4.5 Calculation of subsidence amount........................................................................................ 57
4.4.6 Strengthening work method ................................................................................................. 60
4.5 Verification of Embankment Safety with respect to bearing capacity of foundation ground
.......................................................................................................................................................... 60
4.5.1 General ................................................................................................................................. 60
4.5.2 Process of sliding failure due to insufficient bearing capacity of a soft ground .................. 61
4.5.3 Soil constants for circular slide calculation of soft ground .................................................. 62
4.5.4 Countermeasures for stability of embankment constructed on soft ground ............................ 63

Annex-1 Pilot Project Design Report

Annex-2 Assessment on Earthquake Resistance of the Embankment

Appendix Assessment on Stability of Existing Embankment which is subject to flood water

ii
Preface
The Standard Design Manual, comprising information and guidelines necessary for detailed design of
structures pertaining to flood management works, irrigation works, drainage and road works of
BWDB, was compiled by BWDB based on various overseas texts, publications, manuals and designs,
etc. in 1995. The Design Manual for River Embankment in Bangladesh (Below, referred to as “design
manual”) is prepared after reviewing the concerned sections of the current Standard Design Manual
that pertains to river embankment design while taking the following points into consideration.

(1) Almost the entire national land of Bangladesh is spread out over the downstream floodplains of
three major rivers, the Ganges River, the Brahmaputra (the Jamuna River in Bangladesh) and the
Meghna River; The topographical gradient is extremely gentle, and soils in tidal areas and Haor
areas largely comprise silt and clay, whereas soils along major rivers comprise silt in surface
layer, and sandy soil is assumed to accumulate under surface layer. Since embankments are
constructed under such topographical, morphological and soil conditions, these factors should be
taken into consideration when preparing the manual.

(2) After the construction of embankments and associated facilities, it is assumed that they cannot be
completely free from damage as they are exposed to river flows and various other external
environmental factors. Accordingly, it is important to conduct inspection and maintenance of the
embankments and facilities after construction and people in charge of inspection and
maintenance must properly understand the roles of embankments and associated facilities and the
way of thinking of their design and construction. The detail explanations of fundamental idea
behind design are described as much as possible in the manual.

(3) Because embankments are long, made of soil obtained from the vicinities and filled on the
foundation ground, it is difficult to precisely specify the soil structure of each cross section of
embankments and ground foundations. Furthermore they are exposed to change of water level
and rainfall as external forces, it is difficult to strictly evaluate safety at each cross section of
great length of embankments. On the other hand, in case that sufficient set back distance is
secured or river bank protection is provided, embankments that have been constructed so far are
considered to be safe with respect to normal infiltration of river water and rainfall at flood time,
because embankments have been constructed in consideration of knowledge based on long
construction histories in foreign countries and a recent flood damage in Bangladesh. Accordingly,
embankments are designed based on prescribed shape method based on past experience, also in
consideration of characteristics of ground foundations. Verification of embankment safety by
means of theoretical engineering design methods will be conducted as needed. The current
Standard Design will be supplemented with requisite clarification on the above thinking.

1
(4) The Design Manual for River Embankment is compiled with respect to design methods for
securing safety of embankments. Embankment safety with respect to erosion which is main factor
of embankment failure, should be basically secured by providing the sufficient set-back,
however, in cases of meandering rivers where embankments are close to the riverbank and the
set- back cannot be provided, it is necessary to provide countermeasures against local scouring
integrally with embankments.

The first guidelines for design of river bank protection were prepared by BWDB in 1995, while
the latest Guidelines for River Bank Protection were prepared in 2010. The Guidelines for River
Bank Protection cover all erosion countermeasures including not only design of counter measures
in terms of river bank erosion but also basic knowledge on morphology of river bed, recent
measures to protect river embankment and foot of embankment against local scouring. Therefore,
local scouring countermeasures necessary for embankment design should be designed in
reference to the “the Guidelines” and reference parts are specified in the design manual for river
embankment.

(5) In conventional river embankment design, not a lot of attention have been given to earthquake
countermeasures for the following reasons: 1) embankments generally are only 3 or 4 meters in
height; 2) there is little likelihood that earthquake and flooding occur simultaneously. Even if
embankments are damaged by earthquake, because they are earthen levees, the damaged
embankment could be restored before next flooding or high tide. Greater priority is placed on
protection against flooding than earthquake countermeasure since earthquake takes place rarely.
Accordingly, it has been generally thought that it is not necessary to consider the anti-earthquake
measures in Bangladesh at present.

However, since high water level exists longer period in flood season and there is an increasing
human life and property along rivers in accordance with the rapid increase of population in
Bangladesh, the introduction of verification of river embankment safety with respect to
Earthquake in Japan into Bangladesh is useful for assessment of the flood damage after the
earthquake.

(6) This manual is prepared for Design of River embankments. Therefore, manual for design of Sea
dykes is not included, but described as a reference.

(7) Concerning soil tests, only a few limited agencies have the capability to implement sophisticated
soil tests. Accordingly, in preparing the design manual, design procedures based on the result of
sophisticated soil tests are avoided as much as possible. But the verification based on the basic
soil test is incorporated in the new manual.

(8) Two annexes and one appendix are attached to this manual. The first annex is “The PILOT
project Design Report”, and the second annex is “The Assessment Report on Earthquake

2
Resistance of the Embankment”. The appendix is “The assessment on Stability of existing
embankment which is subject to flood water”.

The PILOT project Design Report is the embankment design specification of the Manu river in
Moulvibazar, this embankment was actually designed and constructed based on this manual.

The Assessment Report on Earthquake Resistance of the Embankment specify the method for
assessing slope stability of the embankment at Bogra in Bangladesh during an earthquake in
accordance with this Design Manual as a reference.

These two annexes are expected to be helpful for designer of river embankment in Bangladesh.

The Assessment Report on Stability of existing embankment which is subject to flood water
roughly shows the stability and seepage safety of existing embankments in Bangladesh. The
embankments in Bangladesh are roughly classified to 4 typical embankment categories. The
assessments were conducted for each embankment of 4 typical categories to identify the factors
of embankment failures.

3
1. Prerequisites concerning River Embankment Design
When designing river embankments, it will be done based on the following characteristics and
constraints, etc.

(1) Geographical and Topographical Characteristics

Bangladesh shares borders with India in the west, north and east, and with Myanmar in the
southeast, while it faces onto the Bay of Bengal in the south. The national land spreads over the
downstream flood plains of three giant rivers, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Meghna.
Bangladesh, which is situated in the lowest reaches of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers,
accounts for roughly 5% of the Ganges watershed and 6% of the Brahmaputra watershed. As for
the Meghna River, Bangladesh accounts for more than 40% of the entire watershed area.

As per land contour of Bangladesh obtained from 1963 irrigation planning map and map of
subsequent surveys, roughly half of the national land of Bangladesh is low land at an altitude of
not higher than 7 meters, where the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers are at an altitude of
30~40 meters on the border with India. The Brahmaputra River runs down from this altitude to
the Bay of Bengal over a river course of approximately 400 kilometers. Accordingly, the river
course gradient is extremely gentle at not more than 1/10,000 and the flood continuation time is
very long.

Meanwhile, the upper reaches in the north of the Meghna River passes through the Meghalaya
Mountains, the rainiest place in the world, while the middle reaches are surrounded by extremely
low-lying land. Here, 10-meter contour lines penetrate deep into upper reach of the Meghna
watershed so that an extremely deep basin is formed during flooding.

In the southwest of Bangladesh, many branch rivers of the Ganges and the Padma river flow
between polders, and polder embankments are constructed to surround the areas to protect them
from a flood. The river embankment in tidal area that are influenced by the ebbs and floods of
the Bay of Bengal, river bank erosion is caused by the tidal movements.

Moreover, because almost all the rivers in Bangladesh have their upper reaches in other countries
such as India, it is not easy to obtain information and data on embankment facilities, hydrological
conditions, and river conditions in the upstream areas. Accordingly, when deciding the design
high water level and height of embankments, decisions are generally based on river hydraulic and
hydrological data within Bangladesh.

(2) Soil Characteristics

Bangladesh is situated on the downstream floodplains of three major rivers. Sediment carried
down from the upper reaches is sorted as fine particle sediment and forms ground comprising
mainly silt and sandy silt over the entire country. Accordingly, the river banks are vulnerable to

4
 erosion, and riverbank erosions occur in various places of rivers during the flood season and also
at other time like receding flood, change of course of river etc.

Moreover, the grounds in Haor area where a flood forms deep water basin in flood season and in
tidal area of the bay of Bengal which is influenced by ebbs and flow comprise soil with high
distribution ratio of clay, and ratios of sand, silt, and clay that comprise the fine particle sediment
differ greatly making different types of ground according to river characteristics and
topographical characteristics. Accordingly, the composition of soil that can be used as
embankment materials greatly varies regionally.

(3) River Characteristics

Major rivers with large river basins, have deep water depths, wide river widths and gentle
gradients. Such characteristics form braided rivers, and large-scale riverbank erosion is caused by
the movement, growth and disappearance of sand bars. Moreover, flooding continues for a long
time and hundreds of meters of riverbank can be eroded during a single flood season, and there is
also concern over piping and circular sliding of flood embankments.

Since tributaries of the Meghna River and other numerous small and medium tributaries in the
north and east of Bangladesh have their upper reaches in a fold mountain areas of India, rainfall
in the upper reaches tend to suddenly rush down and cause flooding in Bangladesh. Moreover,
because the rivers meander with gentle gradients after they enter Bangladesh, water levels rise
suddenly, causing flash floods that sometimes flow over bank level and cause inundation. In
addition, local scouring is triggered on the outer banks of river bends, sometimes causing
embankments failure.

Because the Meghna River, which contains numerous flash flood tributaries such described
above, flows through an extremely low altitude basin (Haor) in the northeast of Bangladesh, its
waters become very deep and submerge river embankments during the rainy season, meaning that
the embankments protect against flooding only during the dry season till May. Accordingly, the
river water overflows embankments during the pre-monsoon season when the dry season changes
to the rainy season.

(4) Plan form of Flood Protection works

In Bangladesh, polder embankments (encircled levees) are frequently adopted in order to protect
target areas (farmland, houses, etc.), while the approach of confining floodwaters inside the river
course through building embankments on both banks is not very common. Moreover, because
embankments in upstream areas are repeatedly breached as a result of bank erosion, flooding
tends to occur in the upper reaches and accordingly water level in the lower reaches is not too
high.

5
 In the case of Major rivers, embankment heights tend to be not more than 4 or 5 meters; water
pressure during flooding is low, and the external force applied to embankment bodies is small. As
such, the effects of embankment damage by earthquake are not also large.

(5) Financial Constraints

In Bangladesh, because of financial constraint and on the other hand, due to available abundant
manpower, embankments are largely constructed by manual labor. Thus, it is necessary to adopt
construction management and quality control methods suited to this type of construction.

Moreover, when constructing new retired embankments on large rivers, as large quantities of
embankment soil are needed, embankments are often constructed using sand that is dredged from
sandy riverbeds. On embankment crests and slopes, surface sealing by clay is carried out in order
to counter erosion caused by rain and water flows. Because clay becomes degraded due to
sunlight and rainfall, it is necessary to implement maintenance work regularly.

Now a days also compacted embankments with machine are being constructed but that involves
higher cost.

6
2. Basics of Embankment Design
2.1 Required Functions of Embankments (General)

Embankments shall be designed to be safe with respect to 1) the ordinary actions (scouring
and seepage) of flowing water up to the design flood water level (the design high tide level in
high tide areas), and 2) deformation of foundation ground.

River embankments in Bangladesh are of different shape & size depending on geographical
location as for soil of foundation ground, material to be used for embankment, duration of
high water level, types of embankment failure and so on. Design of river embankment should
be performed in due consideration for such characteristics.

With respect to seismic action, at times of normal water level, seismic resistance shall be
evaluated and relevant necessary countermeasures shall be taken so that secondary damage
will not be caused by flooding even if earthquakes cause embankments failure.

(Detail explanation)
1. General

Embankments as a rule are constructed by adjacent soil. Although earthen embankments have
numerous advantages such as 1) construction costs are generally low, 2) they are resistant to
degradation, 3) it is easy to conduct heightening, widening and repair works, 4) they can be easily
integrated with foundation ground. On the other hand, since potential causes of embankment
failure are piping by seepage from the embankment body or foundation ground, scouring caused
by flowing water, and sliding by infiltration of river water and rainfall, it is necessary for
embankments to have sufficient safety against these risks.

Moreover, concerning embankments on soft ground, it is necessary to conduct verification with

respect to sliding not only in the embankment body, but also in the foundation soil, and
subsidence of the foundation ground. Because it is assumed that breaches could be caused by
overflow due to sliding of embankment and lowering of the embankment crest level.

There is little possibility of earthquake and flooding occurring simultaneously, and even if
embankments are damaged by earthquake, restoration is relatively easy and the minimum
embankment functions can still be secured because they are earthen embankment, and therefore
their restoration could be finished before occurrence of coming flooding or high tide. Therefore,
greater priority is placed on protection against flooding, which occurs more frequently than
earthquakes, and no counter measure against earthquake has been taken before.

However, strengthening method used in Japan is introduced in 4.4.6 in this manual, because there
are some sections where high river water level continues for long time in Bangladesh and it might

7
 become necessary to consider flood damage during the period from occurrence of earthquake to
restoration of embankments.

Investigation of embankment damage caused by earthquake in Japan reveals that the extent of
damage is largely determined by the strength of foundation ground. In particular, damage tends to
be extremely significant when the foundation ground becomes liquefied. Even in that worst case,
there was no embankment ending up entire collapse and at least 25% or more of embankment
height remained.

However, there are possibility that secondary disaster (inundation disaster) by overflow of river
water could be caused depending on the degree of embankment subsidence in the place where land
height is lower than river water level. Accordingly, countermeasures are taken into consideration for
such cases.

2. Functions required for embankments

(1) Embankments along major rivers (the Jamuna, the Ganges and the upper Meghna)

These rivers have an extremely gentle gradient of 1/10,000 or less after they enter Bangladesh. At
times of flooding, the high water level continues for a long time and embankments are subject to
seepage. Meanwhile, despite the gentle river gradients, because of deep depth of river, flow
velocity at flood times reaches up to around 2.0 meters/second.

On embankments themselves, there is concern over breaching caused by piping at the toe of
embankment built of sandy soil on the land side due to seepage flows, while there is a possibility
that residual water inside embankments will trigger slope slide on river side after the water level
drops. Generally, embankments are constructed of clayey silt in Bangladesh. However, since a
large amount of soil is needed to construct embankments along the Major rivers, sometime the
embankments are constructed with sand that is dredged from riverbeds, and embankment crests
and slopes are covered by clay to prevent from erosion by river flow, infiltration of river water
and rainfall. If surface clay is not maintained adequately after construction, it is sometimes
abraded by rainfall and sunshine, and over the long term this causes embankments to become
prone to erosion caused by water flows. Therefore, it is important for surface clay to be covered
with turf and conducted maintenance work on embankments after construction.

Moreover, because there are many cases that the foundation ground of embankments on the
Major rivers are composed of sandy silt with high permeability, even if surface covering by clay
is provided on embankments, there is still concern over the piping and failure of embankments
resulting from long-term seepage through the foundation ground. Accordingly, depending on the
situation, it may be necessary to implement seepage prevention works.

8
(2) Embankments in tidal areas

In tidal areas, Branch Rivers originating mostly from the Ganges, flow between large polders in
the form of net and into the Bay of Bengal. These branch rivers have extremely gentle gradients,
so the effects of oceanographic phenomena (high and low tides, waves, cyclones) in the Bay of
Bengal is likely to extend far upstream reaches.

The height of embankment crest need to have some free board in consideration of the effects of
tides and waves and storm surge, moreover, it is necessary for embankment crests and slopes
influenced of erosion by waves to be covered by hard material in order to protect against waves.

Because ground in this area predominantly consists of clay and embankment bodies usually
comprise clayey silt, compaction cannot be adequately performed and many small openings
remain in construction. However, it is unlikely that embankment failure caused by piping
triggered by seepage flows occurs.

At the outer banks side of river embankments (polder embankments) on bends of Branch Rivers,
bank erosion is caused by ebbs and floods at higher water levels during flooding and this bank
erosion can be seen numerously. However, because the local ground comprises clayey silt, the
speed of bank erosion is slow.

Meanwhile, in the areas that are enclosed by embankments, rice farming and even inland water
fisheries like shrimp culture are carried out, and sometimes the river embankments (polder
embankments) are subject to public cutting in order to secure water for such activities. Accordingly,
from the viewpoint of protecting embankments, it is necessary to provide facilities that can supply
water to the inland areas properly.

(3) Embankments in Haor area

In the north and east of Bangladesh, large quantities of floodwater flow into Haor area through
numerous tributaries from Meghalaya State (the place that has the most rainfall in the world) and
the Assam region of India during the flood season and form the Upper Meghna River that flows
from east to west in Haor area.

The watershed of the Upper Meghna River forms an extremely low altitude basin that is filled
with flood water during the flood season.

River embankments in Haor play a role to flow down flood to prevent from inundation during the
dry season, however, embankments are completely submerged under water during the flood
season (water level reaches 2~3 meters higher than the crest level of embankment).

In the pre-monsoon period (April-May) that marks the transition from the dry season to the rainy
season, river water levels rise and river water overflows embankments. To ensure that the

9
 embankments would not be breached, river water is allowed to enter inside the polders via
regulators so that the difference of water level inside and outside of the polders is reduced.
Embankments have a certain degree of strength against overflow, because materials of
embankments are composed of adhesive clayey silt. However, it is desired and tried to delay the
timing of drawing of river water into the polder for their farming.

Due to this fact, overflow often takes place when the water level difference between inside and
outside of the polder is still large. Under this situation, if overflow takes place, scouring of
embankment toe on the land side becomes more serious. In addition to that, “Public cut” of
embankment has been often conducted for the water traffic convenience.

Compaction of embankment in Haor is conducted either mechanically or by manual laborers

using rammers. When compaction is performed by manual laborers, it is difficult to achieve
sufficient compaction because embankment is made of clayey silt. Accordingly many openings
still remains in embankments after construction. However, piping is unlikely to occur due to
characteristics of embankment materials.

(4) Embankments in areas affected by flash floods

Many of the small and medium-size rivers that originate in India and flow into the Upper Meghna
and its tributaries have small watersheds and narrow river widths; moreover, there is hardly any
set-back distance on the outer banks of river bends. The upper basins of such rivers are situated in
precipitous mountains (The altitudes of some mountains are higher than 1,000 meters above
mean sea level), and the altitude of rivers suddenly become very low after those rivers enter into
Bangladesh and become meandering rivers with very gentle longitudinal gradient. The water
level of rivers flowing over the flatlands in Bangladesh suddenly rises at time of flood, often
leading to flood inundation in the lower reaches. Moreover, local scouring occurs on the outer
banks of numerous river bends, and combined with the fact that there is hardly any set-back
distance in such areas, local scouring occurs at toe of embankment on river side and directly
leads to the collapse of entire embankments.

Accordingly, it is necessary to provide foot protection works as a counter measure for local
scouring on the outer banks of bends; furthermore, in order to address increased flow velocity
and secondary flows caused by bends, it is desirable to cover embankment slopes by hard
materials as blocks with projection. However, since the blocks themselves can also be subject to
the force of flowing water, it is necessary to consider the stabilization of blocks.

10
2.2 Types of Embankments

Embankments may be classified into following three major types depending on the nature
of protection they provide and their locations.
1) Full flood protection embankments
2) Submersible embankments
3) Sea dikes

(Detail explanation)

1. Full flood protection embankment is aimed at preventing the highest flood from flowing across the
embankment throughout a year. The design flood level is determined from the view of return
period of flood depending upon the degree of importance of the inside of embankment.
Embankments in the areas affected by flash flood and embankments in tidal areas mentioned
above are included in this type.

2. Submersible embankments are usually built to provide protection during dry season and
pre-monsoon season; therefore they are overtopped and remain submerged during the monsoon.

3. Sea dykes are usually built along the coastal belt to protect lands against flooding and intrusion of
saline water, in addition, these embankments must give protection against tidal surge during
cyclones. Sea dyke, distinguished from river embankment, are constructed with concrete covering
over crest and both slopes in consideration of overtopping waves. Moreover, in view of risk of
overtopping waves, parapet walls and water collecting channels are provided according to
necessity.
2.3 Embankment Design Procedure

River embankment design should be basically conducted based on the prescribed shape method
as a first step, and verification of design should be conducted to ensure the following safety as
needed:
1) Embankment safety with respect to seepage
2) Embankment safety with respect to erosion, sliding and piping
3) Embankment safety with respect to earthquake
4) Embankment safety with respect to bearing capacity of foundation ground

(Detail explanation)

1. General

River embankments are long structures. They are made of soil with different ingredients and have
uneven strength depending on the location of construction. Since it is difficult to examine the safety

11
of embankment with each short interval, they have conventionally been designed based on the
prescribed shape method which specifies minimum required levels of cross-sectional shapes (crest
width, etc.).

River embankments should be designed to prevent flood from inundating, therefore they should be
stable for seepage and erosion caused by flood. Further, in case that river embankments are
constructed on soft ground, it is assumed that subsidence of foundation ground lead to subsidence
of embankments is caused by construction of embankments, with the result that overtopping would
bring about.

Stability of river embankments for earthquake has not been taken into consideration so far. But it
could be necessary to consider the damage caused by embankment collapse triggered by
earthquake and to take necessary measures.

Verification of embankment safety with respect to seepage, erosion in flood time, and earthquake
and bearing capacity on soft ground in non-flood time should be conducted at the locations
identified as needed by the survey.

River embankments should be safe not only from circular sliding and piping caused by infiltration
of rainfall and river water but also from sudden draw down of river water level after the flood for
all embankment sections.

River embankments should be safe from erosion caused by running flow of river, is also required at
all embankment sections.

Meanwhile, subsidence of embankment is caused by liquefaction of ground due to the earthquake,

is also required at such locations where inundation may take place in due to the embankment
subsidence in low-lying areas at the non-flood time, on the premise that both earthquake and flood
are unlikely to take place spontaneously. .

In case that bearing capacity of foundation ground is not sufficient because of soft soil and that set
back distance is not sufficient, it is possible that circular sliding with large radius through
foundation ground occurs even when river water level is low in dry season.

2. Flow of Design procedure

The basic steps of embankment design are described below.

(1) Collection of basic hydrological and hydraulic data

(2) Basic hydrological and hydraulic analysis

(3) Identification of reaches where hydrological and hydraulic conditions are the same

(4) Basic investigation on crest level, crest width, set back distance etc. for design

12
 (5) Basic design of cross sectional profile

(6) Identification of locations for verification of embankment

(7) Collection of data at the locations for verification

(Soil data of foundation ground and embankment etc.)

(8) Analysis on seepage (sliding and piping) and subsidence of foundation ground on soft ground.

(9) Verification of embankment safety for seepage, erosion, bearing capacity of foundation ground
and prediction of inundation area in earthquake.

(10) Adjustment of cross section and design of necessary facilities like revetment

2.4 Alignment of Embankment

Embankments are constructed to protect human life, properties and farmland from
flooding, and they must be maintained up to the planned required height. In the case of
embankments on both banks, sufficient width between embankments must be provided in
cross section composed by the low-water channel and set-back areas to pass the design
flood discharge.
Determination of the alignment of an embankment is governed by technical, economical
and morphological and social considerations.

(Detail explanation)

The embankment alignment is set up to achieve the required functions of the embankment with
also giving consideration following issues for securing safety of the embankment itself.

1) The required set-back should be secured in consideration of bank erosion. If impossible,

protection work against erosion should be provided.
2) Peat soil should be avoided. If this is difficult to do so, either peat soil should be removed or
the amount of subsidence of peat soil caused by embankment construction should be added
to design flood height of embankment (extra banking).
3) Preferably alignment should avoid the land consisted of fair portion of clay, because there is
possibility of lack of ground bearing capacity.
4) Land consisted of sand, where there is possibility of liquefaction of foundation ground,
should be avoided as much as possible.
5) The embankment alignment should be as smooth as possible without having any sharp
bends.
6) The embankment alignment should be fixed along high ground, while depressions should be
avoided as much as possible.

Moreover, the following points should also be taken into account from the social and economic
viewpoints.

13
 1) The embankment alignment should avoid the areas that comprise soil that can be used as
embankment materials.
2) The embankment alignment should generally not block current transportation routes.

2.5 Set-Back

Set back is the space between actual river bank and river side toe of the embankment.
Securing of set-back width is very important for safety of embankment, because most of
embankment failure takes place due to bank erosion. Therefore, sufficient set-back width to
protect embankments from bank erosion and scouring, must be provided between river
banks and toe of embankment.
Width of set-back should be estimated based on the past erosion rate and morphological
characteristics of the river.

(Detail explanation)
The width of set-back should be determined to protect embankments from bank erosion in
considering the followings.

1) In places where bank erosion has repeatedly occurred in the past, the width of set-back
should be specified based on the extent of past bank erosion. The width equivalent to 5-10
years of the current erosion should be provided.
However, many flash flood rivers opt to meander and there are many local scours at outer
banks of bends. There are many cases that securing sufficient set-back distance is difficult.
2) In places where embankments are constructed on both sides of rivers, sufficient width of set-back
(floodway) must be secured in consideration of the design flood discharge
3) If sufficient width of set-back could not be provided, river bank protection works should be
provided as needed.

2.6 Design Crest Level

Design crest level is determined by adding free board over the design flood level. The
design crest level is composed of design flood level, height of wind set up (H ) and height
of wave run-up (Hz) and safety margin. .

In an actual construction, crest level should be determined including some extra banking in
consideration of compressive subsidence of the embankment body, consolidation
subsidence of foundation ground and crest damage caused by weathering.

In addition, a cross-sectional gradient of embankment crest should be around 5% for

drainage purposes on the crest.

(Detail explanation)

1. Since embankments basically consist of earth, they are extremely vulnerable to overflow,
embankments should be designed so as not to permit overflow of water at or below the design
flood level, and it is also necessary to give some free board against temporary rises of water level

14
 caused by flood waves, swell, splash and the like. Moreover, sufficient free board should be added
to the design flood level to ensure safety for patrols and to deal with flowing objects such as
driftwoods and others during floods when determining the embankment crest level.

2. Water level rise due to anticipated river-bed fluctuations, water level rise at bend sections and water
level rise due to hydraulic calculation error, etc. should be taken into consideration for determining
the design flood level.

In addition, height of embankment is the difference between the design crest level of the
embankment and the average ground level on which the embankment is constructed.

3. Water level rising occurs on the outer bank side of bend, on the other hand, water level drop
occurs on the opposite side. The water level obtained by non-uniform flow calculation is that at
center line of river. Water level rising (∆h/2) should be added to this for design flood level.

On this, it is not necessary to take water level rising into consideration in the case that /B is
more than 10.

∙
Here, ∆h =
∙

Where; ∆h; rising height raised by bend (m)

B; averaged width of both banks at bend section (m)
v; averaged current velocity (m/s)
; curvature radius (m)

River B
B
Water level rise △h/2

Water surface by Bend

Fig-1 Plane view at Bend Fig -2 Cross Section at Bend

(Reference)
When considering the balance of power of the unit volume (m) of water acting by gravity and
by centrifugal force, it holds the following equation.

15
 mg・sin = cos
Where θ ; Inclination of water surface
m ; Unit mass of water
Δh / B = tan

∴ Δh =

Fig-3 Equilibrium of force at bend

2.6.1 Design Flood Level

Design flood level should be different according to the types of embankments.

In case of full flood protection embankment, Design flood level should be determined
depending on the following two cases;

i) Case where embankment is constructed only on a single side of the river

ii) Case where embankments are constructed on both sides of the river

(Detail explanation)

The design flood level should be calculated and specified according to the type of embankment.
In case of full flood protection embankment, the level depends on whether embankment is
constructed only on a single side of the river or on both sides of the river.

1. Full flood protection embankment

(1) Case where embankment is constructed only on one bank of the river

- Embankment needs to be constructed on one bank only, the design flood levels may be
computed by frequency analysis of available annual maximum river level data of
adjacent water level observatory.

16
 (2) Case where embankments are constructed on both sides of the river

- In the case of river planning that flood water which has flowed out from mountains is
confined in the river without flooding, embankments are constructed on both sides of
the river on the plains in order to confine flood waters in the river.

- Water level records from the local water level station are those before the embankment
is constructed. It is not logical to conduct frequency analysis based on such data
because the data could be obtained under the situation that inundation occurred in
upstream areas.

- The design flood level should be calculated with the assumption that embankments are
constructed on both banks and there is no inundation in upstream areas.

- The design crest level is calculated as follows in the case of both sides of the river.

1) Selection of design flood scale intensity

2) Based on historical rainfall record, the occurrence probability corresponding to

design rainfall (amount of rainfall, space-time distribution of rainfall) is calculated.

3) Design flood discharge corresponding to design rainfall is calculated by simulation

(run-off model).

4) River water levels at each points corresponding to design flood discharge are
calculated by simulation (non-uniform flow and so on.)

5) Design crest level is obtained by adding free board to design flood level.

2. Submersible embankment

Submersible embankments are constructed to provide protection against flooding during the
dry season and pre-monsoon season (April and May), they become submerged during the
flood season. Accordingly, in Haor areas where submersible embankments are constructed,
the design flood level should be computed by frequency analysis of maximum river level
data before some specified time during the year. e.g. 31 May or it may be 15th May
depending upon local cropping pattern and harvest time.

In cases where regulators are constructed between submersible embankments, in order to

prevent the connected submersible embankments from being washed away, the crest level of
the submersible embankment should be aligned with the level of the regulator deck in
50-meter extent of embankments on either side of the regulators.

3. Sea dyke

17
 Sea Dyke is designed to be distinguished from river embankment. Design tidal level can be
obtained by adding tidal level deviation to Average Highest Tide Water Level which is the
additional water level raised by the assumed largest size cyclone in general.

Review on crest level of Polder embankments, which have been constructed since1960, have
been carried out taking into account rising of tidal level and influence of waves caused by
Global Warming under the support of World Bank. [Coastal Embankment Improvement
Project (CEIP-1) September 2012]

Design tidal level have been examined in CEIP-1. Design tidal level of each embankment are
obtained by simulating water levels observed at 105 observatories in 38 cyclones landed on
Bangladesh in consideration of 25 years occurrence probability scale.

The influence by Global Warming is estimated as 0.5m rising of sea level and 10%
increasing of wind velocity based on the values for the time up to 2050 predicted by IPCC.

Further, crest height of Sea dyke is the height after adding the subsidence and freeboard
(overtopping amount is restricted less than 0.5ℓ/s/m) to design tidal level.

2.6.2 Selection of Design Flood Occurrence Frequency

In case of full flood protection embankment, the design flood occurrence frequency, which
is used for determining the embankment design height, should be adopted based on the
importance of the target area in consideration of the followings
1) Areas where damage to agriculture is predominant: Flooding with occurrence
frequency of once in 20 years
2) Areas where damage to human life, properties and facilities are predominant:
Flooding with occurrence frequency of once in 100 years.
(Generally, embankments of the Jamuna River, the Ganges River and the Meghna
River are of this type).
In case of submersible embankment, the design flood occurrence frequency is adopted
based on the pre-monsoon flooding with occurrence frequency of once in 10 years

(Detail explanation)

1. The design flood level with respect to occurrence frequency (exceedance probability of
hydrological value) should be estimated with use of a probability distribution model.

1) The case of full flood protection embankment; annual peak value.

2) The case of Submersible embankment; peak value in pre-monsoon season before 31st May,
but it may be 15th May depending upon local cropping pattern and harvesting time.

18
 2. Since the observation data used in flood control planning is those of 20 or 30 years at most, it is
necessary to extrapolate from collected data in order to estimate probable hydrological values
with a return period of 50 or 100 years.

3. Some of temporary observatories have water levels recorded in only 10 years. Therefore, it
should be noted that such data is too small to be adopted for calculation..

4. It should be noted that recorded water level data at the observatories facing broad water body
have already included influence of wind set up.

〔Reference〕 Analysis of flood level occurrence frequency

Analysis of flood level occurrence frequency should be conducted upon confirming the
steadiness of the collected hydrological data (annual peak values). Since not-steady data contains
trends (long-term trend changes) and jumps (sudden changes), steadiness should be confirmed by
means of the following procedure.

(1) Confirmation of steadiness

Steadiness means there is no unusual particular components other than the random fluctuations
over time, and this should be reviewed as follows.

1) Review of periodicity of the hydrological data

2) Review of jumps in the hydrological data
3) Review of trends

(2) Frequency analysis of steady hydrological values

If the above reviews indicate that data comprises steady hydrological values, frequency analysis
should be conducted according to the following procedure.

1) Listing of the candidate probability distribution models

2) Estimation of parameters of the probability distribution models
3) Evaluation of goodness of fit of candidate probability distribution models
4) Bias correction and stability evaluation of probable hydrological values
5) Determination of the probability distribution model

(3) Listing of candidate probability distributions

The following candidate probability distributions can be considered. The some examples of
occurrence probability distribution in the case of annual highest water levels of the Manu River
are shown in Fig 4.

1) Gumbel distribution (Gumbel)

19
 F ＝exp
2) General extreme value distribution (Gev)
/
F( =exp 1

3) Exponential distribution (Exp)

F( 1 exp
4) Normal distribution
F(
√

5) Pearson III (LP3Rs, LogP3)

γ 0, ξ ∞； F( G , /
γ 0, ∞ ξ； F( = 1-G , /

6) General Pareto distribution (non-annual value distribution) (GpExp)

/
F( =1- 1

Where, F( ; probability distribution function

ξ; Location parameter
α; Scale parameter
k; Configuration parameter
G , exp

(4) Estimation of parameters of the probability distribution models

Parameters estimation should be conducted by the following methods:

1) Moment method
2) L moment method
3) Maximum-likelihood method

(5) Evaluation of goodness of fit of candidate probability distribution models

The SLSC (Standard Least Square Criteria) method should be used to evaluate the goodness of fit
of the candidate model to the hydrological data.

∑ ∗ 2
SLSC=| |
,

Where, ; normal variate of probabilistic distribution for non-exceedance

probability of 0.99 and 0.0

n; sample size

20
 ; Normal variate transformed from order statistics by estimation
parameter
∗
; Normal variate transformed from quantile corresponding to plotting
position that obtained from probabilistic distribution model by
estimation parameter

The goodness of fit is deemed sufficient if the SLSC is not greater than 0.04. In addition,
goodness of fit of the model is also ascertained through plotting on probability paper in addition
to performing the evaluation based on SLSC.

Here, the Cunnane plot, which is compatible with numerous distributions, is used as the plotting
position. Here, the exceedance probability of the i’th value of the hydrological data
(X1≥X2≥X3≥・・・≥Xn) is expressed as follows:

= (i-α) / (n-2α+1)
Where, n: Sample size, α: =0.4

(6) Bias correction and stability evaluation of probable hydrological values

Regarding probability distribution models that satisfies a certain goodness of fit, the jackknife
method should be applied in order to correct bias and to evaluate stability of probable
hydrological values.

(7) Determination of the probability distribution model

In determining the probability distribution model, among the several models screened by SLSC
method, the model of good steadiness judged by the jackknife method should be finally selected
as a distribution probability model.

21
 Lognormal probability paper

T (year)
F (%)

Exp
Gumbel
SqrtEt
Gev
LP3Rs
LogP3

Annual high water level (mm)

Fig 4 Examples of occurrence probability distribution

2.6.3 Free Board

Embankment free board comprises height of wind set-up ( , height of wave run-up
( and safety margin.

In areas where wind set-up and wave run-up do not occur, the free board should be at least
0.9 meters from the view point of safety for inspection at flood time and against attack of
driftwoods. However, 1.5m of free board should be provided with embankment of the
Jamuna River and Padma River.
In the case of submersible embankments in Haor areas, the nominal free board should be
0.30 meters.

Rises of water level by river bed fluctuation and at bend are involved in Design flood water
level.

22
(Detail explanation)

1. Cyclones and low atmospheric pressures generate wind. High wind brings about rise of water
level (wind set-up) in the shallow areas, when it blows toward the land.

Waves are generated under the condition that winds blow for a long period in the open water area.
Significant wave height that represents the height of the waves is estimated from three elements,
“Wind direction”, “Effective fetch length” and “Wind speed and Duration”.

The definitions of those are described in “Guidelines for bank protection; 7.2.4 Waves of
JMREMP” in detail. Furthermore, if the directions of the wind and the river flow are the same,
shear stress that wind transmits to water surface of river is reduced, because the difference
between current speed and wind speed is reduced,

Fig-5 Illustration of wave definitions (Source; Guideline for River Bank Protection)

2. Wind set-up develops with condition that wind blowing lasts for at least 24 hours. A short storm
with less duration will hardly generate any significant wind set-up.

The amount of rise of water level caused by wind set-up is proportional to the square of wind
velocity and increases as the water body becomes longer and shallower.

The amount of rise of water level caused by wind setup is expressed by the following formula:

= ×ℓ×cos φ

= 4×10 (source; Standard Design Manual, BWDB)

Where, W : Wind velocity (m/s)

ɡ : Gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2)
h : Mean water depth (m) along stretch (L)
: Wind setup gradient

23
 ℓ : Length of water area over which the wind is blowing (m)
Φ : Angle at which wind approaches to embankment

3. Waves generated by high winds break when the depth of water is shallow, and water level rises in
areas where waves break. When waves break, water level rises on the river side, and this
phenomenon is referred to as wave run-up.

The amount of increase in water level resulting from wave run-up is expressed by the following
formula:

Hz = 8 f H ∙tan α ∙ cos β (1-B/L) (source; Standard Design Manual, BWDB)

* Applicable slope: 1/8 < tan α<1/3

Where, f : Constant
(0.75 [rough rip-rap slope] ～1.25 [smooth asphalt concrete slope])
(1.1 [Vegetated slope])
H : Wave height (m)
α : Angle of embankment side slope to horizontal
β : Angle between direction of incident wave and normal to embankment
B : Berm width of slope on river side (m)
L : Wave length (m)
(1-B/L): This can be omitted if there is no berm
H= 0.0555(W F) 1/2
2

Where, F : Length of fetch (length of wind blowing region possessing certain wind
velocity and orientation; nautical miles)
W : Wind velocity (knots)
2
L= T g / 2π
Where, g : Gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2)
T : Wave cycle = (W2F) 1/2

2.6.4 Extra Banking

Since embankments are often constructed in areas of soft ground and embankments
generally comprise earth, subsidence of the embankment due to compression of
embankment body and consolidation of foundation ground occurs.

It is necessary to add some extra banking height to crest level of embankment in

consideration of the subsidence of the embankment due to the compression of embankment
body, consolidation of foundation ground and crest damage caused by weathering and
others.

Such extra banking is not included in the design embankment height.

24
(Detail explanation)

Because embankments are constructed with earth, their construction triggers compression;
moreover, when constructed on clayey soil strata, vertical stress is imparted, causing pore water
to be discharged from the clay soil strata and consolidation subsidence occurs. Since this causes
the embankment to settle and can lead to overflow when flooding occurs, it is necessary to add a
corresponding amount to the embankment crest level as extra height (ΔH). Extra Banking does
not include compression by compaction.
Normally, 10% of design embankment height (H) is added as an Extra Banking (△H).

Further, subsidence of ground due to groundwater water intake should be taken into consideration
at the place where enormous volume of groundwater water intake is made.

ΔH(Extra Banking Height)

Fig 6 Extra Banking Height

(Reference)
The following extra height is added to the free board in designing embankments in Japan.

Table - 1 Extra Banking Height

Embankment body soil type Extra Banking Height (cm)
Normal soil Sandy soil
Ground soil quality Normal soil Sandy soil Normal soil Sandy soil
Average ~3m 20 15 15 10
embankment height 3~5m 30 25 25 20
5~7m 40 35 35 30

(Source: Embankment Extra Banking Standard in Japan)

In cases where consolidation subsidence of foundation ground is forecasted in areas of soft

ground, subsidence amount should be estimated and the amount should be added to the design
crest level. The amount of consolidation subsidence of foundation ground should be estimated
through adding up the amount of each layer subsidence as shown below.

25
 ・ ∆
S= (source; Standard Design Manual, BWDB)

S: Amount of subsidence of single layer (m)

Cc: Compression index
H: Consolidation layer thickness (m)
: Initial void ratio
Po: Effective overburden stress before embankment construction (current) (t/m2)
∆P :Increased load in each ground layer by embankment (obtained from Fig-7) (t/m2)

Fig.-7 Vertical Ground Stress Influence Value of Trapezoidal Load (Osterberg Chart)

Further, ∆P also can be obtained by calculation based on the following equation.

∆P

*Angles measured in counter-clockwise direction are taken as positive

(Source; Soil Mechanics and Foundations, by Dr.B.C.Punmia)

26
 H
H

Fig-8 Vertical stress caused by trapezoid of half of embankment

2.7 Crest Width

The embankment crest width, together with the embankment slope gradient, forms the
cross sectional shape of the embankment and they are important elements in securing the
embankment’s safety with respect to seepage.

Meanwhile, since embankment crests are often used as river management roads and public
roads, it is also necessary to take such uses into account when deciding the crest width.

(Detail explanation)

From the viewpoint of securing embankment safety with respect to seepage, it is desirable to have a
broader crest. On the other hand, if the crest width is made too wide, the embankment will take up
more land and reduce precious farmland. Moreover, if an appropriate embankment crest width for
road traffic is not adopted, the traffic will cause damage to the crest. It leads to the reduction of road
width.

Accordingly, it is necessary to secure the necessary embankment crest width in full consideration
of every aspects including traffic utilization.

The embankment crest width should be designed based on the followings;

1) Embankment crest width should be at least 2.50 meters.
2) In cases where the embankment crest is used for management inspection, width of at least
4.30 meters should be secured.
3) In cases where the embankment crest is used as public road, width of 1.0 meter should be
added to each shoulder for the use of the public road.

27
 Because embankments in Haor areas are used as community roads during the dry season, it is
necessary to secure sufficient crest width on them.

2.8 Side Slope

The criteria for determination of side slope shall be followings;

- Embankment slopes should be stable against seepage flow.

- Embankment should be stable against shear failure.

(Detail explanation) (Source: Standard Design Manual)

1. Basically side slopes for an embankment (except sea dyke) is decided based on a soil
characteristics of embankment body. Generally it should be 1V:2H on the country side and
1V: 2H to 1V: 3H on the river side unless stability considerations requires flatter slopes.

2. Since submersible embankments need to be strong enough to withstand inundation during

the flood season and overflow during the period of transition from the pre-monsoon to the
flood season, it is desirable to have a slope of 1:3 on both the country side and river side.

2.9 Berm and Borrow Pits

Borrow pits are usually located on the river side from the view point of effective use of
valuable land, the haul distance and safety of embankment.

(Detail explanation)
When there is a deep channel close to an embankment on river side in parallel, there is concern
that river flow near embankment becomes fast and erodes the embankment slope at times of
flooding. Therefore, it is generally preferable to have riverside borrow areas wide and shallow,
further in cases of borrow pits are excavated like water channels in the direction of river flow,
cross bunds (traverse) should be placed at intervals to ensure that the channel is not too long.

The following regulations should be applied for berms and borrow pits;

(1) The berms i.e. the distance between the river side toe of the embankment and the edge of
borrow pit should be between 3.0~10.0 meters, depending on the depth of the borrow pit
and height of embankment.

28
 (2) The borrow pit area is preferably wide and shallow, therefore the depth of borrow pits
should not exceed 2.0 meters.

(3) The distance between the edge of the borrow pit and the river bank should have a substantial
width, be at least 6.0 meters.

(4) In order to prevent increase of flow velocity on the borrow-pit when the river water level is
high, cross bunds(traverse) should be provided at every 30 meters of the borrow pit length at
right angle to the embankment alignment. The width of cross bund (traverse) should be at
least 6.0 meters. Slope of borrow pits should be specified to be gentle to minimize scour
from overtopping.

Berm
(3‐10m)

Borrow pit 6m (Min)

30m (Max)

Embankment
River

6m (Min)

Fig-9 Positional relationship of Berm and Borrow Pits

2.10 Selection of embankment materials

It is desirable for embankment material to satisfy the following conditions.

1) Particle size distribution of material provides high density and large shear strength.
2) Material has high impermeability as much as possible, seepage line is drawn under the toe of
embankment.
3) Material has neither characteristics of compressional deformation nor characteristics of
swelling, which might have adverse effect on the stability of embankment.
4) Material has high workability and is easy to be compacted.
5) Material is stable against environmental change such as permeation and drying, and
accordingly slope sliding and cracks on the surface of embankment is less likely to occur.
6) Material neither contains harmful organic matters nor water-soluble matters.

29
(Detail explanation)
Desirable soils as embankment material are the followings.
(1) Soil that shows favorable particle size distribution.
It is desirable that soil of various particle sizes are contained in materials of embankment. While
coarse materials are effective to strengthen soil, fine materials are also needed to reduce the
permeability. The soil contains both of them properly.

(2) Soil that has certain amount of fine materials (defined as soil of less than 0.075mm of particle
size) because of ensuring the soil-impermeable.

(3) Soil that does not contain much silt.

Slope sliding is likely to occur in the case that embankment consists of large quantity of silt,
because silt has characteristics of reducing shear strength with increase of water content.

(4) Soil that does not contain much amount of fine material.
There is risk of cracks on the surface of embankment in drying when the embankment consists
of more than half of fine material.

The followings are measures to improve embankment material in case that soil is not appropriate.
(1) Mixture of other soil
(2) Lowering of water content ratio by drying
(3) Addition of modifiers (lime or cement)

Further, there are some measures other than improvement of embankment material to make up for
shortcomings of embankment materials.

(1) Providing layer of impervious materials on the surface of embankment

Embankments along with the Major rivers are likely to be constructed of sand dredged from river
bed, because a large amount of embankment materials are needed.
In those cases, surfaces of embankments need to be covered by clay layers with around 0.5m
thickness to prevent from erosion by river flow and infiltration of rainfall and river water.
Turf cover or vegetation cover is needed on clay cover layer, because clay is vulnerable to
sunshine and rain.
(2) Improvement of cross section (gentle slope of embankment, widening of cross section)
(3) Seepage protection (See 3.2 of this manual)

In Standard Schedule of rates Manual of BWDB, embankment material should consists of more than
30% of clay, 0～40% of silt and 0～30% of sand.

30
2.11 Compaction

When the river embankment construction, it is desirable to control the compaction degree close
to the maximum dry density equivalent to the optimum water content ratio based on laboratory
test , so that stability of embankment against infiltration of river water is ensured.
The compaction degree is defined as ratio (%) of dry density of embankment soil at the
construction site to maximum dry density by the compaction test at laboratory.

(Detail explanation)
Soil is composed of 3 components, soil particle, water and air which exist in the void. The
characteristics of deformation and shear strength are changed by mixing ratio of those 3 components.
Stability of soil shall be improved against external forces if soil is compacted in optimum state,
because compression efficiency and strength character increase, on the other hand permeability
decrease.

The optimum water content ratio is defined as the water content ratio of soil compacted at the state
that void of soil became minimum by certain compaction energy. The maximum dry density is that
equivalent to the optimum water content ratio. The durability of soil against water infiltration in such
state is relatively strong even if condition of compaction changes.

・Water content ratio (w)

W= 100 (%) Air

Water

W
/cm )
V

3
・Dry density; Soil
particle
＝
V ; Volume (cm3)
・Zero Air Void curve W ; Weight (kg)

Va =0%， Fig 10 Pattern diagram of soil structure

Sr = Vw/Vv = Ww/Wv (100 %) (Degree of Saturation)

Air compa ction degree
100%
Soil Particle
Water compaction
Dry density ρ (g/cm3)

90%compa ction
ρ

Water content ratio(%)

Dry side
Wet side

Fig 11 Water content ratio – Dry density curve

31
 River embankment is the structure made of soil to prevent river water from intrusion into land, it is
always subject to water infiltration. Therefore, it is desirable that embankment soil is at the state of the
maximum dry density and the optimum water content ratio.

The maximum dry density and the optimum water content ratio are examined by compaction test in
laboratory at the design stage and the compaction degree is also determined as a control value for
embankment stability at the construction stage.

The greater compaction energy becomes, the lower optimum water content ratio and the higher
maximum dry density tend to become. The compaction curve in the case of high compaction energy is
drawn at high position in Figure-12

Therefore, the compaction test method at laboratory High energy compaction

conducted at design stage corresponding to the

Dry density ρ (g/cm3)

compaction energy carried out at construction stage
should be selected.
Low energy
compaction
Further, Compaction degree is defined as the ration of
dry density obtained at site after compaction to maximum
dry density obtained in laboratory. In Standard Schedule
Water content ratio w(%)
of rates manual, compaction degree is described to be
85/90%. Fig 12 Compaction energy – compaction curve

3. Design specification
3.1 Slope Protection work

3.1.1 General

Embankment slopes and crests must be protected against erosion caused by flowing water, rainfall and
waves. Generally the slopes under the design flood level are covered by locally available grass.
However, in places where strong waves and currents are forecasted (at place where necessary set-back
cannot be secured or at the outer banks of bends of meandering rivers), revetment works should be
implemented in order to protect slopes. Cubic Concrete blocks (C.C.block) with no projection are
provided side by side on the slope of embankment for slope protection in Bangladesh.
Further, trees should not be planted on berms, crests and slopes, because embankments could collapse
when a tree is blown down by the strong wind due to low atmospheric pressure or cyclone.

3.1.2 Projection of block

In the case that blocks with no projections (namely, surface of embankments has no degree of
roughness against flow) are provided on the embankment slope, flow velocity of river in the vicinity
of the embankments is accelerated. It may lead to failure of embankment on the lower reach where

32
embankments are covered by turf. Therefore, revetment should have certain degree of roughness in
general.

Especially, Not only is flow velocity accelerated by centrifugal force at outer bank of bend of
meandering rivers, but also secondary flow is generated at the same time. Secondary flow is the flow
perpendicular to river flow and it is major cause of local scouring.

Therefore, it is strongly recommended that revetment with degree of roughness should be provided on
the surface of embankment slope at outer bank of bend.

Secondary Flow

Local Scour

Fig 13 Flow Velocity distribution at Bend Fig 14 Occurrence of the secondary flow at bend

3.1.3 Design of Revetments for embankment slope

1. Stability of revetment under current attack

Revetment blocks protect embankment slopes from flowing water, while at the same time they are
sometimes damaged by sliding and peeling caused by the impact of hydrodynamic forces such as drag
and uplift. In cases where the slope gradient is gentler than 1:1.5 and it is not subject to earth pressure
and water pressure from behind, evaluation is carried out as described below.

Also, revetment stability with respect to flow is described in the Guideline for River Bank Protection
2010 by BWDB (hereafter referred to as the Guideline) on the assumption that revetment is boulder
revetment. Blocks which are generally used for slope protection of embankment is cubic without
projection, but it is preferable that cubic block with projection is used at outer bank of bend to prevent
secondary flow from erosion of bank. In the case that cubic block with projection is used, stability of
block should be examined by referring to the following formula.

《 Evaluation of stability with respect to sliding (in case of dry masonry)》

Stability of block with projection provided on the slope of embankment is assessed by calculation
of equilibrium between force of flow and gravity of block acting on block. Fig-15 shows
equilibrium of forces.

33
Stability should be confirmed with the following formula;

μ (Ww・cos θ - L) ≧((Ww・sin θ) 2 + D2) 1/2

(Source; Dynamic Design Method on Revetment, by Japan Institute of country-ology
and Engineering)
L= ρw/2・CL・Aｂ・Vd2 (kgf)
D= ρw /2・CD・AD・Vd2 (kgf)

Where; L : Uplift
D: Drag
μ: μ=0.65 (coefficient of friction between soil and suction prevention material)
Ww : weight of blocks in water
θ : Slope gradient
ρb : Density of blocks (kgf·s2/m4)
ρw : Density of water, ρw=102 (kgf·s2/m4)
g : Acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s2)
Ab : Projected area of blocks when viewed from above (m2)
AD : Projected area of blocks pertaining to drag blocks (m2)
tb : Thickness of blocks (thickness not including projection) (m)
CL : Uplift coefficient
(C.C. blocks with small projection: approximately 0.20)
(C.C. blocks with a little higher projection: approximately 0.15)

C ：Drag coefficient
(C.C. blocks with small projection: approximately 0.40)
(C.C. blocks with a little higher projection: approximately 0.7)
Note-1; CL, CD are determined by experiment results.
Note-2; CL can be defined to be around 1.0 as a maximum value.
Note-3; C , C of larger one or Smaller one than original Block don’t change if
the size of Block is similar to the original one. However, k changes in
proportion to the thickness of projection height.
ks : Equivalent roughness
(C.C. blocks with small projections: 0.04)
(C.C. blocks with a little higher projection: 0.08)
Vd : Critical neighborhood flow velocity for movement of revetment

. .
V = V (m/s)
. .

34
Hd : Design depth of water (when there is a wide set-back, the difference between
design high water level and set-back level at the toe of embankment) (m)
is the difference between Design Flood Water level and average river bed
level to calculate average flow velocity at the vicinity of embankment.
Vo : Design flow velocity Vo=α Vm (m/s)
Vm : Mean flow velocity (calculated from Manning’s formula of average flow velocity)
V =1/n・Hd2/3・Ie1/2 (m/s)
n : Manning’s coefficient of roughness
α : Correction coefficient (when there is no foot protection of sufficient width on the
embankment revetment)
∆
α=1+

B : Width of river (m)

r : Radius of curvature of bend (m)
ΔZ : Scouring depth (difference between projected deepest riverbed level and average
riverbed level) (m)
Estimation measure is described in the Guideline 7.2.5.

* This indicates the condition of

blocks installed on the right bank.

Force seen from the direction of ① Force seen from the direction of ②
Flow direction

Flow direction

Slope maximum
incline direction

Fig.-15 Model Drawings of Force Balance

35
Flow direction

Top view

Flow direction

Side view

Front view

Fig. 16 Explanation of Projected Area

Projection height

Flat blocks Block thickness tb

Fig. 17 Definition of Brace Thickness Support tb

Block A; drag coefficient

Block B; drag coefficient

Block B; uplift coeficient

Block A; uplift coefficient

Fig.-18 CD, CL of Isolated Blocks based on the experiment

(Here, ; Reinolds Number)

36
 Top view

Flow Flow

Side view

Flow Flow

Block A Block B
Fig. 19 Standard Drawing of Block

2. Stability of revetment under wave attack

Embankments in the tidal areas, in Haor areas and along with major rivers, facing large open
water, are affected by wave power and wave run-up, depending upon the direction of the wind.
Those embankments should be protected by revetments.

In such cases, it is necessary to assess the stability of revetment against wave, necessary weight
(size) should be calculated. Many formulas have been proposed until now. Such formulas are
described in “Guidelines for river bank protection; 8.4. Stability of Revetment under Wave
Attack”.

3.1.4 Block placement with open join

Because the water which permeated into the embankment during the flood is likely to remain in the
embankment as a residual water even after the river water level drops sharply at the end stage of flood,
it can weaken the embankment and cause the circular sliding of embankment slope on the river side.
Therefore, for discharging the residual water, the sediment discharge preventive works such as the
geo-textile should be provided underneath the slope protection block, and the slope protection blocks
should not be connected by cement each other.

37
 Fig 20.1 Drainage water of residual water from between block with open joint
when water level drawdowns

3.1.5 Toe Wall (Foundation work for slope protection blocks)

The slope protection block placed as a countermeasure against the erosion on the slope is designed to
stabilize against the flow by the bottom friction between block and the embankment surface. However,
it is concern that slope protection blocks could slip down due to the fluctuation of the river flow
partially, the toe wall should be provided at the down end of the slope protection blocks not only to
support the slope protection blocks and prevent from sliding, but also to protect the foundation from
erosion and prevent embankment materials discharge. In the case that there is not sufficient set back
distance, the height of the toe wall is decided in consideration with the deepest river bed height of
neighboring river bed.

Fig 20.2 Toe Wall

38
3.2 Seepage Protection Works

3.2.1 General

Seepage protection works should be implemented as needed in order to control seepage and prevent
piping phenomena with considering the embankment materials, foundation ground materials, water
level and flood continuation time. Approaches for strengthening river embankments with respect to
seepage are broadly divided into the following two types, and these are further broken down into
various methods.

(1) Methods with respect to the embankment body

1) Cross Sectional Expansion Method: this is intended to reduce the hydraulic gradient inside
the embankment body and boost safety with respect to sliding damage.

2) Surface Covering Method: this is intended to prevent and mitigate seepage of rainfall and
river water into the embankment body.

3) Drain Method: this is intended to promptly drain rainfall and river water that has infiltrated
into the embankment body.

(2) Methods with respect to the foundation ground (intended to mitigate and prevent seepage into the
foundation ground)

1) River Side Seepage Control Method: construct sheet piles at toe of embankment on river
side in order to prevent seepage from ground.

2) Blanket Method: this is intended to reduce the surface permeability of set-backs.

3.2.2 Methods in Embankment Body for Seepage Protection

(1) Cross Sectional Expansion Method

This is to widen the basic cross section on the river side, thereby extending the seepage length
and reducing the average hydraulic gradient, while also improving safety with respect to sliding
damage through making the slope gradient gentler than the basic cross section.
Materials with lower
permeability than the
existing embankment

Fig.-21.1 Basic Cross Sectional Shape in the Sectional Expansion Method

39
(2) Surface Covering Method

This is to cover the slope on the river side with impermeable materials (impervious materials) to
control infiltration of river water from the river side slope at flood time. This method is especially
effective in cases where the embankment body is composed of sand and impermeable materials
are used on the land side. It is also effective for preventing slope on the river side from sliding
due to residual water pressure when water level draws down at the end of the flood.

The impervious materials must possess sufficient shear strength after compaction. It is also
necessary for the materials to be resistant to deformation and harmful cracking, and to be easy for
compaction and to have good workability. Sandy soil containing high fine particle or clayey soil
with low water content is suitable for this purpose.

impermeable materials seepage line before strengthening

seepage line after strengthening

Fig.-21.2 Basic Structure of the Surface Slope Method

(3) Drain Method

This is to collect rain and river water that has infiltrated into the embankment during flooding
into a drain at the toe of embankment on the country side and to facilitate prompt natural
drainage out of the embankment over the long term. This is mainly intended to lower the seepage
line of the embankment body.

The drain work is composed of 1) the drain, to collect the infiltrated water into the embankment
foot water channel, 2) the embankment foot water channel, to collect water from the drain to the
designated terminal, and 3) the filter, to stop the runoff of soil particles from the embankment
body to the drain and to prevent clogging of the drain.

40
 Seepage line inside embankment

Embankment body

[Foundation ground]
a) Case with no drain

Seepage line inside embankment

Filter
Drain
Embankment foot water channel

Embankment body

[Foundation ground]
b) Case with drain

Fig. 22 Structure and Effects of Drain

(Source: Drain Design Manual (2013.6))

1) Width of drain (The length of the direction perpendicular to river flow)

- Width of the drain should be set so that the average hydraulic gradient (H/D) is not steeper
than 0.3. According to model experiment by Public Works Research Institute (PWRI)
Tsukuba city in Japan, it has been confirmed that there will be hardly any possibility of
piping if the average hydraulic gradient is not steeper than 0.3.

2) Drain height (thickness)

- The height of drain is theoretically determined according to the amount of drainage and
permeability of the drain. Although it can be fairly thin in general, sufficient cross-section
area of flow should be provided and drain height should be at least 0.5 meters in
consideration of certainty of execution, and declining drainage function due to subsidence
and deformation in the long term.

- The drain bed level is desired to be slightly lower than the ground level to ensure that
seepage inside the embankment body is properly drained. However, it is necessary that the
drain bed level should not be lower than the bed level of the embankment foot water
channel.
Width so that H/D is not steeper than 0.3

Drain
Height of 0.5m or more

Fig. 23 Drain Cross Section and Mean Hydraulic Gradient

41
3) Drain materials

- The drain materials must be of such characteristics that seepage water is possibly drained
with a small head loss. Accordingly, it is necessary to adopt materials that have a large
coefficient of permeability. Materials that have coefficient of permeability around 100 times
greater than that of the embankment body are required. Meanwhile, in relation to shear
strength pertaining to the stability of embankment, it is necessary to use materials that have
an internal friction angle (shearing resistance angle) of not less than 30 degrees as a guide
and do not become deteriorated.

- In consideration of the above points, crushed C.C.blocks or bricks are suitable as the drain
materials. Moreover, if cage is used for the drain, materials with particle size large enough
not to pass through the mesh of the cage must be selected.

4) Filter materials

- The filter, which is used between the embankment body and drain that have very different
permeability (particle size composition) with each other, is intended to prevent soil particles
of the embankment body from running into the drain with the seepage water, and also to
prevent the decline of drain functions due to clogging the drain by the soil particles over the
long term.

- Geotextile is frequently used as filter material, and this needs to meet the following
conditions;

a. Range of filter opening size : 0.1mm≦O95≦D85

O95 : Geotextile 95% opening size (AOS)
(Note) 95% particle diameter of the particle size distribution curve of glass
beads that pass through Geotextile
D85 : Particle diameter equivalent to 85% of passing weight in the particle size
distribution curve
b. It does not become clogged over the long term.
c. Coefficient of permeability: k≧1×10-1cm/s (k≧1×10-2cm/s at a minimum)
d. Tensile strength (TP): TP≧2.0ｋN/m
e. It is stable with respect to chemical change.
f. It has been undergone hydrophilic treatment.

42
3.2.3 Method in Foundation Ground for Seepage Protection

(1) Method for shallow permeable foundation

1) River Side Seepage Control Method

The river side seepage control method is to provide an impervious wall comprising clay or sheet
piles into the foundation ground around the toe of embankment on the river side, and thereby
reducing the quantity and pressure of water permeating the foundation ground from the river and
preventing the occurrence of piping. This method is applied in cases where permeable layer is
relatively thin.

Impervious wall

(Permeable layer)
(Impermeable layer)

Fig. 24 Basic Structure of River Side Seepage Control Method

2) Center Seepage Control Method

Impermeable soil such as clayey soil is provided at the center of embankment and cutoff
trench.

43
 impermeable zone

cutoff trench

permeable layer

impermeable layer

Fig. 25 Center Seepage -cutoff method

(2) Method for intermediate permeable foundation

In the case where permeable layer is relatively thick, steel and bound curtain, slurry trench are
provided at the permeable layer.

impermeable zone

steel ,cement bound

permeable layer curtain , slurry trench

impermeable layer

Fig. 26 Steel piling method etc.

(3) Method for deep permeable foundation

In cases where embankment soil is low permeable and material of the set-back is highly
permeable, the blanket method is to cover the surface layer above the set-back on the river side
with impervious materials, extending the seepage length to reduce seepage pressure in the
foundation ground, and thereby improve stability of the country side slope toe with respect to
seepage.

Blanket

(Permeable layer)
(Impermeable layer)

Fig. 27 Basic Structure of the Blanket Method

44
 The length of blanket should be decided by conducting seepage flow calculation and sliding
stability calculation and reviewing safety with respect to sliding and piping. The saturated
coefficient of permeability of impervious materials needs to be not higher than 1 x 10-5cm/s.

3.3 Toe Protection Works and Foot Protection Works

In cases where hardly any set-back can be secured and the embankment is almost adjacent to the river
bank, toe protection works should be provided in order to protect the toe of embankment from erosion,
and foot protection should be provided in order to prevent the riverbed scouring at the toe of
embankment.

Toe protection works are to drop C.C. blocks (cubic concrete blocks) or geo-backs from the water
surface onto the embankment toe slope in order to form a protective layer over the slope under water,
while foot protection works are to prevent the riverbed scouring by placing C.C.blocks, geo-bags,
riprap, gabion or mattress on the river-bed. Work types should be selected in consideration of water
level during construction (dry season).

C.C.blocks or Geo-bags are usually provided for

Design Flood Water Level
Foot protection work. Those are also placed on
the place in front of toe of embankment where
erosion or scouring is forecasted. Those will be
Water Level at construction
the Toe protection of embankment, named Falling
Apron, so that they form a protective layer on the Toe Protection

toe slope when it becomes eroded and scoured in

the future. Further information on these methods,
Scour
refer to “the Guideline for River Bank Protection;
8.7 Design of Toe Protection”.

Fig-28.1 Toe protection and Foot protection

3.4 Transition zone works and Edge Wall

In case that new embankment and adjacent existing embankment differ in sectional shape, sectional
profile in the transition zone between the new and existing embankments should be changed smoothly
in order to avoid occurrence of eddies due to sudden change of profile. Moreover, roughness in the
transition zone should be also changed smoothly. The slope protection works in the transition zone
should be with flexibility and appropriate roughness, such as C.C.blocks with projection, etc.
In addition, the slope protection work should be provided with the edge walls at the both ends to
secure the stability of slope protection blocks against erosion.

45
 Fig. 28.2 Transition zone works and Edge Wall

3.5 Design of Crossing Structure of Embankment

Sluice gate and Water gate are concrete structure with rigid foundation, support pile foundation is used
to prevent from the subsidence of the structures. On the other hand, Embankment is a soil structure
constructed on the ground directly.
For this reason, it is difficult to adhere the joint portion of the embankment compactly with the
structure for a long period of time. There are likely to be seepage paths at the joint portion and cracks
at crest of embankment. Those will be a weakness against flooding.
Particularly in areas where the foundation ground is soft ground, cracks and seepage paths are likely to
occur in the embankments around the structure due to uneven settlement of structures and
embankments. Those are leading to failures of embankment during flooding.

Fig. 28.3 Cracks and Seepage Path around Sluice gate

46
In the junction between embankment and structure, cracks and seepage paths along the structure are
likely to be developed due to difference in consolidation between the surrounding embankment and
the foundation ground of structure.
If the seepage flow increases due to development of cracks and seepage paths, the Soil material of
embankment and foundation ground will be sucked out, which may lead to collapse of the
embankment.
In particular, cracks is easily developed right under the bottom plate of the structure, cracks and loose
compaction area inside the backfill soil, and uneven and cracks at the embankment crest.
In order to prevent above "piping", the crossing structure shall be constructed with "cut-off" wall
having an appropriate length of 1 m or more in width. The cut-off wall prevents piping phenomena by
prolonging the creep length and lowering the seepage pressure of the structure. In case of wider
embankment and longer crossing structure, it is necessary to provide two or more cut-off walls.

Fig. 28.4 Cut-offs and Seepage control sheet piles of Sluice gate

4. Verification of Embankment Safety

4.1 General

The embankment cross section is usually determined based on the design standards described in section
2 above, however, because embankments are basically made of earth, it is sometimes not possible to
maintain the necessary crest level, crest width, design slope etc. due to erosion, seepage, earthquake, and
shortage of bearing capacity of foundation ground.

47
Accordingly, when constructed in places where such risks are expected, embankment safety should be
verified by examining the soil characteristics of embankment and foundation ground and others.

4.2 Verification of Embankment Safety with respect to Seepage

4.2.1 Embankment failure caused by Seepage

Embankment failure caused by seepage is broadly divided into sliding damage arising from seepage to
the embankment body, and piping damage in foundation ground and embankment body.

In the flood season, the initial rains cause saturation in the embankment body, and the rising river
water level causes the seepage line to rise inside the embankment. As a result, pore water pressure
inside the embankment body increases, the shear strength of soil decreases, and finally sliding occurs
on the country side slope of the embankment. Moreover, when the water level falls towards the end of
the flood, seepage water stays inside the embankment body, greatly destabilizing the slope on the river
side. Accordingly, when constructing embankments, it is important to carry out sufficient compaction
to increase the shear strength of soil in the embankment body.

Moreover, in the case that river water level is high and lasts long, river water continuously permeates
the embankment body or foundation ground, and when the hydraulic gradient of seepage water
becomes steep enough, seepage force causes soil particles to move and there is a possibility that piping
will occur around the toe of embankment on the country side.

In consideration of the above points, when deciding the shape of embankment, the followings should
be confirmed by means of phreatic line (seepage line) drew by graphic solution and circular sliding
analysis. If the prescribed cross section of embankment is verified not to be stable, it is necessary to
change the design elements; e.g. to make the gradient of embankment slopes gentler.

1) Embankment slope on the country side must be stable against sliding and piping when the
river water level stays at the design flood level for a prolonged period.

If it is not stable against sliding, embankment slope should be gentler, otherwise widening of
crest or filling on slope of on the country side should be conducted. ( ≧ 1.5

If it is not stable against piping, embankment slope should be gentler or drain filter should
be provided at toe of embankment on the country side.

2) Embankment slope on the river side must be stable against sliding when the river water
level rapidly drops towards the end of the flood ( ≧ 1.5

3) It is preferable that the seepage line is within the embankment body so that no piping from
the slope takes place. Even if seepage line is above toe of embankment on the country side,
limiting Value of Q (amount of runoff) should not exceed 1.0m3/day/m. Filter (drain) should
be provided in the case that Q exceeds 1.0m3/day/m.

48
In addition to that, piping is unlikely to occur in the case that embankment soil is consist of
clay.

49
4.2.2 Seepage Line and Piping

The seepage line (or saturation line) is defined as the boundary where positive hydrostatic pressure
occurs in the embankment cross section, and hydrostatic pressure at the seepage line is zero,
equivalent to the atmospheric pressure. The seepage line denotes the boundary between dry soil and
wet soil, and in calculation of soil shear strength, soil above the seepage line is regarded as dry while
the soil below is regarded as wet.

In order to conduct stability analysis of embankments by means of the graphic solution, the most
important thing is to determine the seepage line. In deciding the seepage line by the Casagrande
method, the seepage line is drawn as follows by treating it as something close to the base parabola.

In this figure (Figure 29), corrected length (∆ a) and seepage length (a) of the seepage are given by the
following formula;

(Source; Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures, by Santosh Kumar Garg)

Base parabola is defined as following formula.

X=

Where;S= √
°
∆a= (a+∆a)
°
α: Angle formed by the horizontal surface and seepage discharge face.

Base parabola
0.3ℓ y

A B

I J
H
Phreatic line K

X S

b
Focus(F)
ℓ b

Fig. 29 Seepage Line and Seepage Length

50
 Fig. 30 Cases of Seepage Water Discharge Faces when Drain is provided

Here, the amount of runoff Q will be as follows:

Q = ｋ・S (ｋ: Coefficient of permeability)

S=√ ー

Here, the runoff length (a) in the case of no drain is given by the following formula.

① When α is no higher than 30° (when there is no seepage prevention drain )

a=

② When α is 30°~ 60°

a= √ √

Fig. 31 Seepage Length when there is no drain

4.2.3 Circular Slip (Sliding)

Generally, when slopes collapse, a large lump of earth often slips along a circular slip face.

The embankment slope stability is determined by the Swedish circle method (Fellenius's graphical
analysis) or the Bishop method derived from the rotation moment equilibrium formula of “force that
causes sliding” and “force that resists sliding” in the slip face.

51
This method involves dividing earth lumps in a assumed slip circle into ‘n’ slices in the vertical
direction and, focusing on the moment equilibrium of force in each slice, determining stability of the
slip face according to the ratio of total force causing the slices to slip and total force preventing slip
( : safety factor).

Description in detail is as follows. Upon setting the slip face after assuming the center and diameter of
the slip circle, earth lumps in the assumed slip circle are divided into ‘n’ slices in the vertical direction
and the ratio of total force causing each slice to slip and total force preventing slip ( : safety factor) is
sought. Safety factors should be calculated for multiple assumed circle centers and it should be
confirmed whether or not the minimum safety factor exceeds the criteria ( ≧1.5). These calculations
should really be implemented by computer.

When considering the seepage line, the safety factor should be calculated by the following formula.
Here, this formula ignores forces acting between slices.

・ ・ ・
・
(Source; Guidance structure study of the river embankment, by Dynamic Design Method, by
Japan Institute of country-ology and Engineering)
Fs : Safety factor
u : Pore pressure of the slip face (kPa)
c : Adhesive force of soil along the slip face (kPa)
l : Length of slice circle (m)
φ : Internal angle of friction of soil along the slip face (° )
b : Width of slice (m)
W : Weight of slice (kN/m)
: Unit volumetric weight of water (kN/m3)
α : Angle of inclination of the slice base (°)

Fig. 32 Slip Circular Calculation based on the Swedish circle method

52
 (Note) Pore water pressure working on the slip face, caused by seepage
and drainage, is considered. Change in pore water pressure caused
by volumetric expansion of soil in line with shearing is not
considered because this is reflected in values of C and φbased on
soil testing .

Table-3 Strength parameters to the soil quality.

Slice base conditions Strength parameter
Clayey soil with low permeability Cohesion: C
[Undrained condition: CU test] angle of internal friction φ ≒0
Sandy soil with high permeability Cohesion: C , Cd≒C’
[Drained condition: CD test ] angle of internal friction φd≒φ’

(Note-1) C',∅’: If consolidated drained triaxial compression test (CD test) cannot be
implemented due to huge time required for the test, values C', ∅’ obtained by
subtracting pore water pressure from the result of consolidated untrained triaxial
compression test (CU test) may be used instead of Cd and ∅ .

(Note-2) In the case Clayey Soil, /2 (unconfined compression strength from unconfined
compression test) may be used substituting the value Cu obtained from CU test.

(Note-3) In the case Sandy Soil, Cd,∅ (shear strength from direct shear test) may be used
instead of the values from CD tests or CU tests

Further, there are some cases that it is impossible to secure sufficient set back distance at
outer bank of bend. In such case, it is necessary to verify the safety of embankment sliding at
not only the highest flood water level, but also the end of flooding, because it is assumed
embankment slope could slides on the river side due to the remaining of water that infiltrated
during flood time in such case that there is no sufficient set back.

In case of circular sliding calculation at the end of flood to verify safety of embankment,
seepage line in the embankment body at highest flood water level can be adopted for the
seepage line at the end of flood from the practical point of view, however, as for the river
water level, that at the end of flood should be used. Because only seepage line at steady state
is obtained by graphic solution.

53
4.3 Verification of Embankment Safety with respect to Erosion

It is specified that river embankments should be covered with vegetation. The erosion resistance of
vegetated slope against flowing water exists in the roots (piliferous layer) in the case of vegetation like
turf-grass species with low plant length. It is thought that the piliferous layer mitigates tractive force
through slowing flow velocity near the ground surface.

Concerning the erosion resistance of lawn grass, when the permissible depth of erosion is assumed to
be 2.0 centimeters, the relationship between friction velocity ( ∗ ), quantity of root hair (σo) and
duration of water level higher than set-back height (t), which expresses the shearing force of slope, is
shown in the following figure. The figure is used under following conditions

1) Plant communities in which grasses (root diameter is roughly less than 1 mm) are the
predominant species, and there is hardly bare ground.
2) Slope materials are composed of silt.
3) The average quantity of root hair is in the range of 0.02~0.12gf/cm3.
[σ0; Mean amount of piliferous layer
3
(gf/cm )]
Friction velocity U *c (m/s)

Time t (hr)

Fig. 33 Surface Erosion Resistance of Vegetation

(relationship of root hair length and friction velocity)

(Note) Friction velocity: U * = ∗ ∗

g : Gravitational acceleration (9.8m/s2)
Hd : Design water depth (in the case of a wide set-back,
the difference between the design water level and
set-back level) (m)
: Energy gradient ≒ Riverbed gradient

Roughly speaking, when the representative flow velocity is less than 2m/s, erosion -resistance on the
embankment river side slope can be deemed to be secured.

54
In the place that the velocity in the vicinity of embankment exceeds allowable flow velocity
mentioned above, embankment slope on the river side should be protected by revetment, especially
embankment slope at outer bank side of bend should be protected by revetment, and further foot
protection works also should be provided because local scouring takes place due to accelerated flow
and secondary flow.

4.4 Verification of Embankment Safety with respect to Earthquake

4.4.1 General

Safety examination of embankment with respect to earthquake has not been conducted in
Bangladesh, and there are no applicable standards. Moreover, there have been no reports on
embankments sliding due to a result of inertial force or foundation ground subsidence
caused by liquefaction during earthquakes.

Even if sliding may have occurred as a result of inertial force during earthquakes in the past,
it did not occur on a large scale and didn’t require much cost or manpower to repair. Also,
because embankments in Bangladesh generally have low heights (only 4~5 meters even on
major rivers), even if liquefaction did occur in the past, the resulting subsidence was not
large enough to cause major damage to surrounding areas.

In this manual, basic policy and outline of verification and relevant countermeasures with
respect to earthquakes based on Japanese experience is introduced as follows in
consideration of the possibility of urbanization around embankments and necessity of safety
examination in future.

4.4.2 Basic policy

Subsidence of embankment arising from liquefaction is the most predominant damage

in Japan. According to the past experience in Japan, there have been no cases where
embankment was completely lost, and a certain portion of embankment height (around
25% at least) always remained.

In areas where the level of land behind the embankment is rather low than the river
water level when earthquake occurs, it is possible that the river water will overflow the
damaged embankment and cause secondary disaster such as massive flooding of the
hinterland.

In Bangladesh, it is likely that river water level is kept to be considerably higher in

flood, it is necessary to examine the safety of hinterland against flooding in case of
earthquake, and the resistance of embankment against earthquake should be verified.

55
 Resistance of embankment against earthquake, rather than the embankment is not
broken, is that significant subsidence of embankment which causes flooding in
hinterland does not occur even if earthquake happens. In other words, it is whether
height of embankment to prevent from flooding at the time of earthquake is maintained,
although subsidence of embankment occur.

4.4.3 Determination of potential for liquefaction

Evaluation on liquefaction potential is conducted for the soil layer existing in 20 m or

less below the ground surface based on the following 2 criterions as a preliminary
screening. When all of these 2 criterions are satisfied, the ground is evaluated as having
the potential of suffering liquefaction.

1) The ground water level is 10 m or less below the ground surface.

2) The soil layer has FC (fine particle content) of not higher than 35%, or even if it is
more than 35%, the plasticity index is 15 or less.

4.4.4 Liquefaction judgment and embankment stability calculation

(Source; Guidance structure study of the river embankment, by Dynamic Design

Method, by Japan Institute of country-ology and Engineering)
In cases there is a possibility of liquefaction in (2) above, the following “Resistivity to
liquefaction (FL)” should be calculated layer by layer of soil, and if this is 1.0 or less,
liquefaction could occur.

FL = R / L

Where F ; Resistivity against liquefaction

R; Dynamic shear strength ratio
L; Seismic shear stress ratio
Here, R, L are calculated from the soil “N value”, fine particle content (passing mass
percentage (%) of soil particles with diameter size of 75μm or less).

○ R= ・RL

RL= 0.0882 /1.7 ( 14

.
0.0882 /1.7 1.6 10 ・ 14 ( ≧ 14
(In case of Sandy Soil)

・ ＋

56
 1.7・N/( /98.0 ＋0.7)

1 (0%≦FC<10%)

(FC+40)/50 (10%≦FC<60%)
FC/20-1 (60%≦FC)
0 (0%≦FC<10%
(FC-10)/18 (10%≦FC)
Where ; the correction factor due to seismic motion characteristics
( 1.0)
; Cyclic tri-axial shear strength ratio
; N value equivalent to Effective load pressure 98.0kN/m2
N; N value
; Correction factor that takes into account the effect of particle
size
; Total stress
; Effective stress (=Total stress - buoyancy force)
, ; Correction factor of N values by the fine fraction content
FC; Fine fraction content (%)
(Passing mass percentage of particle below 75μm
○ L＝ ・ ・ /

= 1.0 - 0.015 x

= ∙ + (x - )

= ∙ γ ）(x - )

Where ; Reduction factor in the direction of the depth of the seismic

shear stress ratio along with the depth
; Design seismic intensity for liquefaction
(Ks in Bangladesh are shown in Fig 29)
x; Depth from the ground surface (m)
; Density of soil in shallow than water table position (kN/m3)
; Density of soil in deeper than the water table position (kN/m3)
; Density of water kN/m3)
; Depth from the ground surface (m) to the ground water level

4.4.5 Calculation of subsidence amount

There is no calculation method of subsidence amount of embankment after an earthquake. The

subsidence amount is actually estimated from the safety factors for stability of embankment
calculated based on the circular slip method. The relationship between the safety factors for

57
stability of embankment and the subsidence amount is derived from previous statistical data,
and shown in Table 4 .

There are two methods to calculate the safety factor for stability of embankment.

1) The circular slip method that takes into account only the excess pore water pressure (∆u
method)

2) The circular slip method that takes into account only the inertia force ( method

a. ∆u Method
・ ・ ∆ ・ ・ ・ ∅
○ ∆ =
・
○ ∆ = ｖ
(in case of ≦ 1.0 )

∙ (in case of 1.0 )

Where; ∆ ; Minimum safety factor that takes into account excess pore water
pressure
C; cohesion of soil (kN/m2)
∅; Angle of internal friction
W; Weight of slice (kN)
l ; Length of slice circle (m)
b; Width of slice (m)
u; Pore water pressure usually generated by ground water (kN /m2)
; The angle of the normal and the vertical lines that can be placed in
the center of the arc(°)
b. Method
⋅ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∅
○
∙ ∙ ∙ /
Where ℎ ; The design seismic intensity due to the inertia force
y; the height from center of gravity of slice to center of sliding circle (m)
r; Radius of sliding circle (m)
The other symbols are the same used in the equation 1).
Table 4 Relation between Subsidence Amount (maximum) and

(∆u) Subsidence Amount

(maximum)
1.0 1.0 < F (∆u) 0

0.8 ≦ 1.0 0.8 < (∆u)≦1.0 Embankment height ×0.25

≦ 0.8 0.6 < (∆u)≦0.8 Embankment height × 0.50

－ (∆u)<0.6 Embankment height ×0.75

58
Fig. 34 Seismic Zone Map of Bangladesh (Source; BNBC 1993)

59
4.4.6 Strengthening work method

The basic anti-seismic method of embankments is to limit or prevent liquefaction in the

foundation ground. In principle, the following two methods are available:

1) Increase effective stress by reducing the excessive pore water pressure that occurs during
earthquake.
a. Counterweight filling (making the embankment slopes gentler or providing suppress
embankment)
b. Compacting the foundation ground
c. Solidifying ground (by cement, burnt lime etc.)

2) Limit ground soil movement to the sides of liquefied ground.

・Steel piles are driven in the ground at both sides of embankment toe

Moreover, in the massive earthquake that struck the west part of Honshu island of Japan in
January 1995 with magnitude of 7.3 and maximum acceleration of 848 gal, although not
directly intended to quell liquefaction, artificially created set-back and gentle embankment
slopes became a form of counterweight filling and helped stabilize embankments, thereby
demonstrating the effectiveness of method 2) above.

In Bangladesh, since embankments are not very high, it is deemed advisable to adopt rational
methods (counterweight filling, making embankment slopes gentler, etc.) that do not incur
large investment cost.

4.5 Verification of Embankment Safety with respect to bearing capacity of foundation

ground

4.5.1 General

Construction of an embankment on a soft ground faces following geotechnical problems if the

soft ground has its inherent characteristics of causing these problems.

A. Excessively large amount subsidence of the embankment due to the high compressibility
of the soft ground.
B. Sliding failure of the embankment due to insufficient bearing capacity of the soft ground.

Among these two, the problem of A is dealt with by extra banking in the designing stage
to accommodate the future subsidence to keep the required height for securing the function of the
embankment. (Please refer 2.6.4)

On the other hand, the problem B occurs due to insufficient bearing capacity of the soft ground.
Therefore, in this section, method to deal with the problem B is described.

60
4.5.2 Process of sliding failure due to insufficient bearing capacity of a soft ground

1) When the soft ground is predominantly clayey silt

Both a deformation due to volume reduction of the ground along with consolidation and a
deformation due to shearing stress acting on the ground induced by construction of an
embankment likely occur when embankment are constructed on a soft ground.

In other words, with rising of the embankment height, the ground under the embankment subsides
and at the same time parts of ground soil pushed out laterally end up heaving upward of the
ground surface adjacent to the embankment.

In this situation, if the vertical load on the ground imposed by the embankment exceeds critical
bearing capacity of the ground (critical embankment height: HEC), the shearing stress induced by
construction of the embankment exceeds the shear strength of the ground leading to sliding
failure of the embankment.

Safety factor of slope stability of an embankment (F ) decreases with the increase of shear stress
acting on the ground during the construction of the embankment. This safety factor (F ) will turn
to be on gradual increase, once the construction of an embankment is finished with the increase of
shearing strength along with the progress of consolidation.

However, if a period of construction of an embankment is very short, the shearing stress acting on
the ground will increase rapidly before the shear strength start to increase leading to abrupt sliding
failure of the embankment.

Fig. 35 Variation of Safety Factor of Slope Stability during Consolidation

61
 2) When the soft ground is predominantly sand

A deformation is triggered only by the shearing stress acting on the ground induced by
construction of an embankment.

As increase of shear strength by consolidation cannot be expected, sliding failure occurs when
shearing stress exceeds initial shear strength of the ground.

It is noted that safety factor should be 1.2 or higher in these cases.

4.5.3 Soil constants for circular slide calculation of soft ground

Stability of embankment on soft ground is assessed based on minimum safety factor by circular slip
calculation on assumed circular slip surface in the ground.
Calculation method is described in 4.2.3 Circular Slip, soil constants for calculation are as follows.

1) In the case that the ground is predominantly clayey silt

C and ∅ for un-drained condition should be identified because of its low permeability. These C
and ∅ are expressed as Cu and ∅ respectively.

Un-drained Cu of each slice along the potential sliding slip of the slope stability analysis is
determined considering increase by the depth of the slice from the ground surface and increase by
the consolidation. ∅ is assumed to be zero (0.0).

Here, Cu is obtained from CU tests (Consolidated Un-drained Tri-axial Compression Tests) in

which different confining pressures are applied to samples taken from same depth.

Cu can also be obtained from UU tests (Un-consolidated Un-drained Tri-axial Compression Tests)
in which different inherent confining pressures are applied to each sample from different depths.

In the case that Cu is obtained from the following equation based on CU tests.

Cu = C + P・tan (∅ )

Here P: Effective overburden pressure acting on each slice along a potential

sliding slip after embankment. P is expressed as (P= ∆P) (kN/m2)
P : Effective overburden pressure before embankment (kN/m2)
∆P ∶ Added effective overburden pressure induced after embankment
(kN/m2)
C : Cu value at P =0.0 on a envelop line of Mohr’s Circles expressed with
total stress (kN/m2)
∅ : Gradient of the envelop line representing increase of Cu (°)

62
 When the effective overburden pressure acting on each slice along the potential sliding slip before
embankment is expressed as P (kN/m2) and the added effective overburden pressure on the slice
induced by embankment is expressed as ΔP (kN/m2), P = P + ΔP is used for the equation.

Cu / Cu=Ccu+ P・tan (φcu)

Φ

P /
+Δ

, :
different confining pressures
for samples from same depth

Undrained Shear Strength from CU test

Fig. 36 Shear Strength of Clayey Silt (CU tests)

2) In the case that the ground is predominantly sand

C and ∅ for drained condition should be identified because of its high permeability. These C and
∅ are obtained from CU tests by eliminating the effect of pore water pressure generating during
un-drained condition of CU tests.

4.5.4 Countermeasures for stability of embankment constructed on soft ground

(1) Counterweight Banking Method or Slow Loading Method

Counterweight Banking Method aims to increase resistance moment by putting extra banking on
both sides of embankment or making slope gentle against sliding of embankment.

gentle slope
Countermesure Banking

soft ground soft ground

Fig. 37 Counter Weight Banking Method

63
 Method is intended to bank counterweight soil slowly. Increment of shearing force can be expected
along with progress of consolidation due to loading of soil in the case of slow loading on soft clayey
ground.

(2) Mitigation of Liquefaction Hazard by Site Modification

1) Excavation and replacement of liquefiable soils
a. Excavation and engineered compaction of the existing soil
b. Excavation and engineered compaction of the existing soil with additives
c. Excavation of existing soils and replacement with properly compacted non liquefiable soils
2) Densification of in-situ soil
a. Compaction piles
b. Vibratory probes
c. Vibroflotation
d. Compaction grouting
e. Dynamic compaction or impact densification
3) In-situ improvements of soil by alteration
a. Mixing soils in-situ with additives
b. Removing in-situ soils by jetting and replacement with non-liquefiable soils
4) Grouting or chemical stabilization

64
 ANNEX-1

THE PROJECT FOR

CAPACITIES DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT FOR
SUSTAINABLE WATER RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE
IN
THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF BANGLADESH

PILOT PROJECT DESIGN

REPORT

May 2015

BWDB Design Circle-1

JICA Expert Team
 ANNEX-1

Table of Contents

1. Pilot Project ...........................................................................................................................5

1.1 Purposes of the Pilot Project ..............................................................................................5
1.2. Pilot Project Target Site ....................................................................................................5
1.3 Design target Facilities ......................................................................................................8
1.4 Applicable Standards .........................................................................................................8
2. Design Conditions ..................................................................................................................8
2.1 Natural Conditions ............................................................................................................8
2.1.1 River Conditions ........................................................................................................9
(1) Water Level Data at Moulvibazar Water Level Gauging Station .....................................9
(2) Riverbed Fluctuations at Moulvibazar Water Level Gauging Station ........................... 12
(3) Probable Water Level at Moulvibazar Water Level Gauging Station ............................ 14
(4) Riverbed Gradient of Manu River............................................................................. 16
2.1.2 Soil Quality ................................................................................................................ 17
(1) Results of Boring................................................................................................. 17
(2) Soil Constants for Design ........................................................................................ 19
3. Pilot Project Design ............................................................................................................. 19
3.1 Embankment Design ...................................................................................................... 19
3.1.1 Basic Specifications ................................................................................................. 19
(1) Design Embankment Elevation ................................................................................ 19
(2) Basic Consideration for the Manu River........................................................... 20
(3) Evaluation of Design Elevation of Pilot Embankment .................................... 23
(4) Design Low Water Level ......................................................................................... 25
(5) Water Level during the Construction Period .............................................................. 26
(6) Representative Flow Velocity ................................................................................... 27
(7) Crest Width ............................................................................................................ 32
(8) Side Slope .............................................................................................................. 32
(9) Elevation of Major bed of river ................................................................................ 32
(10) Alignment of Embankment .................................................................................... 33
3.1.2 Verification of Embankment Body Stability................................................................... 35
(1) Design Representative Cross Section ........................................................................ 35
(2) Seepage Analysis .................................................................................................... 36
(3) Examination of Circular Slip .................................................................................... 38
 ANNEX-1

(4) Examination of Consolidation Settlement.................................................................. 42

3.2 Revetment for Embankment Slope .................................................................................. 45
3.2.1 Revetment for Embankment Slope ............................................................................ 45
(1) Slope Block Work ................................................................................................... 45
(2) Foot Protection Work............................................................................................... 45
(3) Front back Fill Materials.......................................................................................... 45
3.2.2 Design of Revetment for Embankment Slope ................................................................ 48
(1) Design of Slope Block Work .................................................................................... 48
(3) Design of Length of Launching apron ....................................................................... 55
 ANNEX-1

Moulvibazar
Pilot Project Site

Figure 1 General Location of Pilot Project

1
 ANNEX-1

Moulvibazar
Pilot Project Site

Figure 2 Location of Manu River

2
 ANNEX-1

Kushiyara River

Water level gauge station

Figure 3 Detailed Location of the Pilot Project

3
 ANNEX-1

Existing Embankment
Existing Embankment

Manu River

Pilot Project Site

Construction Length 250m

Existing Embankment Element school

Figure 4 Pilot Project Site

4
 ANNEX-1

1. Pilot Project
1.1 Purposes of the Pilot Project
“The Project for Capacity Development of Management for Sustainable Water Related
Infrastructure” (hereinafter referred as “the Project”) is being carried out with the following
expected goal and output:

(1) Overall Goal

To achieve water-related disaster risk reduction through proper management of the
infrastructures
(2) Goal of the Project
To improve the capacities of BWDB on Embankment Engineering in terms of Design,
Construction and Operation & Maintenance methods
(3) Outputs
a. Design for sustainable river embankment is introduced.
b. Construction method and procedure of river embankment is improved.
c. Operation and Maintenance (hereinafter referred to as “O&M”) system for the river
infrastructures is ensured

Within the framework of the Project, a pilot project consisting of reconstruction of a section of
existing embankment is being conducted with the following purposes by the cooperation of
BWDB and the JICA Expert Team as the basic item of on-the-job training (OJT):

a. To verify effectiveness of the draft manuals of design, construction and O&M to be

developed under the Project
b. To revise the draft manuals through the monitoring of the pilot project

This report of the detailed design is prepared for the Pilot Project construction in order to
prepare the required drawings and quantities in collaboration with the BWDB design Circle-1.

1.2. Pilot Project Target Site

Out of 21 sites initially recommended by BWDB, field surveys at 13 sites were conducted.
Further, as a result of conducting the phases evaluation described below, the damaged
embankment at Moulvibazar was selected as the Pilot Project site (see Table 1). Figures 1~4 show
the location of the Pilot Project site.

5
 ANNEX-1

Evaluation items in the 1st evaluation

① Large-scale erosion protection is not required on the site. (Because the project is mainly
intended to improve embankment design and construction works)
②Civil engineering technology is widely applicable to Bangladesh.
③ There is a high level of urgency for embankment construction and/or rehabilitation.
④ There is no risk of the embankment damaged by artificial activity such as public cutting.

Evaluation items in the 2nd evaluation

① Evaluate of workability (ease of procuring and carrying-in equipment and materials)
② Social and environmental consideration (there is no need to acquire land or move houses,
etc.)
③ Access from Dhaka

6
 ANNEX-1

Table 1 Pilot Project Site Selection Sheet

River Embankment 1. Suitability Evaluation in Implementation 2. Ease in Execution
④
⑦ Social
Elevation Embankm
① Need or ⑥ Ease of and Overall
(water Cause of ent
Category No. Site Name Widt Level of Embankment Not for ② ③ Urgency of Equipment Environment ⑨ Overlap Evaluatio
surface Bed Type of Current Banking Embankment Damage Suitability ⑧Access
River h of Embankment Soil Quality Erosion Technolog Embankment Procurement al with Other n
level) Gradient Embankment Method Failure Caused Evaluation from Dhaka
River (estimated) (estimated) Countermeas y Transfer Improvement and Consideratio Agencies
(estimated) by
ures Carrying-in n (Land,
Human
etc.)
Activity

C
C Erosion
Full-embankment Dredged sediment Durable (Priority to
Jamuna HWL is for Erosion countermea
1 Bogra 15m 7km 1/10,000 (Jamuna River Approx. 3m Sandy silt (fine sand)＋Clay Bank erosion clay erosion None X ADB
River a long time countermeas sures
embankment) covering (30cm) covering countermeasur
ures needed needed
es)

C
C Erosion
Full-embankment ① Geo-textile, CC Durable (Priority to
Large Jamuna HWL is for Erosion countermea
2 Sirajiganj 14m 13km 1/25,000 (Jamna River Approx. 2m Fine sand blocks ② Clay Bank erosion clay erosion None X ADB
river River a long time countermeas sures
A embankment) covering covering countermeasur
ures needed needed
es)
C
C Erosion
Full-embankment ① Geo-textile、CC Durable (Priority to
emban Ganges HWL is for Erosion countermea
3 Rajshahi (1) 12m 1km 1/4,000 (Ganges River Approx. 2m Clayey silt blocks ② Clay Bank erosion clay erosion None X
kment River a long time countermeas sures
embankment) covering ( 30cm) covering countermeasur
ures needed needed
es)
Main C
C Erosion
road-cum-em Durable (Priority to
Padma 2.8k HWL is for Full-embankment Geo-textile, Erosion countermea
4 Chandpur 0m 1/10,000 bankment Silt Bank erosion clay erosion None X ADB
River m a long time (Padma River) CC .blocks countermeas sures
(Approx. covering countermeasur
ures needed needed
3m) es)

① Bank erosion
High
HWL is for and waves
tide Ganges Full-embankment B
a long time Clayey-silt Manual compaction ② Partial public Transfer
B area 5 Khulna 2m River 400m 1/50,000 (Polder Approx. 5m (Fast X A None △ △ ○ △ △WB 2
Tidal (with peat) by rammer cut technology?
emban (branch) embankment) erosion)
variations ③ Seepage
kment
failure with peat

Submerge
Submerged
Habiganj Khowai Prolonged Submerged Approx. 3~ Manual compaction A d
Haor 6 8m 130m 1/100,000 Sandy-silt Overflow B None X embankmen
(2) River inundation embankment 5m by rammer Unnecessary embankme
t
nt
C
Submerge
Public-cut, Submerged
emban Prolonged Submerged Manual compaction A d
7 Nerokona 8m 125m 1/100,000 Approx. 3m Clayey-silt overflow, crab B ※Yes X embankmen
kment inundation embankment by rammer Unnecessary embankme
holes t
nt

C
B Compactio
Muhuri Rapid rises Full-embankment Foot scouring (Small Urgency
8 Feni 25m 15m 1/60 Approx. 5m Clayey silt Unknown Foot n and foot None X
River and falls (Flash-flood) ( flash flood) beneficiary None
protection protection
area)

C
① Piping, ②
B Compactio (Done except
Gumiti Rapid rises Full-embankment Rat holes, ③
9 comilla 13m 40m 1/100,000 Approx. 5m Sandy-silt CC blocks Foot n and foot for foot None ○ △ △ ○ None 3
River and falls (Flash-flood) Foot scouring
protection protection protection;
(flash flood)
D River partial failure)
emban B Compactio
Moulvibaza Manu Rapid rises Full-embankment Stone revetment CC Foot scouring
kment 10 16m 85m 1/5,000 Approx. 5m Sandy-silt Foot n and foot A None ○ ○ ○ ○ None ①
r River and falls (Flash-flood) blocks (flash flood)
with protection protection
steep Foot scouring
B
slope Habiganj Khowai Rapid rises (flash flood) Compactio Artificial
11 23m 60m 1/1,000 Full-embankment Approx. 5m Silt Unknown Foot B ○ X
behind (1) River and falls Artificial crest n causes
protection
damage
(Polder Water pressure? Compactio
A
12 Rajshahi (2) 15m 100m 1/100,000 Unknown embankment) Approx. 3m Clayey silt Unknown Rate holes? n and foot C ※Yes X Public cut
Unnecessary
Full-embankment Public cut? protection

Old ① Bank erosion C Erosion

Almost none
Mymengshi Bramaputr ② Slip caused Erosion countermea
E Others 13 12m 133m 1/100,000 Unknown Full-embankment (reclaimed Sandy silt Clay covering － C None X
gh a by rainfall countermeas sures
land to rear)
River ③ Overflow (△) ures needed needed

7
 ANNEX-1

1.3 Design target Facilities

Local scouring is main factor of the existing embankment failure at the Pilot Project site.
Therefore, the following structures against local scouring and erosion are designed and integrated
into the embankment body:

 Foot protection works to prevent local scouring

 Implementation of slope protection work on outer bank of bend using slope blocks with
projections

1.4 Applicable Standards

Design for the Pilot Project is prepared based on the River Embankment Design Manual in
Bangladesh (Draft), and the following two standards were also referred to.

 Guideline for River Bank Protection 2010, BWDB

 Dynamically Design Method on Revetment, 2007, Japan Institute of Country-ology and
Engineering

Hereafter in this report, the Guideline for River Bank Protection 2010, BWDB is referred to as
the Guideline: the Dynamically Design Method on Revetment, 2007, Japan Institute of
Country-ology and Engineering is referred to as the Dynamically Design Method on Revetment,
and the River Embankment Design Manual in Bangladesh is referred to as the Design Manual.

2. Design Conditions
2.1 Natural Conditions
The pilot site is situated on the outer bank (right-side bank) of a gentle bend in Manu River. The
embankment has no revetment work, so riverbed scouring at times of flooding during the rainy
season triggers bank erosion and collapse, and there is concern over the impact of this on the
elementary school (Primary) and community in the hinterland.
The following sections describe the river and soil quality conditions that provide the basis for
design of the embankment and embankment protection works.

8
 ANNEX-1

2.1.1 River Conditions

(1) Water Level Data at Moulvibazar Water Level Gauging Station
Moulvibazar water level gauging station is located at 10.2km upstream from the pilot project site,
and is the nearest water level gauging station to that, as shown in Figure-3. Daily water level of the
Manu River has been observed visually every day.

Based on the data from the Processing and Flood Forecasting Circle, BWDB, annual maximum and
minimum water levels from 1981 through 2013 at Moulvibazar station are listed in Table-2, and
presented in Figure-5.
Also, Figure 5 shows the hydrograph (daily water level) for the period from January 1, 2004 to
March 31, 2014. As the annual trend, the water level rises from April and remains high until October.
The water level usually starts falling in November and remains low until March, although the start of
decline was delayed in 2011.
Accordingly, it will be necessary to complete construction works on the river side of the site by
the end of March.
Table 2 Annual Maximum / Minimum Water Levels

9
 ANNEX-1

High water period

Low water period

Water level of 2011flood was delayed than usual year

7months 5months 7months 5months 7months 5months 7months 5months 7months 5months 7months 5months 9months 4months 7months 5months 7months 5months

Figure 5 Pilot Site Hydrograph (January 1, 2005~March 31, 2014)

10
 ANNEX-1

Figure 6 Pilot Site Fluctuations in Monthly Water Level (Maximum, Minimum, Mean Water Level)

11
 ANNEX-1

(2) Riverbed Fluctuations at Moulvibazar Water Level Gauging Station

The annual maximum water levels fluctuate between 11 m PWD and 13 m PWD. Unilateral
fluctuation trends cannot be observed from the data and extremely decrease and rise of river level is
not confirmed

14.0

12.0

10.0
Elevation（mPWD）

8.0

6.0

4.0 Max WL
（mPWD）
2.0 Min WL
（mPWD）
0.0
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Figure 7 Annual Maximum and Minimum Water Level
(Moulvibazar Water Level Gauging Station)

Cross sectional profiles at Moulvibazar Station surveyed at 2002 and 2005 are shown in Figure
-8. According to the figures, there is no remarkable river bed fluctuation observed at the
Moulvibazar Station.

As there is no remarkable fluctuation of the annual water level data and the river bed of the river
channel around the Moulvibazar Station, it is judged that the water level data of Moulvibazar
Station are reliable for the probability analysis of the water levels.

(Reference)
According to the information from the staff in charge of the observation, datum elevation of the staff
gauge is set at 12.140 m PWD, which is situated near the bridge and surveyed from the B.M.
maintained by the neighboring BWDB office.

The staff gauge is installed on the pier of the bridge across the Manu River. The staff has observed
the water level visually and recorded three times a day. The record book in which data of several
months is compiled is sent to the Processing and Flood Forecasting Circle in Dhaka.

12
 ANNEX-1

Photographs of Moulvibazar Station are shown in Photo-3 below.

Same level as
left bank1:5.0
Bridge 1:3.0

Left bank Right bank

Figure 8 Cross Section of Rriver at Moulvibazar Water Level Gauging Station

Table 3 Moulvibazar Water Level Gauging Station Photographs

Overview of the observation point BM used by the station

Water level staff gauge (pier of bridge) Gauging Station: Elevation 12.140m
PWD

13
 ANNEX-1

Right bank Gauge reader of station (right side)

(3) Probable Water Level at Moulvibazar Water Level Gauging Station

There is no established standard method for the probability analysis of hydrological data in
Bangladesh. Therefore, the method of probability analysis of hydrological data applied in Japan is
introduced and applied to the probability analysis of water levels in Moulvibazar Station as a
reference.
The probability distribution methods applied in Japan are shown in below Table:
Probability Distribution Method applied in Japan
Log-normal distribution Two param of the log-normal distribution method
(LN)
Three param of the log-normal distribution method
(LN3PM)
Three param of the log-normal distribution quintile
method(LN3Q)
Ishihara-Takase method
Iwai method
Log-normal L distribution method(LNLM)
Log Pearson III type Log Pearson III type distribution method(LogP3)
distribution
Log Pearson III type distribution method (LogP3)
Exponential distribution Exponential distribution (EXP)
Extreme value distribution Gumbel method
SQRT-exponential type method (SQRT-ET)
Generalized extreme value method (GEV)

14
 ANNEX-1

The probable hydrological values are estimated through the following process:

i) Screening of probability distribution methods by goodness-of-fit evaluation:

For the objective hydrological data, the Standard Least-Squares Criterion (SLSC) of each
probability distribution method is examined. The methods with the SLSC value less than 0.04
are screened.
ii) Selection of appropriate probability distribution method by stability evaluation:
Among the screened methods by SLSC examination, the probability values and estimate
errors of the screened methods are computed by use of the Jackknife resampling method that
statistically corrects the bias, in order to evaluate the stability of each method and to finalize
the most appropriate method. The method with minimum Jackknife’s estimate error is
selected for the probability analysis of the objective hydrological data.

The probable water levels at Moulvibazar Station are calculated by the maximum recorded water
level data as shown in Table-2, and the estimation results are as follows:

Goodness-of-fit evaluation of probability distribution method：

Gev, LP3Rs, and LogP3 methods are screened with adaptability.

The sustainability evaluation of the probability distribution method (Finalize the selection of the
method)：
GEV method is finally selected as the probability distribution method for analysis due to suggestion
of minimum bias as the result of Jackknife estimate method.

The identification of the probability water levels：

Jackknife estimate values as the probable water levels at Moulvibazar Station is calculated by the
GEV and are shown in Table – 4.

15
 ANNEX-1

Table 4 Probable Water Levels at Moulvibazar Station

(GEV Method)
Error range
Estimated water level:
Return Period (Jackknife estimation
Jackknife estimate
(year) error)
(m PWD)
(m)
2 12.35 0.15
3 12.64 0.12
5 12.87 0.10
10 13.06 0.08
20 13.17 0.09
30 13.21 0.10
50 13.25 0.12
80 13.27 0.13
100 13.28 0.14
150 13.30 0.14
200 13.31 0.15

(4) Riverbed Gradient of Manu River

According to the pre-existing report (※), which indicates the water surface gradient at the
annual mean flood discharge, the water surface gradient of Manu River is 1/6700, while the
riverbed gradient is given as 1/6800 based on the longitudinal profile.
(※) Source: Final Report (Main Report), Feasibility Study for A Comprehensive Study for Drainage and Flood

Management in the Manu-Dhalai-Kushiyra-Khowai Systems, BWDB (Development Design

Consultants Limited in association with Engineering & Planning Consultants Limited), June

2003

Water level gauging station

Project Site Water surface gradient

1/6700 (FS report water
surface gradient)

Riverbed gradient 1/6800

(FS report longitudinal profile
reading)

10.2km
(Pilot site ~ Water level gauging station distance)

Figure 9 Longitudinal Profile between Pilot Project Site and Water Level Gauging Station

16
 ANNEX-1

2.1.2 Soil Quality

In order to grasp soil conditions in the local area and collect basic data for verification of
embankment stability, boring investigation was implemented at three locations, and soil
investigation was implemented at one location that is a potential borrow pit. Figure 10 shows the
boring locations and Figure 11 shows the borrow pit candidate site.

Bor No.1
Bor No.2
Bor No.3

Pilot Site

Figure 10 Boring Investigation Locations

(1) Results of Boring
The soil quality in the local area is mainly composed of silt: soft layers with an N value of less
than 4 are partially confirmed, and N values at different elevations are similar. The elevations of
each stratum are similar across the site, indicating that the area generally has uniform strata.

Borrow Pit
Latitude 24.548812°Longitude 91.735466°
Pilot Site
1500m

Figure 11 Sampled Location (Candidate Borrow Pit Site)

17
 ANNEX-1

Boring No. 2

Hole level
12.074mPWD

Embankment
body

Ground level insid

embankment 9.1mPWD

Foundation

18
 ANNEX-1

(2) Soil Constants for Design

In the Pilot works, because the locally available banking materials are limited to silt and clayey
soil, it will be difficult to apply the 90% degree of compaction that is prescribed in Japan, where
generally good quality earth is used.
Meanwhile, in BWDB embankment works, 85% compaction is usually adopted, although 90% is
adopted in some donor projects.
Since the objective of the Pilot Project is to provide a model of small-medium river embankment
improvement that is affordable under the BWDB budget, the degree of embankment compaction has
been set at 85%. The following table shows the soil constants used in the design.
As a result of laboratory test, Cohesion value is shown 29.41KN/m2, but 15kN/m2 of embankment
general cohesion value is adopted in pilot project embankment design, because 29.41KN/m2
is too huge value for Construction Company.

Table 5 Soil Constants (Shear Strength, Coefficient of Permeability)

Embankment Undergroud
Wet unit density γt(KN/m3) 17.5 17.4
Saturated unit density
17.9 17.8
γsat(KN/m3)
initial void ratio e0 － 0.9413
compression index Cc － 0.29
Permeability K(cm/s) 1.0E-06 6.52E-06
Internal friction angle φ(°) 0 0
Cohesion C(KN/m2) 15.0 55.89

3. Pilot Project Design

3.1 Embankment Design
3.1.1 Basic Specifications
(1) Design Embankment Elevation
Generally, design elevation of embankment crest is determined based on the design high water
level and the required freeboard for the embankment at the site considering the design flood
frequency.

In Japan, the river planning is developed on condition that embankments are constructed at both
sides in general. Therefore the design high water level of the river is determined based on the
estimated water level at the design discharge predicted from the design rainfall at the design flood
frequency. The design elevation of embankment crest is determined by adding a certain freeboard to

19
 ANNEX-1

design high water level mentioned above.

In case of the rivers in Bangladesh, it is difficult to determine the design high water level based on
the results of runoff analysis, from the standpoints of following two aspects:

a. Upstream basins of most rivers in Bangladesh are located in India. Therefore, it is

difficult to collect hydraulic and hydrological data in the upstream basins. In addition, it is
also difficult to prepare the flood mitigation plan taken into consideration the development
condition in the upstream basin.
b. Lengths of the rivers in Bangladesh are enormous, and many embankment failures occur
due to violent bank erosion. As it is difficult to protect houses and properties from flood by
constructing embankment along both sides of the rivers, villages and farm lands are
protected by ring dyke in many cases.

Two (2) methods to determine the design high water level are described in the DSM separately in
Bangladesh, The method of case A is used in case that the embankments are constructed on both side
of river and flood water is confined within the river. The method of case B is used in case that the
embankment is constructed on one side of river. The two cases are as follows:

Case A; Design high water level is estimated to be able to accommodate design discharge.
Case B; Design high water level are computed by frequency analysis of available annual
maximum water level data collected at a water level gauging station near a planning site.

The planning of the Manu River corresponds to the case B as practiced for most rivers in Bangladesh.
The design high water level is estimated based on probable water level estimated from the previous
water level data of the neighboring water level gauging station.

(2) Basic Consideration for the Manu River

Embankment is constructed as continuous facilities along the stream direction of the river in order to
protect the lives and property. Therefore crest elevation of embankments must be connected
smoothly to the elevations of upstream and downstream embankments. In the case that embankments
are constructed on both sides of river, artificial overflow could occur if the crest elevations of
embankments on both sides are different as well.

Embankment reconstructed in the Pilot Project (“the Pilot embankment”) will be embedded in the
short extent of existing embankment. The existing embankment of Manu River has been constructed

20
 ANNEX-1

since 1975. The design crest elevation of the embankment had been determined in each construction
works in accordance with the DSM. However, it is difficult to clarify the design high water level
and the design elevation of embankment crest of the Manu River, because there are not enough
reports and drawings for the previous construction works.

In consideration of the above, it is considered reasonable and proper for determination of the crest
elevation of the Pilot embankment as follows:

a. The crest elevation of the Pilot embankment is determined in consideration of the crest
elevations of both of upstream and downstream embankments and that of embankment on
opposite side.
b. Proposed design crest elevation is verified and evaluated with the probable high water
level and appropriate free board in the Manu River.

21
 ANNEX-1

Based on the survey results of the Project, the longitudinal profile of the Manu River around the
Pilot Project Site is shown in Table-6.
The crest elevations of existing embankments on both upstream and downstream sides are around
13.00 m PWD. The design crest elevation of the Pilot embankment is proposed to set at 13.00 m
PWD.
Table 6 Longitudinal Profile of River at the Pilot Project Site

m PWD
Survey Deepest Design crest
Crest Level Crest Level Ground Level
section No. Distance(m) River Bed Level Pilot
Right Bank Left Bank Country side
Level Project
2 50 2.610 11.102 11.230 8.550
3 100 3.570 12.007 12.484 10.010
4 150 3.850 13.774 11.703 11.750
5 200 3.190 12.809 12.888 9.460
6 250 4.700 12.456 12.639 11.900
7 300 4.260 12.788 12.733 10.118
8 350 2.820 12.985 12.200 11.028 13.000
9 400 2.500 12.319 12.750 9.585 13.000
10 450 2.990 11.530 12.750 9.490 13.000
11 454 2.881 11.395 12.750 9.471 13.000
12 500 2.590 12.120 12.670 10.040 13.000
13 521 2.348 11.656 11.500 9.727 13.000
14 535 2.420 11.944 12.000 9.069 13.000
15 550 3.510 12.240 12.560 9.960 13.000
16 586 1.679 12.224 12.000 8.984 13.000
17 600 3.450 12.360 11.750 9.890 13.000
18 650 3.610 12.825 11.930 9.365 12.830
19 700 3.370 12.475 11.427 9.870
20 750 3.300 12.571 11.210 9.990
21 800 3.560 12.934 11.890 10.300
22 850 3.930 13.408 11.750 10.480
23 900 3.240 13.315 11.940 10.676
24 950 3.480 13.305 11.940 10.290
25 1000 2.720 12.850 11.945 9.950
26 1050 3.330 12.845 11.990 9.830
27 1100 3.310 13.075 12.040 10.350
28 1150 2.970 13.214 12.050 9.988

※Colored part shows the reconstruction section of the Pilot Project (around 265 m).
※ Distances in the table indicate the distance from the furthest downstream point (quantity
surveying).

22
 ANNEX-1

Elevation
（m PWD）
16

Pilot Project Section (around 210m)

14

12

10

Planned Design Crest Elevation (13.0m PWD)

6

2 Deepest River Bed Level Crest Level Crest Level

Right Bank Left Bank
Design crest Level Pilot Project Ground Level Country side

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050
distance (m)
Figure 12 Longitudinal Profile around Pilot Project Site

(3) Evaluation of Design Elevation of Pilot Embankment

Due to lack of necessary data of the river cross sectional profiles, it is not able to estimate the
equivalent water levels at the project site by using the non-uniform flow calculation. Therefore, the
probable water levels at Moulvibazar Station is converted into the water level at the pilot project site,
by use of the water surface gradient between the water level station and the pilot project site,
described in the previous F/S Report as shown in below Figure:

Water level observation

Project Site
Water surface gradient 1/6700
at annual mean flood discharge)

Bed gradient 1/6800

10.2km

Figure 13 Longitudinal Profile between the Pilot Project Site and Moulvibazar Station
(Source: Final Report (Main Report), Feasibility Study for A Comprehensive Study for Drainage and Flood Management in the

23
 ANNEX-1

Manu-Dhalai-Kushiyra-Khowai Systems, BWDB (Development Design Consultants Limited in association with Engineering &

Planning Consultants Limited), June 2003

As presented in Figure-13, water surface gradient in the lower reaches of the Manu River is
1/6,666(≒ 1/6,700) at the annual mean flood discharge. The water level gap between the
Moulvibazar Station and the Pilot Project site becomes 1.52m, that is calculated from the 10.2km
distance and 1/6,700 water surface gradient. The probable water level at the pilot project site can be
estimated by deducting 1.52 m from those at Moulvibazar Station.
Required crest elevation of the embankment at each probable water level is estimated by adding the
freeboard for the embankment. Width of the channel at the pilot project site is less than about 300
m and there is no remarkable ‘wind set-up’ due to the meandering nature of the river. Therefore, the
freeboard of the pilot of 0.9m is applied as stipulated in the SDM.
Estimation results are shown in Table-7 below:
Table 7 Probable Water Levels and Required Crest Elevation
of Pilot Embankment
Possible water level Probable Water Required
Return at Station Level at Pilot Embankment Crest
Period (m PWD) Project Site Elevation
(year) (m PWD) (m PWD)
(A) (B) = (A) – 1.52m (C) = (B) + 0.9m
2 12.35 10.83 11.73
3 12.64 11.12 12.02
5 12.87 11.35 12.25
10 13.06 11.54 12.49
20 13.17 11.65 12.55
30 13.21 11.69 12.59
50 13.25 11.73 12.63
80 13.27 11.75 12.65
100 13.28 11.76 12.66
150 13.30 11.78 12.68
200 13.31 11.79 12.69
Thus proposed crest elevation of the embankment is judged to be sufficient for expected flood.

24
 ANNEX-1

(3) Evaluation of Embankment Elevation

According to these results, the proposed crest elevation (13.0 m PWD) of the pilot
embankment is judged to be sufficient for expected flood.

(4) Design Low Water Level

The design low water level is used for calculating the mean water depth necessary for reviewing
of embankment stability with respect to circular slip.
According to the Guidelines, design low water level is defined as follows. Since the target area is
a non-tidal area, as a result of calculating the upper quartile of the Low Water Level (minimum daily
water level between December~March over 10 years), this is 6.01 m PWD at Moulvibazar Water
Level Gauging Station (SW202).

Since the water level difference of the Pilot site and said water level gauging station is 1.52 m, the
design low water level at the Pilot site is 6.01 m PWD - 1.52 m PWD = 4.49 m PWD.

25
 ANNEX-1

Table 8 LWL between December ~ March (mPWD)

Year Min LWL(mPWD)
1981 6.19
1982 6.08
1983 5.77
1984 5.51
1985 5.60
1986 5.64
1987 5.50
1988 5.45
1989 5.70
1990 5.64
1991 5.74
1992 5.88
1993 5.82
1994 5.65 Upper quartile
1995 5.59
1996 5.58 6.01mPWD
1997 5.56
1998 5.66
1999 5.64
2000 5.83
2001 5.80
2002 6.21
2003 6.17
2004 6.22
2005 6.17
2006 6.04
2007 6.50
2008 5.95
2009 5.89
2010 5.76
2011 5.86
2012 5.95
2013 6.01
2014 5.99

(5) Water Level during the Construction Period

According to the Cofferdam Installation Standard (Draft) (June 2010) of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport, the following is stipulated regarding water level during the works
period.
“The maximum water level during the works period over the past five years shall be adopted.
However, if the said water level is deemed to be an abnormal flood over the past five years, the
second highest water level over the past 10 years may be adopted.”
Table 9 shows the top water level at the pilot site during the river works period (November ~
March) over the past five years (2009~2014) and the second highest water level over the past 10
years (2004~2014).
In the pilot site works, it is planned to drop gunny bags and foot protection blocks into the river
from a barge in November and December, and to install the revetment foundation concrete on the
mound built from gunny bags in January and February.
Therefore, in order to place the foundation concrete in January and February, the level of the

26
 ANNEX-1

bottom edge of the foundation concrete will need to be above the river water level.
Figure 5 shows the year-round trend of water level at the pilot site. The water level drops from
November, however, in 2012, the drop in water level was delayed and the level was still high in
January.
Accordingly, looking at the water level in January and February according to Table 9, omitting the
highest water level for January 2012, the top water level over the past five years is 5.35, while the
top two levels over the past 10 years are 5.31 and 5.35. Therefore, the standard water level during
construction has been set at 5.35 m PWD ≒ 5.4 m PWD.

Table 9 Maximum Water Level at the Pilot Site over the Past 5 Years (2009~2014) and 10 Years
(2004~2014)
Top level (mPWD) in 2nd level (mPWD) in
past 5 years past 10 years
November 6.79/ 2009 7.13/ 2008
December 6.45/ 2011 5.82/ 2010
January 6.16/ 2012 5.31/ 2014
February 5.35/ 2012 5.35/ 2012
March 6.22/ 2010 6.88/ 2007

(6) Representative Flow Velocity

The representative flow velocity Vo that is used in design of embankment and embankment
protective works is sought by the following formula. The mean flow velocity Vm, which is obtained
from Manning’s formula of average flow velocity, is multiplied by a correction coefficient
α that takes the influence of riverbed scouring on bends into account.

Representative flow velocity Vo

Vo= α・Vm (m/s)
Vm: Mean flow velocity (m/s)
α: Correction coefficient
(Coefficient that takes the influence of riverbed scouring on bends into account)

∆Z B
Formula for correction coefficient α: α＝1＋ + (Source: Design Manual, p32)
2Hd 2r
⊿Z: Scouring depth (m)
Hd: Design depth of water (m)

27
 ANNEX-1

B: Width of low water channel (m)

r: Radius of curvature of bend (m)

1) Calculation of mean flow velocity Vm

Since there is no flow observation station close to the site and part of the catchment basin of Manu
River is located in India, it is difficult to calculate the flow rate, flood water level and flow velocity
in runoff analysis, etc. Therefore, the following Manning’s formula of average flow velocity was
used for calculating the representative flow velocity Vo needed for design.

■ Manning’s formula of average flow velocity

1 2 1
V= ×R 3 ×I 2
n
V: Flow velocity (m/s)
n: Coefficient of roughness 0.028
R: Hydraulic radius (m) = Cross-sectional area of river/Wetted perimeter
I: Riverbed gradient 1/6800
Source: F/S for a comprehensive study for drainage and flood management in the
Manu-Dhalai-Kushiyra-Khowai systems by BWDB, June 2003

Table 10 Results of Uniform Flow Calculation

Cross section No. No.7 No．8 No.9 No.10 No.12 No.15 No.17
n：Coefficient of roughness 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028
S：Cross-sectional area of river (m2) 642.79 690.19 656.28 716.38 711.5 686.51 740.48
P：Wetted perimeter (m) 141.73 139.77 138.97 144.08 147.58 153.04 159.07
I：Riverbed gradient 0.000147 0.000147 0.000147 0.000147 0.000147 0.000147 0.000147
R： Hydraulic radius 4.5 4.9 4.7 5.0 4.8 4.5 4.7
Vm： Mean flow velocity (m/s) 1.19 1.26 1.22 1.26 1.24 1.18 1.21
Q：Discharge(m3/s) 762.6 866.6 799.9 903.7 879.2 808.6 893.9
※Cross-sectional area of river and wetted perimeter were obtained using CAD measurement, while the 11.65m described later was
used for the HWL.
※Coefficient of roughness was set as 0.028 (case of Small channel on plain, with no grass according to Table 7 in the River and
Erosion Control Standard).
※Concerning measurement point Nos.11.13.14.16, because the left bank isn’t measured in the survey of damage conditions due to
the purpose of examining sliding on the right bank, it isn’t possible to measure the cross-sectional area of river or conduct other
uniform flow calculation.

Based on the results of Table 10, the highest flow velocity of Vm=1.26m/s over the design section
shall be the mean flow velocity Vm.
(Cross section No. 8, 10)

28
 ANNEX-1

Table 11 Revised Ministry of Construction River and Erosion Control Standard (draft)
1997, Survey Section p132
River or channel conditions Scope of Manning’s n

Concrete artificial channel 0.014～0.020

Spiral half-pipe channel 0.021～0.030

Artificial channel, improved

Channel with stone masonry on both banks 0.025 (mean value)
(mud bed) 0.035～0.05
Bedrock excavation 0.025～0.04
river

Bedrock forming 0.016～0.022

Clay riverbed with flow velocity not enough 0.020 (mean value)
to cause scouring 0.025～0.033
Sandy loam, clayey soil loam
Drag line dredging, little weeds
Small channel on plain, with no grass 0.025～0.033
Small channel on plain, with grass and 0.030～0.040
shrubs 0.040～0.055
Small channel on plain, with lots of grass and 0.030～0.050
Natural river

gravel bed 0.040 or higher

Mountain channel, with gravel and boulders 0.018～0.035
Mountain channel, with boulders and large 0.025～0.040
boulders
Large channel, with sandy bed and little
meandering
Large channel, with gravel bed

2) Setting of the coefficient of correction α

Since the site is situated on the outside of a bend in Manu River, the coefficient of correction α of
the river bend is examined.
The coefficient of correction α is set according to the Design Manual, p32.
B: Low water channel 90 m (plan drawing measurement)
r: Radius of curvature 550 m (plan drawing measurement)

Figure 14 Pilot Site Low Water Channel and Radius of Curvature

29
 ANNEX-1

∆Z B
Formula for correction coefficient α: α＝１＋ + (Source: Design Manual, p32)
2Hd 2r
⊿Z: Scouring depth (m)
Hd: Design depth of water (m)
B: Width of low water channel (m)
r: Radius of curvature of bend (m)

① Setting of the Scouring depth⊿Z(Ds)

In the Guidelines, the formula for calculating the scouring depth is given as follows.

R = 0.47(Q / f )1 3 ・・・（Source: Guidelines p134）

Ds = XR − h

Ds ：(m) Scour depth design discharge

Q ：(m3/s) Design discharge
h ：(m) Depth of flow, may be calculated as (HFL-LWL)
f ：(-) Lacey’s silt factor=1.76(d50)1/2
d50 ：(mm) Median diameter of sediment particle
X ：(-) Multiplying factor for design scour depth（below table)

Table 12 Multiplying Factors for Maximum Scour Depth by Lace’y approach

Nature of location Factor(X)
Straight reach of channel 1.25
Moderate bend 1.50
Severe bend 1.75
Right angle abrupt turn 2.00
Noses of piers 2.00
Alongside cliffs and walls 2.25
Noses of guide banks 2.75

Below figure shows the level of deepest river bed of design range. Cross section No.16 is the
deepest point and extremely low level, because after local scoring occurs, slips failure occurs due to
local scoring. Therefore, Cross section No.16 exclude from scoring examination.
Table 12 shows multiplying factors each nature of location. This site is located moderate bend in the
right bank. Therefore, multiplying factors has been set at 1.50.
Result of calculation shows next page. Level of scoring depth is 4.06mPWD.

30
 ANNEX-1

On the other hand present deepest river bed is about 2.5mPWD, In the future,
Riverbed will fall to 2.5m.Therefor; level of scoring has set 1.63m (Refer to Figure16)

Present river bed 2.5mPWD

Cross section No.16 1.68mPWD

Figure 15 Elevation of deepest river bed（right side）

HWL11.65mPWD

h=7.16m
XR=7.59m

LWL4.49mPWD
4.13mPWD(present river bed) DS=7.59－7.16=0.43m
4.06mPWD（Result of calculated elevation of river bed)
Deepest scour depths=4.13-2.5=1.63m

Deepest River bed 2.5mPWD

figure16 Result of calculation for scoring depth（standard place）

31
 ANNEX-1

②Setting of design water depth Hd

Hd: Design water depth 9.15m (H.W.L.11.65mPWD-mean riverbed elevation 2.50 mPWD)

② Calculation of coefficient of correction α

α=1＋1.63/(2*8.42)＋90/(2*550)
=1.18<1.6 (Dynamically Design Method on Revetment: upper limit value of α 1.6 on valley
bottom plain, natural embankment, delta terrain)

3) Calculation of representative flow velocity

Vo: Representative Flow Velocity = α×Vm=1.18×1.26 = 1.49≒1.50m/s

(7) Crest Width

Crest width is set at 4.30 m according to the Design Manual.

(8) Side Slope

Since stability is secured with 20% gradient according to the Design Manual, the side slope
gradient is set at 20%.

(9) Elevation of Major bed of river

Since the current embankment has major bed and the direct level of embankment exceeds 10 m in
parts, it is desirable to adopt compound cross section judging from the overall stability of
embankment. In setting the elevation of major bed, the current elevation was organized as shown in
Figure 17. Without reducing the current elevation of set-back too much, and upon taking the level of
connection to the major bed at the edge into account, the design elevation of major bed was set at 9.1
m (PWD).

32
 ANNEX-1

16

14
Embankment design elevation 13.0 mPWD
12

10
Set-back 9.1mPWD
mPWD
8 height of plan major bank heght of present major bed
m(PWD) m(PWD)

6
deepest river bed height of prensent right bank m(PWD)
4 m(PWD)

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050

Distance m
Figure 17 Pilot Site Longitudinal Profile

(10) Alignment of Embankment

As the pilot embankment is constructed as a part of existing embankment in a short time, alignment
of the pilot embankment is designed in a manner fitted to that of existing embankment basically. In
addition, the alignment of the pilot embankment is designed based on the following considerations:

a. There are graves on the set back at the upstream bend of the embankment. The extent of
pilot embankment is designed excluding these graves.
b. There is an elementary school beside the pilot embankment. The alignment of pilot
embankment must be designed without relocation of this school.
c. There is a house beside the pilot embankment. However this will move voluntarily and
does not affect the alignment of pilot embankment.

The draft alignment of pilot embankment is shown in Figure-18.

33
 ANNEX-1

Figure 18 Pilot Project Layout

34
 ANNEX-1

3.1.2 Verification of Embankment Body Stability

Stability of the embankment is verified from the viewpoint of the following three items:

 Seepage analysis
 Circular slip
 Consolidation settlement

(1) Design Representative Cross Section

The design representative cross section is examined at measurement point No.16 where the
difference between the crest elevation and front riverbed elevation is most highest (where stability is
most at risk), in the design section. The following table shows the river side level difference and
country side level difference in each cross section.

Table 13 Relationship between Crest Level and Frontal Riverbed Elevation

Measurement River side level Country side

point No. difference (m) level difference
(m)
7 5.53 2.67
8 8.74 1.93
9 10.42 3.41
10 10.01 3.9
11 10.12 3.9
12 9.85 3.23
13 10.57 3.04
14 10.43 3.9
15 8.97 3.31
16 10.92 4.12
17 9.17 3.54
difference
Country side level
difference
River side
level

Figure 19 Cross Section of Measurement Point No.16

35
 ANNEX-1

(2) Seepage Analysis

The Casagrande method is used to examine the seepage line. The following sections
describe the concept and results of seepage line examination by the Casagrande
method.
As a result, the seepage line appears in the embankment slope, however, since it is planned to use
clay with very low permeability as the embankment material, there should be no seepage failure.
Therefore, no seepage countermeasures will be implemented.

180°−α
∆a= (a+∆a) 400°

When a is 30°:
b′ b′ H
a= cosα
− �(cosα) 2 − (sinα ) 2

When a is30°~ 60°:

a= √𝑏 2 + 𝐻2 − √𝑏2 − 𝐻2 𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝛼

Q = ｋ・S (k: coefficient of permeability )

S = √𝑏2 + 𝐻2 ー𝑏

Figure 20 Concept Diagram of Casagrande

36
 ANNEX-1

Figure 21 Seepage Flow Line (Design Cross Section No. 16)

Where S is the distance of the point(x,y) from the directrix, called focal distance.

At entry, the phreatic line is started from the point B in such a way that it becomes at right angles to
the u/s face of the embankment. A reverse curvature is, given as shown in above figure. At exit, the
point K at which the phreatic line intersects the d/s face can be easily obtained by using

37
 ANNEX-1

(3) Examination of Circular Slip

The Bishop method using the set soil constants is used to examine circular slip. As indicated in the
following table, the results of examination show that the safety factor is secured and there is no issue
with safety in the design cross section.

𝑅𝑅({𝑐.𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙+�1+𝐾𝐾)𝑊 ′ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡}/𝑚𝑚�
𝐹𝑠 ＝
𝛴｛(1+𝐾𝐾)𝑊・𝑥＋𝐾ℎ・𝑊・𝑦＋𝑃・𝑎｝
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝜑′ ・𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝛼 ＝cosα+
𝐹𝐹

Fs: Safety factor

C: Adhesive force of soil (kN/m2)
φ: Internal angle of friction of soil (° )
l: Length of slice circle (m)
W’: Effective weight of slice (KN/m)
W: Weight of slice (kN/m)
Kh: Design horizontal seismic coefficient (not considered in this case)
Kv: Design vertical seismic coefficient (not considered in this case)
R: Radius of circle (m)
α: Angle of inclination of the slice base (°)
x: Horizontal distance between the slice center of gravity and center of circle (m)
y: Vertical distance between the slice center of gravity and center of slip circle (m)
P: Water pressure acting on earth clump inside the slip circle (KN/m)
α: Vertical distance of horizontal line passing through the pressure point and
center of the slip circle (m)
Table 14 Calculation Cases and Results
Safety factor
Calculation case Frontal water level
River side Country side
H.W.L. 11.65mPWD 2.90>1.50 OK 2.04>1.50 OK
After Flood 9.10mPWD 2.20>1.50 OK －
L.W.L. 4.49mPWD 2.22>1.20 OK －

38
 ANNEX-1

Figure 22 Calculation Case 1: Frontal water level at H.W.L. 11.65mPWD

39
 ANNEX-1

Figure 23 Calculation Case 2: Frontal water level at 9.1mPWD

40
 ANNEX-1

Figure 24 Calculation Case 3: Frontal water level at D.L.W.L. 4.49mPWD

41
 ANNEX-1

(4) Examination of Consolidation Settlement

In the Design Manual, the Terzaghi formula is used to examine consolidation subsidence. In
conducting examination, the set soil constants are used. As a result, since subsidence of 39 cm is
confirmed, extra banking of 39cm ≒ 40.0cm will be added to compensate.

𝐶𝑐 ・𝐻 𝑃0 +∆𝑃
S= log10
1+𝑒0 𝑃0

S: Amount of subsidence of single layer

Cc: Consolidation index
H: Compaction layer thickness
e𝑜 : Initial void ratio
Po: Effective overburden stress before embankment construction
⊿P: Increase in overburden stress after embankment construction

q=17.5kN/m2*3.9m
17.5KN/m3
=68.25kN/m2

▽5.274mPWD

Figure 25 Model Diagram of Consolidation Calculation

P0 = 17.4kN / m 3 * 3.826m + (17.4 − 9.81) kN / m 3 * 2.674

= 86.87 kN / m 2

42
 ANNEX-1

0.37

Figure 26 Relationship between Increased Stress and Depth (Osterberg,1957)

a 7.8m
= = 1.2
z 6.5m
b 2.15m
= = 0.33
z 6.5m
According to the Osterberg figure, Iz=0.37

Concerning Iz at depth of 6.5 m, since load is considered on the left and right sides of the

embankment, Total Iz = 0.37*2=0.74.

∆Ρ = Ι z × g = 0.74 × 68.25 KN / m 2 = 50.51KN / m 2

43
 ANNEX-1

Cc H  P0 + ∆P 
S = log
 

1 + eo  P0 

S: Amount of subsidence of single layer

Cc: Consolidation index = 0.29 (result of indoor testing)
H: Compaction layer thickness = 13m
e𝑜 : Initial void ratio = 0.9413 (result of indoor testing)
Po: Effective overburden stress before embankment construction
＝86.87KN/m2
⊿P: Increase in overburden stress after embankment construction
＝49.64KN/m2

0.29 *13  86.87 + 50.51 

S= log 
1 + 0.9413  86.87 

= 1.94 * 0.199

= 0.39m
Therefore, the extra banking shall be 0.39m = 0.4m.

44
 ANNEX-1

3.2 Revetment for Embankment Slope

3.2.1 Revetment for Embankment Slope
In the pilot design, facing blocks are planned for embankment protection, and foot protection
work is planned for scouring prevention. The respective comparison sheets are shown on the
following pages.

(1) Slope Block Work

As a result of the comparative examination, it was decided to adopt projected CC blocks as the
slope protection work. The comparison sheet is shown on the following page. On the outer bank of a
bend in a meandering river, there is a tendency for flow velocity to accelerate in the longitudinal
direction and local scouring to be caused by secondary flows in the transverse direction (eddies at
right angle to the river flow). Therefore, projected CC blocks are planned in order to reduce the flow
velocity and limit occurrence of secondary flows.

(2) Foot Protection Work

As a result of the comparative examination, it was decided to adopt the existing CC blocks used in
BWDB works for foot protection. The comparison sheet is shown on the following page.
In Japan, various types of foot protection blocks are used in order to prevent scouring, however,
because the flow velocity of Manu River is no higher
than 2m/s and the budget is limited, the pre-existing
local method of randomly placed CC blocks is planned.

(3) Front back Fill Materials

The front of the current embankment at this site is
largely collapsed. In the Pilot Project, as a means of
improving the work method, it is necessary to perform
compaction on each layer. For this reason, the layer underneath the compaction work must comprise
firm ground or materials.
In Japan, it is normal for dry work to be carried out with the aid of coffering, however, in
Bangladesh, since coffering is expensive and difficult to implement in deep water, geo-bags or
gunny bags filled with sediment are usually deposited from barges.
However, due to the poor durability of gunny bags, because there is concern that the bags will
break and allow the sand to escape, as a result of discussion with the BWDB design department,
it has been decided to fill bags with a cement-sand mixture.
In Bangladesh, since gunny bags (cement-sand) have a proven record of use not as the
backfill material as planned in the Project but rather as slope protection work following disasters,

45
 ANNEX-1

it is thought there will be no problem in using them as frontal filling materials. Moreover, even
if the gunny bags become deteriorated over time, the contents will not spill out and it will still
be possible to implement sure compaction work.

46
 ANNEX-1

Table 15 Slope Revetment Work Comparison Sheet

Natural stones (concrete packing) Natural stones (dry masonry) Gabion matting CC blocks Projected CC blocks
Image view

Feature Revetment is built by concrete-packed Revetment is built by dry masonry placement Revetment is built by packing natural stones This is the CC block method used by BWDB Improved CC blocks with projections are used in
s placement of natural stones extracted from of natural stones extracted from the Silett into a wire cage. in conventional river works. Because the the conventional BWDB approach. It is
the Silett district. Since concrete is packed district. Compared to the option on the left, surface is smooth, resistance is weak during anticipated that such projected blocks can slow
around the stones, smaller diam stones than stone diam need to be larger. flooding. the flow velocity and limit the occurrence of
in the case of dry masonry can be used. secondary flows.
Econo Not feasible because natural stones are not Not feasible because natural stones are not Not feasible because natural stones are not 11,160Tk/m3 (400*400*200) 11,220Tk/m3 (400*400*200 with projection)
my readily available. readily available. readily available.
Ease of There is no problem over the scope in which There is no problem over the scope in which There is no problem over the scope in which Based on past performance, there is no The projection is simple and blocks can be made
executi materials can be transported by manual labor. materials can be transported by manual labor. materials can be transported by manual labor. problem. by adding projected formwork.
on
Applica Large quantities of natural stones are not Large quantities of natural stones are not Large quantities of natural stones are not Based on past performance, there is no Projected blocks are used in other countries too
bility readily available. readily available. readily available. problem. without any problems.

Evaluat
× × × △ 〇
ion
Table 16 Foot Protection Work Comparison Sheet
Natural stones Bag-filled foot protection Fascine mattress CC blocks Geo-bags/Gunny bags
Image view

Features Revetment is built by concrete-packed placement Bags filled with natural stones are used as In this traditional Japanese method, a box This is the CC block method used by Revetment is built using the bags that are
of natural stones extracted from the Sylhet district. the foot protection work. This method is frame is made with sticks, and this is filled BWDB in conventional river works. CC used by BWDB in conventional river
Through packing concrete between the stones, the adopted in Japan. with stones. blocks of differing specifications are works.
diam of the stones can be smaller than in the case randomly piled.
of dry masonry.
Economy Not feasible because natural stones are not readily Not feasible because natural stones are not Not feasible because natural stones are not 1,1000Tk/m3 (300*300*300) 106Tk/m3(50kg)
available. readily available. readily available. 10,800Tk/m3 (400*400*400)
Ease of There is no problem over the scope in which There is no problem over the scope in which There is no problem over the scope in which Based on past performance, there is no Based on past performance, there is no
executio materials can be transported by manual labor. materials can be transported by manual materials can be transported by manual problem. problem.
n labor. labor.
Applicab Large quantities of natural stones are not readily Large quantities of natural stones are not Large quantities of natural stones are not Based on past performance, there is no There is concern over deterioration over
ility available. readily available. readily available. The locally available problem. time caused by ultraviolet rays and running
eucalyptus timber is hardwood and not water abrasion. There is no problem if bags
suitable for this work. are used as backfill materials and are not
affected by ultraviolet rays and running
water abrasion.
Evaluatio
× × × 〇 △
n
47
 ANNEX-1

3.2.2 Design of Revetment for Embankment Slope

(1) Design of Slope Block Work
Since the Guideline, which is the standard for revetments in Bangladesh, does not deal with the
concepts of drag coefficient and up lift coefficient, examination of the facing blocks for use in slope
protection is conducted based on the “Sliding-Unit” model according to the Design Manual. The
basic formula for verifying stability regarding fluid force is shown below.

μ (Ww・cos θ-L) ≧((Ww・sin θ) 2+D2) 1/2

L= ρw/2・CL・Aｂ・Vd2 (kgf)【N】
D= ρw /2・CD・AD・Vd2 (kgf)【N】

This shows the condition of a block

placed on the right bank

Force viewed from the direction of ① Force viewed from the direction of ②

←Flow
←Flow

Slope maximum in cline direction

μ : Coefficient of friction μ=0.65 (coefficient of friction between soil and suction

prevention material)
Ww : Weight of blocks in water (kg)
θ : Slope gradient
ρb : Density of blocks 2250(kg/m3)
ρw : Density of water ρw=980 (kg/m3)
g : Acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s2)
Ab : Projected area of blocks when viewed from above (m2)
AD : Projected area of blocks pertaining to drag (m2)
tb : Projected area of blocks pertaining to drag (m)
CL : Uplift coefficient of blocks
CD : Uplift coefficient of blocks
Vd : Design flow velocity at level tb (m/s)

48
 ANNEX-1

𝑡𝑡
8.5+5.75𝑙𝑙𝑙10� �+2
Vd＝ 𝑘𝑘
𝐻𝐻 ・Vo
6.0+5.75log10( )
𝑘𝑘

Hd: Design depth of water

ks: Equivalent roughness 0.08
Vo: Design flow velocity Vo＝αVm
Vm: Mean flow velocity (calculated from Manning’s formula of
average flow velocity)
Vm＝1/n・Hd2/3・Ie1/2
n: Manning’s coefficient of roughness

Flow→
Top view

Flow→ Side view

Front view

Figure 27 Source: Design Manual, pp31～33

49
 ANNEX-1

1) Setting of drag coefficient and uplift coefficient

Since 400×400×200 CC blocks are used as embankment protection works on the upstream and
downstream of Manu River, this shape with an added projection has been set for the Pilot Project.
Stability verification is conducted and the specifications are determined assuming this shape.

Table 17 Specifications of CC Block Projection

Unit

Projected type400×400×200（projection 50）

100 200 100
100 50
200 400
200

100
400
400

Drag coefficient CD 0.7 (Refer to Design Manual, p32)

Lift coefficient CL 0.15 (Refer to Design Manual,p32)

Ks: Equivalent roughness 0.08 (Refer to Design Manual,p32)

Ab: Projected area of blocks 0.4×0.4=0.16

when viewed from above

AD: Projected area pertaining 0.4×0.2＋0.05×0.2=0.09

to drag

Weight (0.4×0.4×0.2＋0.2×0.2×0.05) ×2.25=76.5kg

Block A; drag coefficient

Block B; drag coefficient

Block B; uplift coefficient

Block A; uplift coefficient

Re; Reinolds Number

Figure 28 Coefficients by Type of Unit Block (Source: Design Manual, p34)

50
 ANNEX-1

Flow Flow
Top view

Flow Flow
Side view

Block A Block B
Figure 29 Block Standard Drawings (Source: Design Manual, p34)

2) Design conditions
Design flow velocity: 1.50m/s
H.W.L.: 11.65mPWD
Slope gradient: 1:2.0
Design cross section: Measurement point No.16
Deepest riverbed elevation: 1.68mPWD
Design water depth: H.W.L.11.65mPWD - Deepest riverbed elevation 1.68mPWD = 9.97m

Figure 30 Design cross section: Measurement point No.16

3) Results of stability verification

As a result, the required weight is calculated as 23.76 kg. The calculation sheet is shown in the
annex.
In other parts of Manu River, apart from the Project, BWDB has designed and placed blocks with
dimensions of 400×400×200 (thickness), and since there are no reports of such blocks being

51
 ANNEX-1

damaged, blocks of similar size (400×400×200, with projections) that weigh 76.5kg and can be
placed manually will be adopted.

4) Final specifications of Projected CC blocks

Side view Top view

Figure 31 CC Block with Projection in the Pilot Project

(2) Design of Foot Protection Work

In examining the foot protection blocks, the Bangladesh Guidelines for River Bank Protection
(2010 BWDB), p142 will be followed.

0.035 ∗ u 2 φsc Kτ K h
Dn ≥ ∗ （Source: Guideline p142）
D m ∗ 2 g K s ∗ψ cr

Where,
Dn (m) Equivalent diameter (cover layer)
∆m (-) (ρs- ρw)/ ρw = relative density of submerged material
ρs (kg/m³) Ddensity of protection material
ρw (kg/m³) Density of water
ū (m/s) Depth averaged mean flow velocity
g (m/s²) Acceleration due to gravity
φsc (-) Stability factor for current

Kτ (-) Turbulence factor

Kh (-) Depth factor, dependent on the assumed velocity profile and water

52
 ANNEX-1

depth (h) to equivalent roughness level ratio

Ks (-) Slope parameter
Ψcr (-) Critical shield's parameter
α (°) Slope angle of bank or structure
θ (°) Angle of repose considering the material specific internal friction

As a result of the above calculation, the required minimum diameter Dn of CC blocks is 79 mm

and required equivalent weight is 1 kg.

53
 ANNEX-1

■ Economic Comparison of Block Types

As a result of comparing economy of various CC blocks ranging from the smallest size of
200×200×200 to the 400×400×400 class that can be manually dumped into the river from a barge,
the 400×400×400 type was found to be the most cost effective.
As a result of holding discussions with the BWDB design department, since a random mixture of
two types of CC blocks, i.e. 300×300×300 (62.1kg) and 400×400×400 (147.2kg), has so far been
used (in anticipation of a good biting effect) in works on Manu River (adopting 400×400×400 blocks
and 300×300×300 blocks in the ratio of 60% to 40%) without failure, a similar mix of the
300×300×300 and 400×400×400 sizes is planned here too.

Table 18 Economic Comparison Sheet of CC Blocks (per tK/100m3)

CC Block Standard 200*200*200 250*250*250 300*300*300 400*400*400
Blocks/100m3 12,500 6,410 3,704 1,563
Manufacturing unit cost
(including materials) 94.99 127.03 205.88 477.12
(tK/unit)
Installation (tK/unit) 1602 1602 1602 1602
Works cost (tK/unit) 1696.99 1729.03 1807.88 2079.12
3
Works cost (tk/100m ) 21,212,375 11,083,082 6,696,388 3,249,665

54
 ANNEX-1

(3) Design of Length of Launching apron

1) Examination of Length of Launching apron
According to the Guidelines for River Bank Protection (2010 BWDB), as is shown in the following
figure, the length of foot protection work is stipulated as 1.5 times the scouring depth.
According to the previous calculation, the required scouring depth is 1.63m, therefor; this scouring
depth should be adopted in examination of Length of Launching apron.
Examination of termination Length of Launching apron is used BWDB’s design experience of same
total block volume of standard place. Therefore, block volume of termination place has set 7.0m3 as
same volume of standard place volume 7.0m3

T (length of foot protection work) ＝1.5D

D: Scouring depth (m)

Figure 32 Guidelines for River Bank Protection (2010 BWDB), p162

■Calculation of Length of Launching apron

□Normal place
T（Length of Launching apron）＝1.5D＝1.5×1.63=2.45m≒3.0m
D：Scouring depth 1.63m

□Termination place
T（Length of Launching apron）＝7m3/m÷0.7m=10.0m

55
 ANNEX-1

Figure 33 Pilot Project Standard Cross Section

56
 ANNEX-1

Appendices
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

Design of Pilot Repair Works

of
Manu River Flood Control Embankment at
Noarai,Akhailkura
in
Moulvibazar District

Calculation Report

May2015

BWDB Design Circle

JICA Expert Team

 ANNEX-1
Appendices

Table of Contents

1. Embankment Works
1.1. Slip Circle analysis ................................................................ 1
1.2. Seepage ................................................................................. 6
1.3. Consolidation Settlement ....................................................... 10

2. Protect Works
2.1. CC block for slope protection ................................................ 14
2.2. Projected CC block for Slope protection................................ 16
2.3. CC block for foot protection .................................................. 20
2.4. Length of Launching apron ................................................... 23
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

1.1. Slip Circle analysis

 ANNEX-1
Appendices

Examination of Circular Slip

The Bishop method using the set soil constants is used to examine circular slip. As indicated in the
following table, the results of examination show that the safety factor is secured and there is no issue
with safety in the design cross section.

𝑅𝑅({𝑐.𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙+�1+𝐾𝐾)𝑊 ′ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡}/𝑚𝑚�
𝐹𝑠 ＝
𝛴｛(1+𝐾𝐾)𝑊・𝑥＋𝐾ℎ・𝑊・𝑦＋𝑃・𝑎｝
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝜑′ ・𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝛼 ＝cosα+
𝐹𝐹

Fs: Safety factor

C: Adhesive force of soil (KN/m2)
φ: Internal angle of friction of soil (° )
l: Length of slice circle (m)
W’: Effective weight of slice (KN/m)
W: Weight of slice (KN/m)
Kh: Design horizontal seismic coefficient (not considered in this case)
Kv: Design vertical seismic coefficient (not considered in this case)
R: Radius of circle (m)
α: Angle of inclination of the slice base (°)
x: Horizontal distance between the slice center of gravity and center of circle (m)
y: Vertical distance between the slice center of gravity and center of slip circle (m)
P: Water pressure acting on earth clump inside the slip circle (KN/m)
α: Vertical distance of horizontal line passing through the pressure point and
center of the slip circle (m)

Table Calculation Cases and Results

Safety factor
Calculation case Frontal water level
River side Country side
H.W.L. 11.65mPWD 2.56>1.50 OK 1.80>1.50 OK
Flood 9.10mPWD 1.95>1.50 OK 1.80>1.50 OK
L.W.L. 4.49mPWD 1.76>1.20 OK 1.81>1.20 OK

2
Figure Calculation Case 1: Frontal water level at H.W.L. 11.65mPWD
Appendices
ANNEX-1

3
Figure Calculation Case 2: Frontal water level at 9.1mPWD
Appendices
ANNEX-1

4
Figure Calculation Case 3: Frontal water level at D.L.W.L. 4.49mPWD
Appendices
ANNEX-1

5
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

1.2. Seepage

6
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

Seepage Flow Analysis

The Casagrande method is used to examine the seepage line. The following sections describe the
concept and results of seepage line examination by the Casagrande method.
As a result, the seepage line appears in the embankment slope, however, since it is planned to use
clay with very low permeability as the embankment material, there should be no seepage failure.

180°−α
∆a= (a+∆a) 400°

When a is 30°:
b′ b′ H
a= cosα
− �(cosα) 2 − (sinα ) 2

When a is30°~ 60°:

a= √𝑏2 + 𝐻2 − √𝑏2 − 𝐻2 𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝛼

Q = ｋ・S (k: coefficient of permeability )

S = √𝑏2 + 𝐻2 ー𝑏

7
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

At entry, the phreatic line is started from the point B in such a way that it becomes at right angles to
the u/s face of the embankment. A reverse curvature is, given as shown in above figure. At exit, the
point K at which the phreatic line intersects the d/s face can be easily obtained by using

8
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

9
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

1.3. Consolidation Settlement

10
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

Examination of Consolidation Subsidence

In the Design Manual, the Terzaghi formula is used to examine consolidation subsidence. In
conducting examination, the set soil constants are used. As a result, since subsidence of 39
centimeters is confirmed, extra banking of 39cm ≒ 40.0cm will be added to compensate.

𝐶𝑐 ・𝐻 𝑃0 +∆𝑃
S= log10
1+𝑒0 𝑃0

S: Amount of subsidence of single layer

Cc: Consolidation index
H: Compaction layer thickness
e𝑜 : Initial void ratio
Po: Effective overburden stress before embankment construction
⊿P: Increase in overburden stress after embankment construction

q=17.5kN/m2*3.9m
17.5KN/m3
=68.25kN/m2

▽5.274mPWD

Figure Model Diagram of Consolidation Calculation

P0 = 17.4kN / m 3 * 3.826m + (17.4 − 9.81) kN / m 3 * 2.674

= 86.87 kN / m 2

11
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

0.37

Figure Relationship between Increased Stress and Depth (Osterberg,1957)

a 7.8m
= = 1.2
z 6.5m
b 2.15m
= = 0.33
z 6.5m
According to the Osterberg figure, Iz=0.37

Concerning Iz at depth of 6.5 meters, since load is considered on the left and right sides of the

embankment, Total Iz = 0.37*2=0.74.

∆Ρ = Ι z × g = 0.74 × 68.25 KN / m 2 = 50.51KN / m 2

12
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

Cc H  P0 + ∆P 
S = log
 

1 + e0  P0 

S: Amount of subsidence of single layer

Cc: Consolidation index = 0.29 (result of indoor testing)
H: Compaction layer thickness = 13m
e𝑜 : Initial void ratio = 0.9413 (result of indoor testing)
Po: Effective overburden stress before embankment construction
＝86.87KN/m2
⊿P: Increase in overburden stress after embankment construction
＝49.64KN/m2

0.29 *13  86.87 + 50.51 

S= log 
1 + 0.9413  86.87 
= 1.94 * 0.199

= 0.39m
Therefore, the extra banking shall be 0.39m = 0.4m.

13
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

2.1. CC block for slope protection

14
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

15
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

2.2. Projected CC block for slope protection

16
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

Stability should be confirmed with the following formula.

μ (Ww・cos θ-L) ≧((Ww・sin θ) 2+D2) 1/2

L= ρw/2・CL・Aｂ・Vd2 (kgf)【N】
D= ρw /2・CD・AD・Vd2 (kgf)【N】

This shows the condition of a block

placed on the right bank

Force viewed from the direction of ① Force viewed from the direction of ②

←Flow
←Flow

Slope maximum in cline direction

【Design conditions】
Design flow velocity: 1.50(m/s)
H.W.L.: 11.65mPWD
Slope gradient: 1:2.0
Design cross section: Measurement point No.16
Deepest riverbed elevation: 1.68mPWD
Design water depth: H.W.L.11.65mPWD - Deepest riverbed elevation 1.68mPWD = 9.97m

Figure Design cross section: Measurement point No.16

17
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

μ : Coefficient of friction μ=0.65 (coefficient of friction between soil and suction

prevention material)
Ww : Weight of blocks in water (kg)
θ : Slope gradient; 1:2.0
ρb : Density of blocks; 2250(kg/m3)
ρw : Density of water ρw; 980 (kg/m3)
g : Acceleration of gravity; 9.81(m/s2)
Ab : Projected area of blocks when viewed from above; 0.16(m2)
AD : Projected area of blocks pertaining to drag; 0.09 (m2)
tb : Projected area of blocks pertaining to drag; 0.2(m)
CL : Uplift coefficient of blocks; 0.15
CD : Uplift coefficient of blocks; 0.70
Vd : Design flow velocity at level tb (m/s)
𝑡𝑡
8.5+5.75𝑙𝑙𝑙10� �+2
Vd＝ 𝑘𝑘
𝐻𝐻 ・Vo(m/s)
6.0+5.75log10( )
𝑘𝑘

Hd: Design depth of water; 9.97(m)

ks: Equivalent roughness; 0.08
Vo: Design flow velocity Vo=1.5(m/s)

The Formula for Vd is as follows

8.5 + 5.75 log10  b  + 2

t
Vd =  ks  × Vo
6.0 + 5.75 log10  Hd 
 k s 

(
8.5 + 5.75 log10 0.2
0.08
+2 )
=
6.0 + 5.75 log10 9.97 (
0.08
)
× 1.5

=1.06(m/s)

The Lift L and Drag D acting on the CC blocks with projections are sought.
1 2
L = ・ρ w・CL・A・
b Vd
2
1
= * 980 * 0.15 * 0.16 *1.06 2
2
=13.21(N)

18
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

1 2
D = ・ρ w・C D・AD・Vd
2
1
= * 980 * 0.7 * 0.09 *1.06 2
2
=34.69(N)

The underwater weight of Projected CC blocks and 20cm thickness is sought.

µ 2 L + µ 4 L2 − ( µ 2 − tan 2θ)( µ 2 L2 − D 2 )
Ww ≥ =133.61(N)=13.63(kg)
cosθ( µ 2 − tan 2θ)

The air weight of Projected CC blocks and 20cm thickness is sought.

 ρb 
W =   * Ww =232.81(N) =23.76(kg)
 ρb − ρ w 

If the product weight of projected CC blocks and 20cm thickness is the same or greater than the
required weight in air, the blocks will be stable with request to the flow velocity.
i.e.: W (76.5kg)>23.76kg・・・・ OK

19
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

2.3. CC block for foot protection

20
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

Design of Foot Protection Work

In examining the foot protection blocks, the Bangladesh Guidelines for River Bank Protection
(2010 BWDB), p142 will be followed.

0.035 ∗ u 2 φsc Kτ K h
Dn ≥ ∗ （Source: Guideline p142）
D m ∗ 2 g K s ∗ψ cr

Where,
Dn (m) Equivalent diameter (cover layer)
∆m (-) (ρs-ρw)/ρw = relative density of submerged material
ρs (kg/m³) Density of protection material
ρw (kg/m³) Density of water
ū (m/s) Depth averaged mean flow velocity
g (m/s²) Acceleration due to gravity
φsc (-) Stability factor for current

Kτ (-) Turbulence factor

Kh (-) Depth factor, dependent on the assumed velocity profile and water
depth (h) to equivalent roughness height ratio
Ks (-) Slope parameter
Ψcr (-) Critical shield's parameter
α (°) Slope angle of bank or structure
θ (°) Angle of repose considering the material specific internal friction

21
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

As a result of the above calculation, the required minimum diameter Dn of CC blocks is -79
millimeters.

22
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

2.4. Length of launching apron

23
 ANNEX-1
Appendices

24
 ANNEX-2

Bangladesh Water Development Agency

The People’s Republic of Bangladesh

THE PROJECT FOR

CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT OF
MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER
RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE
IN
THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF BANGLADESH

Assessment on Earthquake Resistance of the Embankment

Appendix

Of

River Embankment Design Manual in Bangladesh

July 2015

JICA EXPERT TEAM

 ANNEX-2

CONTENTS

1. Objective

2. Assessment Method of the Slope Stability of the Embankments in Bangladesh during an

Earthquake

3. Case Study on the Embankment at Bogra

4. Conclusion
 ANNEX-2

1. Objective
The purposes of this report are specifying the method for assessing slope stability of the river
embankment in Bangladesh during an earthquake and accordingly assessing the slope stability of
the embankment at Bogra which is dominantly sand in both the embankment and its associated
underground.

This report is the appendix of River Embankment Design Manual in Bangladesh. This report
was prepared in accordance with the Design Manual

In this report, followings are addressed

(1) Assessment Method of the Slope Stability of the Embankment in Bangladesh during an
Earthquake
(2) Case Study of the Slope Stability Assessment of the Embankment during an Earthquake

1
 ANNEX-2

2. Assessment Method of the Slope Stability of the Embankments in

Bangladesh during an Earthquake

2.1 Flow of Assessment on the Slope Stability of the Embankments

Assessment of the slope stability during an earthquake is conducted in accordance with following
entire flow described in Fig 2.1.1

Soil Condition :Identification of the soil

condition of the ground 2.2.1

Preliminaly Assessment : Assessment of liquefaction Potential of the Ground 2.2.2

2.2.3 2.2.4
R : Dynamic Shear Strength Ratio ( R ) at each Soil Layer L: Sesmic Shear Stress Ratio (L) at each Soil Layer

FL=R/L : Resistivity against Liquefaction (FL) at each Soil Layer 2.2.5

With Liquefaction
Δu：Excessive Pore Water Pressure (Δu） at each Soil Layer
induced by Liquefaction 2.3.1.1
Without
Liquefaction
Fsd: Minimum Safety Factor (Fsd( Δu）) of the Slope stability of an
Embankment suffering Liquefaction 2.3.1.2

Fsd: Minimum Safety Factor (Fsd (Kh)) of the Slope stability of an 2.3.2
Embankment against Horizontal Force with Design Seismic Intensity

Estimation of subsidence amount due to earthquake 2.3.3

Fig 2.1.1 Assessment Flow of the Slope Stability during an Earthquake

Each item of assessment flow is described in the following sections.

2
 ANNEX-2

2.2 Assessment of Liquefaction Potential of the ground

2.2.1 Identification of the soil condition of the ground

Following parameters of the underground of the embankment and design seismic intensity are put
together based on the soil investigation and the seismic intensity in Bangladesh.

 X: Depth from the ground surface (m)

 hw: Ground water level from the ground surface (m)
 FC: Fine particle content (%)
 N: N value of the ground
3
 𝜌𝑡1: Density of soil in shallower than water table position （kN/m ）
 𝜌ｔ２: Density of soil in deeper than the water table position. （kN/m3）
 PI: plasticity index
 Ks: Design seismic intensity at the embankment site.

2.2.2 Assessment of Liquefaction Potential of the Ground

Evaluation on liquefaction potential is conducted for the soil layer existing in 20 m or less below
the ground surface based on the following 2 criterions as a preliminary screening. When all of these 2
criterions are satisfied, the ground is evaluated as having the potential of suffering liquefaction.

 The ground water level is 10 m or less below the ground surface.

 The soil layer has FC (fine particle content) of not higher than 35%, or even if it is more than 35%,
the plasticity index is 15 or less.

2.2.3 Dynamic Shear Strength Ratio (R) at each Soil Layer

Dynamic shear strength ratio (R) at each layer is calculated from following equations. Here, R
stands for a Resistance Capability Ratio against Liquefaction of each particular soil layer.

R =𝐶𝑤 ・RL

RL= 0.0882�𝑁𝑎 /1.7 (𝑁𝑎 < 14)

0.0882�𝑁𝑎 /1.7 + 1.6 × 10−6 ・(𝑁𝑎 − 14)4.5 (𝑁𝑎 ≧ 14)
(in case of Sandy Soil)

𝑁𝑎 = 𝐶1 ・𝑁1 ＋𝐶2
𝜎′
𝑁1 = 1.7・N/(( 𝑣�98.0)＋0.7)

1 (0%≦FC<10%)
𝐶1 = (FC+40)/50 (10%≦FC<60%)
FC/20-1 (60%≦FC)
𝐶2 = 0 (0%≦FC<10%
(FC-10)/18 (10%≦FC)
Where; 𝐶𝑤 ; The correction factor due to seismic motion characteristics
3
 ANNEX-2

(𝐶𝑤 = 1.0)
𝑅Ｌ ; Repeat 3-axis intensity ratio
𝑁1 ; N value equivalent to Effective stress 98.0 kN/m2
𝑁𝑎 ; Correction factor that takes into account the effect of particle
size
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 ; Correction factor of N values by the fine fraction content
FC; Fine particle content (%)
(Passing mass percentage of particle below 75µm)

2.2.4 Seismic Shear Stress Ratio (L) at each Soil Layer

Seismic shear stress ratio (L) at each layer is calculated from following equations. Here, L stands
for a Induced Force Ratio acting on each particular soil layer during an particular earthquake.

L＝𝑟𝑑 ・𝐾𝑠 ・𝜎ʋ /𝜎𝑣′

𝑟𝑑 = 1.0 - 0.015 x

𝜎𝑣 = 𝜌𝑡1 ℎ𝑤 +𝜌𝑡2(x -ℎ𝑤 )

𝜎𝑣′ = 𝜌𝑡1 ℎ𝑤 + （𝜌𝑡2 − 𝛾ｗ ）(x –ℎ𝑤 )

Where; 𝑟𝑑 ; Reduction factor in the direction of the depth of the earthquake

shear stress ratio
𝐾𝑠 ; Design seismic intensity for liquefaction
x; Depth from the ground surface (m)
𝜌𝑡1; Density of soil in shallow than water table position (kN/m3)
𝜌𝑡2; Density of soil in deeper than the water table position (kN/m3)
𝛾ｗ ；Density of water (kN/𝑚3 )
ℎ𝑤 ; Depth from the ground surface (m)

𝜎𝑣 ：Total stress (kN/m2)

𝜎 ′ 𝑣 ：Effective stress (kN/m2)

2.2.5 Resistivity against Liquefaction (FL) at each Soil Layer

Resistivity against liquefaction (FL) at each layer is calculated from following equation.
Here, FL stands for R/L identical to safety factor against complete liquefaction status at each
particular soil layer during an particular earthquake.

FL=R/L

4
 ANNEX-2

2.3 Estimation of subsidence Amount (Maximum) of an Embankment

2.3.1 Estimation of Minimum Safety Factor (Fsd( Δ u)) of an Embankment suffering

Liquefaction

2.3.1.1 Excessive Pore Water Pressure (Δ u) at each Soil Layer induced by Liquefaction

Excessive pore water pressure (Δ u) at each soil layer induced by liquefaction is calculated
from following equation.

∆𝑢 = 𝜎𝑣′ (in case of 𝐹𝐿 ≦ 1.0 )

−7
𝜎𝑣′ ∙ 𝐹𝐿 (in case of 𝐹𝐿 > 1.0 )

Here, FL≦1.0 indicates that the relevant soil layer is liquefied losing all effective stress .
FL>1.0 indicates that the relevant soil layer is partially liquefied, in other words, effective stress is
partially reduced.

2.3.1.2 Minimum Safety Factor (Fsd(Δu)) of the Slope Stability of an Embankment

suffering Liquefaction

With this excessive pore water pressure, minimum safety factor (Fsd(Δ u) ) of the slope
stability of the embankment suffering liquefaction is calculated from following equation.

𝛴�𝑐・𝑙+�𝑊−𝑢・𝑏−∆𝑢・𝑏�・ cos 𝛼・ tan ∅�

𝐹𝑠𝑠 (∆𝑢) =
𝛴𝑊・ sin 𝛼

Where; 𝐹𝑠𝑠 (∆𝑢); Minimum safety factor that takes into account excess pore water
pressure
C; cohesion of soil (kN/m2)
∅; Angle of internal friction
W; Weight of slice (kN)
l ; Length of slice circle (m)
b; Width of slice (m)
u; Pore water pressure usually generated by ground water (kN /m2)
Δu; Excessive pore water pressure induced by an earthquake (kN /m2)
𝛼; The angle of the normal and the vertical lines that can be placed
in the center of the arc(°)

Here, C is reduced to 0.0 when particular soil layer is completely liquefied , i.e,
FL≦1.0. This is the modification to the original equation stated in “Chapter 6. A River
Embankment against an Earthquake” by Japan Institute of Country–ology and
engineering. In this original equation, C is assumed to have initial value even when FL
≦1.0.

Fig 2.3.1 shows the outline of liquefaction process.

5
 ANNEX-2

Before Earthquake During Earthquake

Soil Element Soil Particle

L

𝜎 ’𝑣 Δu
𝜎 ’𝑣 𝜎 ’𝑣
’
𝜎𝑣 Δu

・Δu：Excessive pore water pressure generated

by Seismic Shear Stress L

・𝝈’ 𝒗 : Effective Stress (confining pressure for soil ・Effective stress 𝝈′ 𝒗 (confining pressure for soil
particle) (𝝈′ 𝒗 = 𝝈𝒗 ― u) particle) is lost by Δu.

・𝝈𝒗 : Total Stress ( For width of one slice b for slope stability,
・u: Pore water pressure usually generated by effective stress becomes （ W－u・ｂ）－（Δu・ｂ） ）
ground water
・When Δu 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐡 𝝈′ 𝒗 , soil particle loses its
confining pressure completely ending up
complete liquefaction. .

Mechanism of Generation of Excessive Pore Water Pressure Δu during an Earthquake

① When shear stress is induced to soil element during earthquake, the soil element is forced to be under shear
deformation.

② In the case of saturated loose sand , when soil element is put under shear deformation , one soil particle of the
element tries to settle into the room among other soil partiles.

③ Then, soil element itself tries to decrease its bolume.

④ However, during an earthquake under very short time strong shear force , soil element is put under undrained
condition , in other words, decreasing bolume change of the element is completelty constrained.

⑤ This prohibition of bolumetric change of soil element leads to the generation of inner water pressure as the reaction
to constraint of bolumetric change.

⑥ This inner water pressure generated as the reaction to constraint of bolume change of the soil element is Excessive
Pore Water Pressure Δu.

Fig 2.3.1 Outline of Liquefaction Process

6
 ANNEX-2

2.3.2 Minimum Safety Factor (Fsd(Kh)) of the Slope Stability of an Embankment against
Horizontal Force with Design Seismic Intensity ( without liquefaction)

Minimum Safety Factor of the Slope Stability of the Embankment when it is not suffered
liquefaction during an earthquake is calculated from following equation.
Here, “ not suffering liquefaction during an earthquake “ means “ No excessive pore water
pressure Δu is generated during an earthquake at any soil layer”

𝛴[𝑐⋅𝑙+{(𝑊−𝑢∙𝑏)∙cos 𝛼−𝐾ℎ ∙𝑊 sin 𝛼}∙tan ∅]

𝐹𝑠𝑠 (𝐾ℎ ) =
𝛴[𝑊∙sin 𝛼+𝐾ℎ ∙𝑊∙(𝑦/𝑟)]
Where 𝐾ℎ ; The design seismic intensity due to the inertia force
y; The height from center of gravity of slice to center of sliding circle (m)
r; Radius of sliding circle (m)

2.3.3 Subsidence Amount (Maximum ) of an Embankment due to an Earthquake

Estimation method of subsidence amount of an embankment during and after an earthquake

is provided in Japan based on the accumulated data measured in the past.

Table 2.3.3.1 shows the relation between subsidence amount and minimum safety factor of
slope stability.

Table 2.3.3.1 Relation between Subsidence Amount (maximum) and Fsd

Subsidence Amount
𝐹𝑠𝑠 (𝐾ℎ ) 𝐹𝑠𝑠 (∆u)
(maximum)
1.0< 𝐹𝑠𝑠 (𝐾ℎ ) 1.0 < Fsd (∆u) 0

0.8 < 𝐹𝑠𝑠 (𝐾ℎ ) ≦ 1.0 0.8 < 𝐹𝑠𝑠 (∆u)≦1.0 Embankment height ×
0.25

𝐹𝑠𝑠 (𝐾ℎ ) ≦ 0.8 0.6 < 𝐹𝑠𝑠 (∆u)≦0.8 Embankment height ×

0.50

－ 𝐹𝑠𝑠 (∆u)<0.6 Embankment height

×0.75

7
 ANNEX-2

3. Case Study on the Embankment at Bogra

3.1 Calculation process of slope stability of the embankment at Bogra against an earthquake

Minimum safety factors of slope stability 𝐹𝑠𝑠 (∆𝑢) and 𝐹𝑠𝑠 (𝐾ℎ ) can be obtained based on
the equations previously described in 2.3.1.2 and 2.3.2. For these equations ,seismic coefficient Ks
and excessive pore water pressure Δu are required.

According to the seismicity map of Bangladesh, the seismic intensity at Bogra is specified as
0.15. On the other hand, in Japan, design seismic intensity for a river embankment is specified as
described in Table 3.1.
Here, in the Case Studies on the embankment at Bogra , the seismic intensities (Ks) are
selected as 0.15 and 0.18.These are medium size site specific seismicity (0.15) at Bogra and strong
seismic intensity (0.18) for evaluating allowable earthquake resistance.

Table 3.1 Design Seismic Intensity Specified for an Embankment in Japan

Categorized Area of Sesmic Intensity
Embankment
Size
Strong Earthquake Area Medium Eartquake Area Small Eartquake Area

Design Seismic Intensity for

0.18 0.15 0.12
Liquefction of the Underground

10≧B /H 0.18 0.15 0.12

Design Seismic Intensity for
Inertial Force for an 20≧B/H＞10 0.16 0.14 0.11
Embankment
B/H＞20 0.15 0.12 0.1

B: Width of Embankment Base, H: Height of Embankment

On the other hand, Δu can be calculated in accordance with the process described
from 2.2.1 through 2.3.1.1.
Table 3.2 shows basic information of underground soil condition of the embankment site at
Bogra and excessive pore water pressure Δu at each soil layer of the ground induced by an
earthquakes with seismic intensities Ks of 0.15 and 0.18.

As for actual calculation of the minimum safety factors of slope stability, computer
software for slope stability were adopted.

Fig3.1 and Fig 3.2 show the minimum safety factors of slope stability of the embankment at
Bogra during the earthquakes with seismic intensity Ks of 0.15 and 0.18 respectively.

8
 ANNEX-2

Table 3.2 Basic Underground Soil Condition at Bogra and induced Excessive Pore Water
Pressure during Earthquakes

Ks=0.15 Ks=0.18
Basic information of underground soil condition of the Embankment at Bogra
(Design Seismic Intensity) (Design seismic Intensity)

X0 (m) X(m) h w(m) FC(% ) N

ρ t1 ρ t2 σv σ' ｖ C
φ（ °） FL Δ u (kN/ m 2 ) FL Δu (kN/ m 2 )
（ kN/ m 3 ) (kN/ m 3 ) (kN/ m 2 ) (kN/ m 2 ) （ kN/ m 2 )

De n sity of De n sity of
Exc e ssive
Le ve ｌ (m) (PWD) De pt h Un de r gr o u n d soil in soil in Exc e ssive Pore
De pt h fr o m Fin e N valu e In n e r Re sistivity Re sistivity Pore Wate r
fr o m W at e r Le ve l sh allowe r de e pe r th an Total Effe c tive Wate r Pre ssu re
Top of the
Gr o u n d fr o m Gr o u n d
par t ic le Coh e sion fric tion again st again st Pre ssu re
Em ban km e n t Contents th an wate r th e wate r stre ss stre ss in du c e d by an
Su r fac e Su r fac e an gle Liqu e fac tion Liqu e fac tion in du c e d by an
tble table e arth qu ake
e arth qu ake
position position

Top of Top of Embankment

18.94 E mba nk ment 0

-1

Ground -2
Surface Ground Surface

-3
15.59 0
-4
14.339 -1 75 10 17.934 19.11 17.64 20.1 23.88 33.13 N/A(FC>35%) 0 N/A (FC>35%) 0
- 1.251
-5
-2 30 11 17.934 19.11 36.75 29.41 23.88 33.13 2.944 0.0153 2.453 0.055
-6
Underground -3 30 10 17.934 19.11 55.86 38.72 23.88 33.13 1.705 0.923 1.421 3.307
Water Level
(after the strong -7
-4 45 9 17.934 19.11 74.97 48.03 23.88 33.13 N/A(FC>35%) 0 N/A (FC>35%) 0
flood period)
-8
-5 45 10 17.934 19.11 94.08 57.34 23.88 33.13 N/A(FC>35%) 0 N/A (FC>35%) 0
-9
-6 13 9 17.934 19.11 113.19 66.65 23.88 33.13 1.007 63.3 0.84 66.65
- 10
-7 13 11 17.934 19.11 132.3 75.96 23.88 33.13 1.067 48.22 0.889 75.96
- 11
-8 4 15 17.934 19.11 151.41 85.27 23.88 33.13 1.163 29.57 0.969 85.27
- 12
-9 4 17 17.934 19.11 170.52 94.58 23.88 33.13 1.206 25.44 1.005 91.17
- 13
- 10 4 17 17.934 19.11 189.63 103.89 23.88 33.13 1.178 32.97 0.982 103.89

9
 ANNEX-2

SF=5.269 SF=2.10 Before Earthquake

Be fore Earth qu ake

wate r le ve l = 4 .3 3 9 m

Du rin g Earth qu ake

SF=2.843 SF=1.657 During Earthquake
(without Liquefaction)
(Ks= 0 .1 5 )

With ou t Liqu e fac tion

SF = 𝑭𝒔𝒅( 𝑲 𝒉 )
All soil layers are assumed in sound condition

wate r le ve l = 4 .3 3 9 m

Du rin g Earth qu ake

(Ks= 0 .1 5 ) SF=4.397 SF=1.614 Partial Liquefaction

With Liqu e fac tion

SF = 𝑭𝒔𝒅( Δu )
soil layers are partially liquefied

wate r le ve l = 4 .3 3 9 m

Fig 3.1 Safety Factor of Slope Stability of the Embankment at Bogra (Ks=0.15)

10
 ANNEX-2

SF=5.269 SF=2.10 Before Earthquake

Be fore Earth qu ake

wate r le ve l = 4 .3 3 9 m

Du rin g Earth qu ake SF=2.541 SF=1.584 During Earthquake

(Ks= 0 .1 8 ) (without Liquefaction)

With ou t Liqu e fac tion

SF = 𝑭𝒔𝒅( 𝑲 𝒉 )
All soil layers are assumed in sound condition

wate r le ve l = 4 .3 3 9 m

SF=0.551 Liquefaction
Du rin g Earth qu ake SF=1.930
(Ks= 0 .1 8 )

With Liqu e fac tion

SF = 𝑭𝒔𝒅( Δu )

wate r le ve l = 4 .3 3 9 m

Fig 3.2 Safety Factor of Slope Stability of the Embankment at Bogra (Ks=0.18)

11
 ANNEX-2

3.2 Slope Stability and associated Subsidence of the embankment at Bogra against an
earthquake

3.1.1 Case Study of Ks=0.15 (Site specific seismic intensity at Bogra)

 Slope stability of the embankment is assessed to be secured against the site specific seismic
intensity at Bogra (Ks=0.15). Minimum safety factor Fsd(Kh) when liquefaction is not
considered is 1.657. And minimum safety factor Fsd(Δu) when liquefaction is considered is
1.614.
 When the subsidence during and after the earthquakes is assessed based on the estimation
method available in Japan, it is found that the subsidence is unlikely to occur.

3.1.2 Case Study of Ks=0.18 (Seismic intensity equivalent to strong earthquake specified for
an river embankment in Japan)

 Slope stability of the embankment is assessed to be not secured, unstable, if it is subject to

strong earthquake specified in Japan. Minimum safety factor Fsd (Kh) when liquefaction is not
considered is 1.584. However, minimum safety factor Fsd ( Δ u) when liquefaction is
considered is 0.551.
 When the subsidence during and after the earthquake is assessed based on the estimation
method , it is found that subsidence will end up 2.513m , 75.0% of embankment height (3.35 x
0.75).

12
 ANNEX-2

4. Conclusion
In this report, assessment method of the earthquake resistance of an embankment was
developed and case studies on the embankment at Bogra were performed.

From these studies, followings were clarified.

(1) Assessment method on slope stability against an earthquake

 Assessment method of earthquake resistance of the embankment available in Japan can be
applied to the embankments in Bangladesh using basic information on soil characteristics and
seismic intensity map available in Bangladesh.

(2) Slope Stability and associated Subsidence of the embankment at

Bogra

Case Study of Ks=0.15 (Site specific seismic intensity at Bogra)

 Slope stability of the embankment is assessed to be secured against the site specific seismic
intensity at Bogra (Ks=0.15). Minimum safety factor Fsd(Kh) when liquefaction is not
considered is 1.657. And minimum safety factor Fsd(Δu) when liquefaction is considered is
1.614.
 When the subsidence during and after the earthquakes is assessed based on the estimation
method available in Japan, it is found that the subsidence is unlikely to occur.

Case Study of Ks= 0.18 (Seismic intensity equivalent to strong earthquake specified for an
river embankment in Japan)

 Slope stability of the embankment is assessed to be not secured, unstable, if it is subject to

strong earthquake specified in Japan. Minimum safety factor Fsd (Kh) when liquefaction is not
considered is 1.584. However, minimum safety factor Fsd ( Δ u) when liquefaction is
considered is 0.551.
 When the subsidence during and after the earthquake is assessed based on the estimation
method , it is found that subsidence will end up 2.513m , 75.0% of embankment height (3.35 x
0.75).

13
 APPENDIX

Bangladesh Water Development Agency

The People’s Republic of Bangladesh

THE PROJECT FOR

CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT OF
MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER
RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE
IN
THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF BANGLADESH

ASSESSMENT ON STABILITY OF EXISTING

EMBANKMENT WHICH IS SUBJECT TO FLOOD WATER

July 2015

JICA EXPERT TEAM

 APPENDIX

CONTENTS

1. Objective

2. Seepage Flow Analysis and Slope Stability Analysis

2.1 Embankments for Analysis

2.2 Methods for Seepage Flow Analysis and Slope Stability Analysis
2.3 Conditions for Seepage Flow Analysis and Slope Stability Analysis

3. Results of Analysis

3.1 Bogra
3.2 Chandpur
3.3 Khulna
3.4 Moulvibazar

4. Conclusion (Slope Stability and Seepage Safety of Embankments)

5. Additional Study (Triggering Factor of Damages of Embankments)

5.1 Damage of Embankments in Bangladesh

5.2 Impact of Incremental Erosion by River Current
5.3 Conclusion of Additional Study(Triggering Factor of Damages of Embankments in
Bangladesh)
 APPENDIX

1. Objective
The purposes of this report are, first of all, assessing slope stability and seepage safety of
existing embankments of Bangladesh which are subject to strong flood water, and secondary,
identifying triggering factor of damages of embankments in the past.
According to the site surveys of existing embankments, damages of the embankments during
strong flood period seem to be mainly triggered by prior incremental erosion from the edge of
setback in front of embankment which had been subject to river current during entire rainy season.
In other words, in almost all embankments, prior incremental erosion by river currents during
entire rainy season dominates the fatal damages of embankments during subsequent strong flood
period.
Therefore, slope stability and seepage safety of the embankment during strong flood period is
not clarified if the embankment is protected against prior incremental erosion due to river current
during entire rainy season.

In this report, first of all, slope stability and seepage safety of existing embankments which
are subject to strong flood period are assessed by seepage flow analysis and slope stability analysis
under the condition that the embankment is protected against prior incremental erosion due to river
currents during entire rainy season.
For these analyses, soil investigations at existing embankments, topological surveys,
observed water levels and rain falls during strong flood period were used.
Secondary, as an additional study, impact of incremental erosion by river current on the
damage of embankments in the past is studied by seepage flow analysis and slope stability analysis
using the simulation model in which part of setback in front of sound embankment is pre
eliminated for modeling incremental erosion.

Prior to the site survey, FS (Feasibility Study) had been conducted to investigate
characteristics of the embankments at twelve (12) locations in Bangladesh. In the FS, soil
characteristics around top of the embankments had been investigated. Fig1.1 shows locations for
the FS and Table1.1 shows soil characteristics around top of the embankments of twelve (12)
locations evaluated by the FS.
Following the FS , JICA expert team conducted this site survey and finally concluded that
embankments of Bangladesh cannot be discussed nor uniformly specified in terms of their
hydrological aspects, soil characteristics aspects, river condition aspects.
Therefore, JICA expert team finally categorized entire embankments of Bangladesh into
following four (4) types.

Type A ( Embankments along major rivers)

Type B ( Embankments in high tidal waves)
Type C (Embankments in Haor area)
Type D (Embankments affected by flash flood)

Fig 1.2 and Table 1.2 show distribution of embankments and soil characteristics around top
of embankments finally categorized by this site survey.

1
 APPENDIX

Fig1.1 Location of Investigation Site in FS

2
 APPENDIX

Table1.1 Soil Characteristics at Locations in FS (Grain Size Distribution )

Site No. Location Sand(%) Silt(%) Clay(%)

S-1 Sirajganj 10 85 5
S-2 Rajshahi 0 96 4
S-3 Rangpur 62 38 0
S-4 Moulvibazar 0 70 30

S-5 Sunamgong 0 60 40

S-6 Netrokona 0 50.5 49.5

S-7 Khulna 0 72.5 27.5

S-8 Sathira 0 71.5 28.5
S-9 Bargna 0 79.5 20.5
S-10 Patuakhali 0 86.5 13.5
S-11 Chandpur 40 57 3
S-12 Noakhali 0 83.5 16.5

3
 APPENDIX

Fig 1.2 Categorized Embankments in Bangladesh

4
 APPENDIX

Table 1.2 Soil Characteristics of Categorized Embankments (Grain Distribution)

Type of
Site No. Location Sand(%) Silt(%) Clay(%)
Embankment
S-1 Sirajganj 10 85 5
S-2 Rajshahi 0 96 4
A
S-3 Rangpur 62 38 0
S-11 Chandpur 40 57 3
S-7 Khulna 0 72.5 27.5
S-8 Sathira 0 71.5 28.5
B S-9 Bargna 0 79.5 20.5
S-10 Patuakhali 0 86.5 13.5
S-12 Noakhali 0 83.5 16.5
S-5 Sunamgong 0 60 40
C
S-6 Netrokona 0 50.5 49.5

D S-4 Moulvibazar 0 70 30
A:Embankments along major rivers, B:Embankments in high tidal area, C:Embankments in
Haor area, D:Embankments affected by flash flood.

5
 APPENDIX

2. Seepage Flow Analysis and Slope Stability Analysis

2.1 Embankments for Analysis

For seepage flow analysis and slope stability analysis, typical four (4) embankments were
selected from fourteen (14) locations where this site survey were conducted following FS.
In numerical analyses for assessing slope stability and seepage safety of existing
embankments, three (3) types A,B,D among above four (4) types were simulated and assessed for
strong flood period.
The reason C type is eliminated from this numerical analysis is as follows.
According to FS(Feasibility Study) conducted prior to the survey, the embankments for type C are
dominantly clay in terms of its soil condition.
With this condition, it was concluded that slope in-stability and seepage un-safety are
unlikely to occur in C type. Additionally, it was concluded that the damages of embankments at the
area are almost generated by over flow during pre-monsoon period and sometimes by public cut.
Here, Type A is the embankments along major rivers. Typical Type A is that at Chandpur.
Type A also includes retired embankment namely Bogra where sand dredged from river bed is used
for embankment. This type of embankment is dominantly sand, therefore, slope stability and
seepage safety should be carefully studied. Therefore, the embankment at Bogra was included in
the embankments for analysis.
These four (4) embankments are two (2) for Type A, one (1) for Type B and one (1) for Type D.
Soil investigation on embankment and associated underground were conducted for these four (4)
embankments.
Embankments used for assessment on slope stability and seepage safety are listed below.

1. Type A-1 Bogra (Latitude 24°47′48″, Longitude 89°36′11″)

2. Type A-2 Chandpur (Latitude 23°11′29″, Longitude 90°38′35″)
3. Type B Khulna (Latitude 22°37′35″, Longitude 89°27′47″)
4. Type D Moulvibazar (Latitude 24°32′11″, Longitude 91°44′09″)

2.2 Methods for Seepage Flow Analysis and Slope Stability Analysis
Underground water seepage analysis (unsteady seepage flow analysis) and associated slope
stability analysis were conducted for the assessment.
Computer software named [SAUSE Version 3.1, commercial product available in Japan by
NITA CONSULTANT] was applied to numerical analysis. This software was developed in
accordance with “Chapter 4.Structural Integrity of River Embankment” by Japan Institute of
Country –ology and engineering.
In this software, slope stability analysis is conducted at each different time with associated
time dependent seepage line generated by unsteady seepage flow analysis. Finite Element Method
(FEM) is employed for this software.
Outline of methods for seepage flow analysis and slope stability analysis employed in this
software are described as follows.

(1) Unsteady Seepage Flow Analysis

Fig 2.1 shows dominant equation for unsteady seepage flow obtained from Law of
Conservation of Mass, and Darcy’s Law.
Typical characteristics of the dominant equation is existence of time dependent term on the
right hand side of the equation. This term expresses time dependent variation of Sr (degree of
saturation), n (porocity of soil). With this equation, rain fall change and water level change can be
reasonably expressed.
As for the input of water level and rain fall during strong flood period for numerical
simulation on unsteady seepage flow analysis and its associated slope stability analysis, actual time
dependent elapsed data were applied to figure out real status of embankments during strong flood
period.

6
 APPENDIX

In case of steady seepage flow analysis, the term at the right hand side will be eliminated.
(2) Slope Stability Analysis
Fig 2.2 shows outline of evaluation method of minimum safety factor in slope stability
analysis. Minimum safety factor of slope stability is evaluated at each different time in accordance
with changing seepage line generated from unsteady seepage flow analysis. Here, minimum safety
factor at each particular time is identified by automatically searching the circular sliding with
minimum safety factor.

Equation of Continuity (Law of Conservation of Mass)

＋ ＋ ＋ ＝
here
Sr: degree of saturation , n: porocity, w: unit density of pore water
Vx,Vy,Vz: fluid velocity of pore water

Equation of Motion (Darcy’s Law)

here
Vx=-Kx 、Vy=-Ky 、 Vz=-Kz
Kx,Ky,Kz: coefficient of permeability H: total head

From these above

Dominant equation for Unsteady Seepage Flow
(K )＋ ( Ky )= ( )

Fig 2.1 Dominant Equation for Unsteady Seepage Flow

7
 APPENDIX

Safety factor for Slope Stability

Fs=Σ｛c ｌ +（ ｗ-ub)・cos α・tanφ｝/（w・sinα ）
here
u: pore water pressure at circular sliding line

w: mass of divided cross section of embankment

c: cohesion of soil along circular sliding line

l: length of circular sliding line

φ： inner friction angle of soil

b: width of divided cross section of embankment

α：angle between perpendicular and vertical lines to circular

sliding

Automatically Searched Circular Sliding

with Minimum Safety Factor

Fig 2.2 Outline of Slope Stability Analysis

8
 APPENDIX

2.3 Conditions for Seepage Flow Analysis and Slope Stability Analysis

2.3.1 Parameters for Analysis on Soil Characteristics

Based on soil investigation and laboratory tests, parameters for numerical analysis were
specified as described on Table 2.3.1.1 and Table 2.3.1.2. Fig 2.3.1.1 shows N values at the
Embankments.
In these tables, C (cohesion) , φ(inner friction angle) and coefficient of permeability were
decided in accordance with following policy.

(1) C,φ
In case permeability is low
In case that soil constituency is dominantly clayey silt and therefore permeability is very low,
un-drained shear strength Cu,φu should be applied. Here, Cu=Ccu + σtanφcu ( Ccu and φcu are
cohesion and shear strength increasing rate with the depth identified from enveloping line of
Mohr’s Circles with total stress expression. These Mohr’s Circles are obtained from Consolidated
Un-drained Tri-axial Compression Tests (CU tests). φu is assumed to be zero (0.0).
These Cu and φu are applied to embankment part and underground part of Moulvibazar,
Khulna and embankment part of Chandpur.

In case permeability is high

In case that soil constituency is dominantly sand and therefore permeability is high, drained
shear strength C and φ should be applied.
Drained shear strength C and φ should be obtained from CU test or direct shear test using
undisturbed samples. However, it is almost impossible to obtain undisturbed sample for sandy soil,
therefore, on sandy soil, direct shear tests were conducted using disturbed samples. The test results
C,φ from direct shear tests with disturbed sample tend to be low compared to those by undisturbed
samples. However, the specific ratio between those from undisturbed samples and those from
disturbed samples cannot be specified. Therefore, for numerical analyses this time, the results of
direct shear tests may be applied for numerical analyses from the stand point that the results may
provide safety side results in terms of slope stability and seepage safety.
These C and φ are applied to embankments part and underground part of Bogra , und
underground part of Chandpur.

(2) Coefficient of Permeability

Basically , coefficient of permeability obtained from laboratory tests with undisturbed samples
should be applied. In case there is no laboratory test results due to the lack of undisturbed samples,
the coefficients may be specified from Cregar’s assumption

9
 APPENDIX

Table 2.3.1.1 Parameters of Soil Characteristics for Numerical Analyses (Shear strength and
Permeability)

Shear Strength Coefficient of Permeability

drained shear undrained shear

Laboratory test Creager's assumption
Part of strength strength
Location
Embankment
φu Particle size of
φ（°） C(kN/m² ) Cu(kN/m² ) Creager's
（°） kx(cm/s) ky(cm/s) 20% passing
average average average assumption(cm/s)
average thieve
Bogra embankment 28.5 27.36 0.01～0.03 4.53E-05
underground 33.13 23.88 0.03～0.09 6.93E-04
Chandpur embankment 0 14.33 0.001～0.0045 2.50E-06
underground 29.65 26.87 0.002～0.08 7.50E-04
Khulna embankment 0 11.65 9.76E-07 0.003～0.009
underground 0 19.64 3.00E-07
Moulvibazar embankment 0 29.39 5.30E-06 ＜0.001
underground 0 26.07 6.52E-06 9.25E-05 ～0.0017

Table 2.3.1.2 Parameters of Soil Characteristics for Numerical Analysis (Particle Distribution
and Basic Characteristics)

Soil Dry
Wet Saturated
Particle distribution (%) Water particle Unit Void
Unit Unit
Average Content Unit Densit Ratio
Part of Density Density
Location Density y
Embankment
sand silt clay γd
W Gs γｔ γsat
（0.0075 (0.002～ （～0.002 （ℊf/ e
（%） （ℊf/㎤） （ℊf/㎤） （ℊf/㎤）
ｍｍ～） 0.0075mm) ｍｍ） ㎤）
Bogra embankment 52 43 5 16.9 2.67 1.79 1.53 0.75 1.96
underground 77 20 3 19.4 2.6 1.83 1.54 0.69 1.95
Chandpur embankment 8 73 19 22.1 2.65 1.88 1.54 0.72 1.96
underground 66 29 5 26.5 2.65 1.93 1.52 0.74 1.95

Khulna embankment 6 64 30 33 2.48 1.92 1.45 0.71 1.87

underground 16 53 31 41.4 2.51 2.08 1.49 0.68 1.9

Moulvibazar embankment 30 51 19 20.1 2.68 1.97 1.63 0.64 2.02

underground 7 64 29 43.1 2.6 1.74 1.26 1.06 1.78

10
 APPENDIX

Nvalue 10 20 10 20 10 20 10 20
0

Depth(m)
6

10

12
Bogra Chandpur

Depth: From the tyop of embankment

Khulna
Moulvibazar

Fig 2.3.1.1 N values at Embankments

11
 APPENDIX

2.3.2 Water Level and Rain Fall Intensity during Strong Flood Period

(1) Water Level for Numerical Analysis

Water Level Hydrograph (water level change in accordance with elapsed time) applied for
analysis at each embankment was selected from accumulated observed water level data obtained at
nearby observation points. This Water Level Hydrograph was selected from the standpoint that
the highest water level of Water Level Hydrograph during strong flood period shows maximum
value during past around 20 years.
This selected Water Level Hydrograph was corrected to that at the embankment location
considering the difference of distance and height between the embankment location and
observation station.
This corrected Water Level Hydrograph was further adjusted so that the highest water
level of the corrected selected Water Level Hydrograph ends up Design Highest Water Level
during strong flood at the embankment.
Here, Design Highest Water Level was specified as the level which is 1.0m lower than the
embankment height. Here, 1.0m is allowable height.
When highest level of further adjusted Water Level Hydrograph is higher than
embankment height minus (-) allowable height (1.0m), the further adjusted Water Level
Hydrograph was used, but should less than embankment height.
When highest level of further adjusted Water Level Hydrograph is lower than
embankment height minus (-) allowable height, the further adjusted Water level Hydrograph
was again finally adjusted to embankment height minus (-) allowable height.

(2)Rain fall intensities for numerical Analysis

For time dependent rain fall intensities, observed rain fall intensities obtained along with
adopted observed water level data were used.

Table 2.3.2.1 shows design water levels of Bogra, Chandpur, Khulna,and Moulvibazar
specified based on the observed water levels during strong flood period.
Figures from 2.3.2.1 to 2.3.2.4 show water levels and rain fall intensities specified for the
numerical simulations. These values are changing in accordance with elapsed time during strong
flood period.

12
 APPENDIX

Table 2.3.2.1 Specified Water Levels for Numerical Simulations

specified highest
Observed
Observation Embankment water level for
Location Year Month Day highest water
Points hight numerical
level (m)
simulation(m)

Bahadrabad St.
Bogra 1988 8 30 17.76 18.94 17.94
Sirajgang49 St

Chandpur St
Chandpur 1998 9 9 5.62 6.81 5.81
Davlatkhan St

Khulna Chalna St. 2001 9 18 4.22 3.34 3.34

Moulvibazar Moulvibazar St 1993 6 8 11.69 12.825 11.825

13
 APPENDIX

rain fall intensity water level

m 18.94m
mm /hour

water level rain fall intensity

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 (hour) Embankment Height

Fig 2.3.2.1 Water levels and rain fall intensities specified for the numerical simulations
(Bogra)

rain fall intensity water level 6.81m

mm/hour m
rain fall intensity

water level

200 400 600 800 1000 (hour）

Embankment Height

Fig2.3.2.2Water levels and rain fall intensities specified for the numerical simulations
(Chandpur)

14
 APPENDIX

rain fall intensity water level

mm/hour m
rain fall intensity water level
3.34m

200 400 600 800 (hour)

Embankment Height

Fig2.3.2.3 Water levels and rain fall intensities specified for the numerical simulations
(Khulna)

rain fall intensity water level

mm/hour m 12.825m

rain fall intensity

water level

(hour)

Embankment Height
Fig2.3.2.4 Water levels and rain fall intensities specified for the numerical simulations
(Moulvibazar)

15
 APPENDIX

2.3.3 Methods for Assessment on Slope Stability and Seepage Safety

(1) Method for Assessment on Slope Stability

Slope Stability was assessed by minimum safety factor of circular sliding of embankment
during strong flood period. When minimum safety factor is over 1.5, the slope stability is judged to
be secured

(2) Method for assessment on Seepage Safety

Seepage Safety can be assessed by comparing local hydraulic gradient i (ix,iy)with critical
local gradient ic at the toe of back slope on country side . When i(ix,iy) is less than ic , seepage
safety is judged to be secured.

Critical hydraulic gradient ic at the ground surface at the toe of embankment is obtained by
following equation.
ic= (Gs-1.0) / (1.0 + e ) Gs : Soil particle unit density, e: Void ratio

Seepage safety during strong flood period can be assessed by comparing local hydraulic
gradient (ix and iy) with critical local hydraulic gradient ic. When ix and iy is less than ic ,
seepage safety is judged to be secured.
In this assessment, in addition to this method, seepage safety was assessed by comparing
local hydraulic gradient (ix and iy) with 0.5. This value 0.5 is specified in “chapter 4. Structural
Integrity of River Embankment “ by Japan Institute of Country – ology and engineering for
assessing seepage safety from the viewpoint that ic is around 1.0 and therefore using 0.5 as critical
value instead of ic may provide conservative assessment result in terms of seepage safety.

When soil is dominantly clayey silt (Khulna and Moulvibazar), piping is unlikely triggered
by seepage damage. However, in this assessment, this method for assessment was applied to all
target embankments.

16
 APPENDIX

3. Results of Analysis
Table 3.1.1, Table 3.2.1, Table 3.3.1, Table 3.4.1 show potential circular sliding and
associated seepage line at specific times during strong flood period focusing on starting point of
strong flood period , on around the time of highest water level, on around time of strongest rain fall
intensity, and on ending of strong flood period
Along with these, minimum safety factor of slope stability, critical hydraulic gradient ,local
hydraulic gradient at the toe of back slope on country side are also described in these tables.

3.1 Bogra ( Embankment : Sandy Soil, Underground: Sandy Soil )

From Table 3.1.1, followings are clarified.

Slope Stability
(1) There are two potential circular slidings, that at back slope on country side of embankment and
that at front slope on river side. Among these two, the circular sliding with minimum safety
factor is that at front slope on river side.
This seems due to the fact that the edge of setback is near close to the river side having deep
water depth.
Safety factor shows over 2.0. Therefore, slope stability is assessed to be secured.

Seepage Safety
(1) Seepage line moves closer toward toe of embankment, emerging on the surface at near the toe
of embankment at around time when water level shows highest.
(2) Local hydraulic gradients at the toe of back slope are less than critical hydraulic gradient.
However, the local hydraulic gradient is over 0.5 when water level reaches maximum height.
Therefore, embankment at Bogra cannot be assessed being completely free from piping.

17
 APPENDIX

Table 3.1.1 Assessment on Slope Stability and Seepage Safety (Bogra)

rain fall intensity water level ｍ
mm/hour
1 2 3 4
water level rain fall intensity

Water level

Rain fall
intensity

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 hour

Local Hydraulic Gradient

SF(Safety Fac tor
(Back Slope on Country
of Slope Stability)
Side)
Potential Circular Sliding and Seepage Line
Back Front
Toe of Back Slope
Slope Slope

SF=5.11 SF=2.38
Horizontal
1 0
10m 5.108 2.377
(0hour） Vertical
0
10m

SF=4.39
SF=2.77
Horizontal
2 0.492
4.388 2.773
(600hours） Vertical
0.510

SF=4.60
SF=2.40
Horizontal
3 0.137
4.595 2.404
(1000hours） Vertical
0.085

SF=5.26 SF=2.21
Horizontal
4 0.155
5.262 2.214
(1400hours） Vertical
0.005

Critical Hydraulic Gradient ic=(Gs-1.0)/(1.0+e) （Bogra ：0.95）

18
 APPENDIX

3.2 Chandpur (Embankment：Clayey Silt, Underground：Sandy Soil)

From Table 3.2.1, followings are clarified.

Slope Stability
(1) There are two potential circular slidings, that at back slope on country side of embankment and
that at front slope on river side. Among these two, the circular sliding with minimum safety
factor is that at back slope on country side. This feature is different from Bogra.
This seems due to the fact that embankment at Chandpur has enough length of setback. It may
lead to making safety factor of slope stability dominated by seepage flow from front slope on
river side toward back slope be minimum.
In this situation, the safety factor is around 1.5. Therefore, slope stability is assessed to be
secured.

Seepage Safety
(1) Seepage line moves closer toward toe of embankment, emerging on the surface at near the toe
of embankment.
(2) When the rain fall intensity is strong, the seepage line appears at the around the surface of top
of embankment in addition to that in the embankment (at 400 hours from the start of strong
flood period). It seems due to the fact that embankment at Chandpur is dominantly clayey silt
with low permeability and strong rain fall does not contribute to making seepage line move
upward quickly ending up making rain fall streaming on the surface of top of embankment
(3) Local hydraulic gradient are less than critical hydraulic gradient at toe of back slope. However,
when rain fall intensity is strong (at 400 hours from the start of strong flood period), local
hydraulic gradient exceeds 0.5 and shows 0.911 closing to critical hydraulic gradient 0.95.
Therefore, embankment at Chandpur cannot be assessed being completely free from piping.

19
 APPENDIX

Table 3.2.1Assessment on Slope Stability and Seepage Safety (Chandpur)

mm/hour rain fall intensity water level m

1 2 3 4
rain fall intensity
water level

Water level

Rain fall
intensity

200 400 600 800 1000 hour

SF(Safety Fac tor Local Hydraulic Gradient(Back

of Slope Stability) Slope on Country Side)
Potentila Circular Sliding and Seepage Line
Back Front
Toe of Back Slope
Slope Slope

SF=1.86 SF=1.48

Horizontal
1 10m 0.114
1.477 1.855
(0hour） Vertical
0.005
10m

SF=2.01 SF=1.48

Horizontal
2 0.348
1.476 2.009
（400hours） Vertical
0.911

SF=2.38 SF=1.48

Horizontal
3 0.166
1.476 2.375
（600hours） Vertical
0.052

SF=1.63 SF=1.48

Horizontal
4 0.077
1.477 1.634
(1100hours） Vertical
0.004

Critical Hydraulic Gradient ic=(Gs-1.0)/(1.0+e) （Chandpur ：0.95）

20
 APPENDIX

3.3 Khulna (Embankment：Clayey Silt, Underground：Clayey Silt)

From Table 3.3.1, followings are clarified.

Slope Stability
(1) There are two potential circular slidings, that at back slope on country side of embankment and
that at front slope on river side. Among these two, the circular sliding with minimum safety
factor is that at front slope on river side.
This seems due to the fact that the edge of embankment is near close to the river side having
deep water depth. This is similar to the embankment at Bogra.
In this situation, the safety factor is over 1.5. Therefore, slope stability is assessed to be
secured.

Seepage Safety
(1) Seepage line moves closer toward the toe of embankment, emerging on the surface at near the
toe of embankment when rain fall intensity is small, at the start and at the end of strong flood
period.
(2) When rain fall intensity is strong, seepage line reaches to the toe of back slope of embankment
after proceeding on surface of the top of embankment and back slope on country side. It may
be due to the fact that rain fall and seepage from the river side slowly moves toward the
underground of embankment with allowing storaging themselves into the embankment due to
very low permeability of the embankment.
(3) Local hydraulic gradients at the toe of back slope are less than critical hydraulic gradient. The
local hydraulic gradient slightly exceeds 0.5 at several times during strong flood period.
However, the embankment at Khulna is dominantly clayey silt with its low permeability.
Therefore, piping due to seepage seems unlikely to occur. Seepage safety seems to be secured.

21
 APPENDIX

Table 3.3.1 Assessment on Slope Stability and Seepage Safety (Khulna)

rain fall intensity water level
mm/hour m

1 rain fall intensity 2 3 4

water level

Water level

Rain fall
intensity

200 400 600 800

(hour)

SF(Safety Fac tor Local Hydraulic Gradient(Back

of Slope Stability) Slope on Country Side)
Potential Circular Sliding and Seepage Line
Bac k Front
Toe of Back Slope
Slope Slope

SF=1.85
SF=1.57

Horizontal
1 0.249
10m 1.848 1.566
(0hour) Vertical
0.065

10m

SF=1.88
SF=1.60

Horizontal
2 0.642
1.875 1.601
(400hours） Vertical
0.212

SF=1.87
SF=1.64

Horizontal
3 0.652
1.874 1.642
（600hours） Vertical
0.222

SF=1.87

SF=1.53

Horizontal
4 0.602
1.867 1.526
(900hours） Vertical
0.179

Critical Hydraulic Gradient ic=(Gs-1.0)/(1.0+e) （Khulna ：0.90）

22
 APPENDIX

3.4 Moulvibazar (Embankment：Clayey Silt, Underground：Clayey Silt)

From Table 3.4.1, followings are clarified.

Slope Stability
(1) There are two potential circular slidings, that at back slope on country side and that at front
slope on river side. Among these two, the circular sliding with minimum safety factor is that at
back slope on country side.
The safety factor is over 2.0. Slope stability is assessed to be secured.

Seepage Safety
(1) Seepage line moves closer toward the toe of embankment, emerging on the surface at near the
toe of embankment.
(2) Local hydraulic gradients at the toe of embankment are less than critical hydraulic gradient and
at the same time less than 0.5. Therefore, piping due to seepage seems unlikely to occur.
Seepage safety seems to be secured.

23
 APPENDIX

Table 3.4.1 Assessment on Slope Stability and Seepage Safety (Moulvibazar)

Water level

Rain fall
intensity

SF(Safety Fac tor Local Hydraulic Gradient(Back

of Slope Stability) Slope on Country Side)
Potential Circular Sliding and Seepage Line
Bac k Front
Toe of Back Slope
Slope Slope

Horizontal
1 0.040
2.227 2.564
(0hour） Vertical
0.015

Horizontal
2 0.496
2.224 3.57
（150hours） Vertical
0.198

Horizontal
3 0.496
2.209 2.761
（400hours） Vertical
0.291

Horizontal
4 0.496
2.204 2.521
（700hours） Vertical
0.225

Critical Hydraulic Gradient ic=(Gs-1.0)/(1.0+e) （Moulvibazar ：0.78）

24
 APPENDIX

4. Conclusion(Slope Stability and Seepage Safety of Embankments)

In this report, slope stability and seepage safety of existing embankments which are subject
to strong flood period were assessed by seepage flow analysis and slope stability analysis under the
condition that embankment is protected against prior incremental erosion due to river currents
during entire rainy season. In this assessment, unsteady seepage flow analysis and associated slope
stability analysis were adopted in which time dependent actual flood water level and rain fall
intensities changing during strong flood period can be reasonably expressed.
Table 4.1 shows minimum safety factors of slope stability of embankments at Bogra,
Chandpur, Khulna, and Moulvibazar obtained from unsteady seepage flow analysis. .
Table 4.2 shows local hydraulic gradient both at the toe of embankment and at nearby
surface of underground of the embankments at Bogra, Chandpir, Khulna, and Moulvibazar.

From these assessments, followings are clarified.

1. Slope stability of embankments during strong flood period under the condition that the
embankments are protected against prior incremental erosion

The minimum safety factor of slope stability during strong flood period is over or around 1.5
on all embankments. Therefore, slope stability of existing embankments during strong flood period
is assessed to be secured if the embankment is protected against prior incremental erosion due to
river current.
Bogra: Back Slope 4.39, Front Slope 2.23 Chandpur:Back Slope 1.48,Front Slope 1.63
Khulna:Back Slope 1.87, Front Slope1.53 Moulvibazar:Back Slope 2.20, Front Slope 2.52

2. Seepage safety of embankments during strong flood period under the condition that the
embankments are protected against prior incremental erosion.

Seepage line appears on the surface near the toe of embankment.

Local hydraulic gradients are less than critical hydraulic gradient at the toe of back slope at
all embankments.
However, at the embankment at Bogra, local hydraulic gradient exceeds 0.5 when water level
reaches maximum height. And at the embankment at Chandpur, local hydraulic gradient exceeds
0.5 when rain fall intensity is strong.
Bogra:0.51(at 600hours) Chandpur:0.911(at 400hours)

These embankments at Bogra and Chandpur are categorized Type A or embankments along
major rivers. These can be characterized as being built on the foundation ground predominantly
thick sandy soil layer and therefore piping at the toe of back slope should be carefully dealt with.
At the embankment at Khulna, local hydraulic gradient slightly exceeds 0.5. However, piping
is unlikely to occur because the embankment at Khulna is dominantly clayey silt with low
permeability.
Khulna:0.642(at 400hours),0.652(600hours), 0.602(at 900hours)

Seepage safety of embankments at Khulna and Moulvibazar were assessed to be secured.

25
 APPENDIX

Table 4.1 Minimum Safety Factor of Slope Stability

SF(Safety Factor of Slope Stability)

Location Minimum

Back Slope Front Slope

SF=4.39 SF=2.77 SF=5.26 SF=2.21

Bogra

SF=4.388 （600 hours） SF=2.214 （1400 hours）

SF=2.38 SF=1.48 SF=1.63 SF=1.48

Chandpur

SF=1.476 （600 hours） SF=1.634 （1100 hours）

SF=1.87 SF=1.87
SF=1.64 SF=1.526

Khulna

SF=1.874(600 hours） SF=1.526(900 hours）

SF=2.52 SF=2.20 SF=2.20

SF=2.52

Moulvibazar

SF=1.204(700 hours） SF=2.521(700 hours）

26
 APPENDIX

Table4.2 Maximum Local Hydraulic Gradient for Seepage Safety

Local hydraulic Gradient i

(Back Slope on Country Side)
Location Maximum

Toe of back Slope

Horizontal：0.492
Bogra
Vertical：0.51

Horizontal：0.348
Chandpur
Vertical：0.911

Horizontal：0.652
Khulna
Vertical：0.222

Horizontal：0.496
Moulvibazar
Vertical：0.291

Critical Hydraulic Gradient

Bogra ：0.95
Chandpur ：0.95
Khulna ：0.90
Moulvibazar ：0.78

27
 APPENDIX

5 Additional Study (Triggering Factor of Damages of Embankments)

5.1 Damages of Embankments in Bangladesh
From the site survey, it was assumed that damages of embankments in Bangladesh during
strong flood period is mainly triggered by prior incremental erosion from the edge of setback in
front of embankment which had been subject to river current during entire rainy season. This type
of damage was observed in all four types, A,B,C,D.
Among those four types, we obtained the cross section data of damaged part in Moulvibazar
and Khulna.
Fig 5.1.1 and Fig 5.1.2 show the cross section of damaged part of embankment. In each
figure, sound part of embankment and damaged part of embankment are described.

Sound Part of Embankment at Moulvibazar

Damaged Part of Embankment at Moulvibazar

Fig 5.1.1 Damage of Embankment at Moulvibazar

28
 APPENDIX

Sound Part of Embankment at Khulna

Damaged Part of Embankment at Khulna

Fig 5.1.2 Damage of Embankment at Khulna

29
 APPENDIX

5.2 Impact of Incremental Erosion by River Current

In the previous chapters in this report, it was clarified that Slope Stability and Seepage Safety
are secured during strong flood period if the embankment is protected against prior incremental
erosion due to river current during entire rainy season.
In this section, slope stability of embankment during strong flood period which had been
subject to incremental erosion was investigated with unsteady seepage analysis and associated
slope stability analysis. In this analysis, part of setback in front of sound embankment was
pre-eliminated toward the front slope on river side of the embankment to simulate the prior
incremental erosion.
With this analysis, impact of incremental erosion on damages of embankments in the past
was investigated.

5.2.1 Impact of Incremental Erosion on the damage of embankment at Moulvibazar

Slope stability during strong flood period was studied on the Moulvibazar embankment
which had already suffered prior incremental erosion due to river current during entire rainy season
Prior to this study, in the simulation model, setback in front of sound embankment was
eliminated toward the front slope on river side of the embankment. On that simulation model,
unsteady seepage flow analysis and associated slope stability analysis were conducted.
Fig 5.2.1.1 shows the potential circular sliding, minimum safety factor and seepage line
when the safety factor shows its minimum value on the embankment which had not suffered prior
incremental erosion ,on the embankment in which incremental erosion of 24.0m is assumed, and on
the embankment in which progressed incremental erosion of 31.0m is assumed.
In this Fig5.2.1.1, the shape of damaged part of embankment is also described along with
above mentioned simulation results.
From Fig 5.2.1.1, it is clarified that safety factor declined with the progress of incremental
erosion.

30
 APPENDIX

Water level (9.30~11.825m) SF=2.52

10m

Minimum safety Factor of Embankment at Moulvibazar without incremental erosion

Water level (9.30~11.825m) SF=1.42

Assumed incremental erosion 24m 10m

Minimum Safety Factor of Embankment at Moulvibazar with Incremental Erosion of 24m

Water level (9.30~11.825m) SF=1.01

Assumed incremental erosion 31m 10m

Minimum Safety Factor of Embankment at Moulvibazar with Incremental Erosion of 31m

Damaged Part of Embankment at Moulvibazar

Fig 5.2.1.1 Minimum Safety Factor of Embankment at Moulvibazar with Incremental

Erosion

31
 APPENDIX

Fig 5.2.1.2 shows the shape of sound embankment and that of nearby damaged part of
embankment along with the simulation result..

Sound part of Embankment at Moulvibazar

Damaged Part of Embankment at Moulvibazar

Simulation Result

SF=1.01

Fig 5.2.1.2 Impact of Incremental Erosion on Damage of Embankment

Fig 5.2.1.2 shows fairly good consistency between the result of slope stability analysis and
actual damaged part of embankment.

32
 APPENDIX

5.2.2 Impact of Incremental Erosion on the damage of embankment at Khulna

Slope stability during strong flood period was studied on the Khulna embankment which
had already suffered prior incremental erosion due to river current during entire rainy season.
Prior to this study, in the simulation model, setback in front of sound embankment was
eliminated toward the front slope on river side of the embankment. On that simulation model,
unsteady seepage flow analysis and associated slope stability analysis ware conducted.
Fig 5.2.2.1 shows the potential circular sliding , minimum safety factor and seepage line
when the safety factor shows its minimum value on the embankment which had not suffered prior
incremental erosion, on the embankment in which incremental erosion of 10.0m is assumed, and
on the embankment in which progressed incremental erosion of 16.0m is assumed.
In this Fig 5.2.2.1, the shape of damaged part of embankment is also described along with
above mentioned simulation results.
From Fig5.2.2.1, it is clarified that safety factor declined with the progress of incremental
erosion.

33
 APPENDIX

water level(2.65～3.34m)
SF=1.53
SF=1.46

10m

Minimum Safety Factor of Embankment at Khulna without incremental erosion

water level(2.65～3.34ｍ)
SF=1.46

10m Assumed incremental erosion 10m

Minimum Safety Factor of Embankment at Khulna with incremental erosion of 10m

SF=1.19 water level (2.65～3.34m)

Assumed incremental erosion 16m

10m

Minimum Safety Factor of Embankment at Khulna with incremental erosion of 16m

Damaged Part of Embankment at Khulna

Fig 5.2.2.1 Minimm Safety Factor of Embankment at Khulna with Incremental Erosion

34
 APPENDIX

Fig 5.2.2.2 shows the shape of sound embankment and that of nearby damaged part of embankment
along with the simulation result.

Sound Part of Embankment at Khulna

Damaged Part of Embankment at Khulna

Simulation Result

SF=1.19

Fig 5.2.2.2 Impact of Incremental Erosion on Damage of Embankment

Fig 5.2.2.2 shows fairly good consistency between the result of slope stability analysis and actual
damaged part of embankment.

35
 APPENDIX

5.3 Conclusion of Additional Study(Triggering Factor of Damage of Embankments in Bangladesh)

Identification of triggering factor of damage of embankment in the past.

Slope stability and seepage safety of embankments during strong flood period which had suffered
prior incremental erosion from the edge of setback in front of embankment due to river current were
assessed
From this assessment of embankments, it was clarified that safety of slope stability during strong
flood period declines due to prior incremental erosion at the setback of embankment and this prior
incremental erosion may be one of major triggering factors of damages of embankments in the past.

36
 ANNEX 2:
Construction Manual for River Embankment
 The Project for Capacity Development of
Management for Sustainable Water Related
Infrastructure
In
The People’s Republic of Bangladesh

Construction Manual
for River Embankment

Bangladesh Water Development Board: BWDB

and
JICA Expert Team (IDEA/Ingerosec/ESS)

September 2017
 The Project for Capacity Development of Management for Sustainable Water Related Infrastructure

Table of Contents

Preface‐ Background of Draft of Construction Manual for River Embankment 1

Section 1 Objective of the Construction Manual .............................................................. 1
Section 2 Usage of the Construction Manual ................................................................... 1
Section 3 Responsibility and obligations of contractors ................................................... 2
Section 4 Importance of Progress Control ........................................................................ 4

Chapter 1 General items of Supervision for construction (100 General)............ 5

Section 1.1 Surveys for Existing Condition.................................................................................. 5
1.1.1 Natural Condition Surveys ............................................................................................ 5
1.1.2 Site investigations ......................................................................................................... 5
1.1.3 Status surveys of farmland and residents within the scheduled construction area ..... 8
Section 1.2 Construction Planl ............................................................................................. 8
1.2.1 General .......................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.2 Drafting the Basic Construction Plan ............................................................................ 9
Section 1.3 Progress Control ........................................................................................... 12
1.3.1 Progress Plan ............................................................................................................... 12
1.3.2 Control for Construction Progress .............................................................................. 17
Section 1.4 Supervision of Construction ............................................................................ 29
1.4.1 Objective for Supervision ............................................................................................ 30
1.4.2 Quality Control ............................................................................................................ 30
1.4.3 Measurement of works ............................................................................................... 32

Chapter 2 Preparation & Temporary Works (200 Site Preparation) .................. 34

Section 2.1 Surveys & Profile Stake & Finished profile stake ................................................. 34
2.1.1 Preparatory surveying ................................................................................................. 34
2.1.2 Finished profile stake .................................................................................................. 37
Section 2.2 Temporary Access Road ................................................................................... 37
2.2.1 Investigation for Temporary Access Road ................................................................... 37
2.2.2 Temporary works for Access Road .............................................................................. 37
Section 2.3 Temporary Construction Yards ........................................................................ 38

i Construction Manual
 The Project for Capacity Development of Management for Sustainable Water Related Infrastructure

Chapter 3 Earth Works (300 Earth Works) ...................................................... 39

Section 3.1 General items of Earth Works ................................................................................ 39
3.1.1 Soil Movement Plan .................................................................................................... 39
3.1.2 Construction Machinery Selection .............................................................................. 41
Section 3.2 Excavation ........................................................................................................ 44
3.2.1 General ........................................................................................................................ 44
3.2.2 Temporary works for Access Road .............................................................................. 44
3.2.3 Notes on Excavation worksT ....................................................................................... 46
Section 3.3 Management of embankment material & Transportation.............................. 49
3.3.1 Borrow pit and dumping area surveys ........................................................................ 49
3.3.2 Transportation............................................................................................................. 50
3.3.3 Managing fill material ................................................................................................. 50
3.3.4 Quality control of fill material ..................................................................................... 52
Section 3.4 Embankment for river bank............................................................................. 54
3.4.1 Outline of Embankment .............................................................................................. 54
3.4.2 Treatment of the foundation base .............................................................................. 54
3.4.3 Embankment and Compaction ................................................................................... 55
3.4.4 Checking quality of embankment ............................................................................... 60
3.4.5 Quality Control for Compaction .................................................................................. 62
3.4.6 Trial Construction for compaction .............................................................................. 70
Section 3.5 Earth works on Slope .................................................................................... 79
Section 3.6 Earth works accompanying structure construction ..................................... 80

Chapter 4 Protection Works for river embankment (500 Protective Works).. 82

Section 4.1 Toe protection works............................................................................................... 82
4.1.1 Soil Movement Plan .................................................................................................... 82
4.1.2 Guny bags (refer to Item Code: 40‐400 ～40‐470) .................................................... 83
1) Type and size of gunny bag .......................................................................................... 83
2) Sand‐Cement Gunny bags ............................................................................................ 83
4.1.3 Geo Textile Bags .......................................................................................................... 92
Section 4.2 Slope Protection .............................................................................................. 94
4.2.1 Planting Grass ............................................................................................................. 94
4.2.2 Soil leakage prevention material (SSoRM: 40‐600, geo textile fabric) ........................ 94
4.2.3 Clay Blanket ................................................................................................................. 95
4.2.4 CC‐blocks covering ...................................................................................................... 96

ii Construction Manual
 The Project for Capacity Development of Management for Sustainable Water Related Infrastructure

Chapter 5 Safety ............................................................................................ 101

Section 5.1 Safety Prevention Facilities................................................................................... 101
Section 5.2 Safety Management ...................................................................................... 102
5.2.1 Regulations and checkpoints in regards to safety management .............................. 102
5.2.2 Serious accident and Cause against construction disaster ....................................... 102
5.2.3 Preventing accidents on construction site ................................................................ 103
5.2.4 Preventing accidents to third parties CC‐blocks covering ......................................... 107
Section 5.3 Flood Prevention ........................................................................................... 107
5.3.1 Flood countermeasures ............................................................................................ 108
5.3.2 Preparing flood countermeasures during earthwork ............................................... 109
5.3.3 Additional prevention measures during the suspension of the Works .................... 109

Chapter 6 Inspection ..................................................................................... 112

Section 6.1 Inspection for Construction.................................................................................. 112
6.1.1 Objective and Notes of Inspection............................................................................ 112
6.1.2 Inspection types ........................................................................................................ 113
Section 6.2 Completion Inspection .................................................................................. 113
6.2.1 Objective of Completion Inspection ......................................................................... 113
6.2.2 Notes of Completion Inspection ............................................................................... 114

Introduction of Examples in Pilot Repair Works;

Handling Schedule Delays for Section 1.3.2 .......................................................................... 19
Trail Compaction in embankment work for Section 3.4.6 ...................................................... 71
Trail Fabrication of Sand-Cement mortar gunny bag for Section 4.1.2 .................................. 85
Traial Fabrication of CC-block with projection part in the Pilot Repair Works for Section 4.2.4 . 97
Safety Activities for Section 5.2.3 ......................................................................................... 105
Temporary Prevention Measures for Slope for Section 5.3.3 ............................................... 108

iii Construction Manual

 The Project for Capacity Development of Management for Sustainable Water Related Infrastructure

Preface ‐ Background of Draft of Construction Manual for River Embankment –

Section 1 Objective of the Construction Manual

Bangladesh is located in the lower reaches of three international rivers: the Ganges,
Jamuna and Meghna. With approximately 80 percent of its land in low‐lying floodplains, the
country is susceptible to inundation during monsoon season. Also, cyclones are hitting Bay of
Bengal causing serious damage to the coastal areas and low‐lying lands. Factors including
these weather and topographical conditions, as well as changes in social climate from
population increases and results into slow economic growth, cause much economic
slowdown.
The Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) constructs different types/kinds of
embankment in different areas/rivers contexts and in different flooding situations such as
flood plain areas, sea areas, hilly areas, haor areas, flash flood areas, irrigation projects areas,
urban and town areas and major/médium/minor rivers. BWDB constructs, operates and
maintains flood embankment and other facilities to alleviate damage from flooding in
Bangladesh, but flood embankment failures and other issues result in repeated damage,
causing asset loss as well as displacing many people time and again.
Flood control embankment construction work in Bangladesh is performed in conformance
with the Technical Specification for Civil Works of BWDB (TS of BWDB) and the Standard
Schedule of Rates Manual (SSoRM of BWDB). But something more is required to be
addressed about preparatory survey, detailed quality control and safety measures to
implement the Works.
Thus, it is required to draft a Construction Manual that supplements the said TS and
SSoRM and effects the improvement of river embankment in Bangladesh. Such Manual
describes the work items of supervision for Quality Control or Safety management with
consideration of status of Bangladeshi natural condition and circumstances of construction
field. The Objective of proposed Construction Manual is to increase the capability of BWDB,
who are in charge of implementation, so that the improvement in respect of the supervision
for river embankment construction will be expected.

Section 2 Usage of the Construction Manual

The Construction Manual for River Embankment clearly states planning and control
methods and various notes for construction and quality management, and also actual
compaction degree of embankment works under the construction of River Embankment
Works. It is possible for a procurement entity to utilize concrete contents of the manual
when they draft Tender Document including technical specifications.

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 The Project for Capacity Development of Management for Sustainable Water Related Infrastructure

As the Construction Manual for River Embankment also includes items which the preliminary
study and construction labor safety measures must be considered as a checkpoint of
execution of the river embankment project, BWDB can utilize these items in construction
supervision. In particular, this Manual is desired to use in quality control for the embankment
body. Because it gives concrete figures for quality characteristics such as fill material granular
distribution (grading of soil), degree of compaction etc. and shows actual frequency of
quality control testing and tentative easy testing method on site, it will be useful.

Section 3 Responsibilities and Obligations of Contractors

3.01 General
Almost all the works of BWDB are executed through contractors. As such the contractors
play a vital role in the Works of BWDB to achieve its goal. It is, accordingly, desirable that the
engineers of BWDB shall be acquainted with the responsibilities and obligations of the
contractors. Similarly the contractors shall also know their obligations and responsibilities in
the execution of a work also it is expected that such contractors can utilize this Construction
Manual.
In the following paragraphs have been described the responsibilities and obligations of a
contractor. This list is, however, not exhaustive. Additional terms and conditions may be
added while issuing notice inviting tender if considered necessary.
3.02 Responsibilities and obligations of contractors:
The contractors shall execute the Work according to the drawing and specification and is
bound by the terms and conditions of the contract and time limit. He shall, in case he does
not normally stay at the site, appoint an agent whose name should intimated to the Engineer
in charge or the Project Manager, who are so entrusted by Procuring Entities, in writing. This
agent will stay at site and receive, on behalf of the contractor, all orders from the Engineer in
charge or the Project Manager and other superior officers and will be responsible for proper
execution of the Work. The ultimate responsibilities will, however, rest on the contractor.
The contractors shall keep at the Work site a copy of all drawings and specifications and
shall, at all times, give the departmental inspecting officers access thereto. Anything
mentioned in the specifications and not shown on the drawings or shown on the drawings
and not mentioned in the specification shall be of like effect as if shown or mentioned in
both. In case of difference between drawings and specifications the specification shall govern.
The decision of Superintending Engineer shall be final, binding and conclusive on all
questions relating to meaning of the specification. Time being deemed to be the essence of
the contract on the part of the contractor, the contractor must, therefore, arrange his
programme of Work to suit the time available and progress must be proportional to time

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 The Project for Capacity Development of Management for Sustainable Water Related Infrastructure

spent, i.e., half the Work must be completed in half the contract time.
Contractor must, if he desires extension of time for valid reason, apply to the Project
Manager, within 30 days of the date of hindrance.
Contractor must make over contract Work on completion in a completely finished, clean
and fair state including removal of all apparatus and implements required for construction
purposes, etc., before final certificate can be given.
Contractor must use stores and materials supplied by the Project Manager at prices
specified for his convenience in contract in case the material is supplied by department or
Engineer in charge. Such stores become the property of the contractor.
Contractor must accept alteration to and additions in original specifications, drawings,
design and instructions if so required by the Project Manager or the Engineer in charge.
Contractor must accept curtailment or alteration or complete cessation of contract if so
ordered by the Project Manager or the Engineer in charge in writing and shall not be entitled
to any compensation for such change or restriction.
Contractor must, on demand by the Project Manager or his subordinate, remove or rebuilt
any defect or unsound workmanship or any other thing not in accordance with the contract
at his expense.
Contractor must give at least 5 days’ notice in writing of his intention to cover up
foundations, or otherwise inaccessible portions, of a structure.
Contractor is liable for all damage or injury to building, road, fence, enclosure or grass land,
etc., caused by his servants or work people. He must also put right all defects or any kind
which become apparent within the time specified in the contract.
Contractor must supply all materials, plant, tool, appliances, scaffolding, etc., and carry out
all temporary works required for proper execution of Work. He must also supply the
necessary personnel with means and materials for setting out Works and for counting,
weighing and assisting in the measurement or examination of works and materials. He must
also provide all fencing and lights to protect the public from hurt or accident and is bound to
meet the cost of any legal proceedings brought for damage or injury sustained owing to
neglect of such precaution.
He shall not employ female labour within the limits of Cantonment.
He shall employ no labourer under 12 years of age.
He shall not pay his labourers less than the local rates.
He shall pay compensation for injury or death of his work‐man or employee in conformity
with Workmen’s Compensation Act or on the same scale as laid down therein in case
payment is made under the Civil Service Regulations.
Contractor may not assign or sub‐let without written approval of the Project Manager. He

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is liable to the severest penalties if he ―

(a) assigns his contract or attempts to do so,
(b) becomes insolvent, commences insolvency proceedings or makes composition with his
creditors or attempts to do so,
(c) offers bribe, gratuity, gift, loan, perquisite, reward or advantage, pecuniary or otherwise,
to any Government officer,
(d) permits such officer or person to become directory or indirectly interested in the
contract.
Contractor must refund or permit reduction from any moneys due to him for any excess
payment made inadvertently or otherwise and found to be due to the Government.
Contractor must notify the Project Manager of any change of constitution of the firm.
Contractor must accept the decision of Superintending Engineer as final and conclusion on
all matters relating to the contract.
Contractor must, if no specification exists either in the contract or in the departmental
specifications, accept the instructions and requirements of the Project Manager as to the
carrying out the Work.
Contractor must apply in writing for extension for time if his work or supply has been
hindered for good reason.
Contractor must remove all rejected materials and place and stack in such position as
required by the Project Manager or his Assistant away from all accepted materials before
receipt or final certificate.
Contractor shall supply only best quality materials and shall only receive payment for such
materials as is passed by the Project Manager or his Assistant.
The contractor shall at his own cost provide his labour with huttings on an approved site
and shall make arrangements for water supply, conservancy and sanitation in the labour
camp to the satisfaction of the local public health and medical authorities,

Section 4 Importance of Progress Control

It is without saying that it is important of planning and implementation of the works to complete
the project as per planned time schedule for the benefit of the recipiant people and society.
But there are found some projects were delay and/or suspended due to unavoidable situation
and other reason, resulting with not a small losses or damages to the society.
To avoid such event, it is required; i) well study and good planning, ii) proper time management
and iii) taking counter‐measures for such events.
This Manual is expressed for such issues in Section 1.2 Construction Plan and Section 1.3
Progress Control for your referenece.

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Chapter 1 General items of Supervision for construction (100 General)

Section 1.1 Surveys for Existing Condition

Surveys to be conducted before the construction work include a Climate survey, soil survey,
environmental study, work site investigation, and loading/unloading site investigations for the
borrow pit and disposal of soil during construction. In order for the work to go smoothly, it is
essential that work details are surveyed appropriately and that the concerned parties are familiar
enough considering the actual state of the work site.

1.1.1 Natural Condition Surveys

Other than soil survey stipulated in Designing, items and contents for natural condition
surveys around the proposed site such as climate surveys are shown on following table;

Table 1.1.1 Items and contents for natural condition surveys

Items of survey Contents of survey

Intensity of rain fall, numbers of rainy day,

Rain fall
quantity of rain fall at each month
Wind Direction, velocity
Climate Weather, temperature, hours of sunshine
Average and high water levels, low water level,
Hydrology flood duration, frequency of flood, velocity of
water

1.1.2 Site investigations

It is necessary to carry out following investigations in and around the construction site more
over natural condition surveys.

Table 1.1.2 Items of investigations in and around the construction site

Investigation for obstacles and buried objects within the work zone
Alignments and right‐of‐way of other infrastructure, road and railway
etc., which may interfering the proposed riverbank alignment
Investigation for historic sites and buried cultural assets
Checking for access road or temporary construction road

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Borrow pit and dumping area survey

Status surveys of currently cultivated farmland and residents

Investigation for obstacles and buried objects

It is necessary to discuss with the parties who are in charge of such expecting obstacles
and buried objects regarding replacement or treatment measures. Proposed survey items
and outline of discussion with owner or administrator of which are as below table;

Table 1.1.3 Summary of consultations on obstacles and solution

Consulting Party Outline of Discussion and
Obstacle
(Owner or Administrator) Solution
House or other building and farm ○ Method of protective
Owner or user
land or other private land measures
○ Timing for relocation
or removal and its
compensation cost
○ If necessary, acquiring
or borrow such building
and/or land
Power Grid Company of
Steel towers / Power / ○ Timing for relocation or
Bangladesh, Ltd.
utility poles electricity lines removal
(PGCB; formerly PDB)
○ For reinforcement,
Communication Govt T&T Dept.
consult with the contractors
lines Private carriers (Grameen
on construction period and
Phone, Banla Link, Airtel,
methods
Rabi, etc.)
○ Time, site and method
for relocation
Graves Family who owns the grave ( local customs)
○ Procedures prescribed
by law
Water supply authorities as ○ Time, method and site
Buried Water pipelines
Public health authorities for relocation or removal
objects
and WASA ○ For reinforcement,

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Sewerage lines WASA, BWDB and RHD consult the timing and
Communication T&T dept. and private methods
lines carriers ○ Consult on protection
Power lines PGCB method and reach

Gas pipes Titas Gas

Roads and Highways Dept. ○ Checking the overlap of

Highways
(RHD) proposed river embankment
Local Government alignment and existing (or
Roads Local / rural roads Engineering Department proposed) other
(LGED) infrastructures.

City roads Respective Municipality

○ Time and methods for

Railroads Bangladesh Railway protection or relocation

where the river crosses
Buried object control
within the river or river BWDB ○ Consultation on
embankment relocation and methods
<Classified by river Flood measure agency is as safety measures
characteristics (Ex.)> BWDB, except for small
・River embankment structures ○ Procedures prescribed
on the 3 major rivers by laws and ordinances
Rivers
(flood plain areas) ADG of Eastern & on usage permits, etc.
・ Southern seawall Western Regions
(sea areas) ○ Fixation of alignments
・Inland river 8 O&M Circle zones for proposed river
embankment embankment and other
1) Polder Each division: O&M infrastructure. Also making
2) flash flood Division Office sure right of way of the
embankment proposed river
3) Haor Submersible embankment.
embankments
4) Waterway river
bank (irrigation
projects ) and etc.

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If necessary for BWDB to obtain the land owned by others in order to execute riverbank
project, BWDB is to acquire such land or compensate the cost for temporary use of such
land.

1.1.3 Status surveys of farmland and residents within the scheduled construction area
If there are people currently residing, actively farming or otherwise using the area
scheduled for river embankment construction, current status of the area must be surveyed
before work commences. After field reconnaissance, including surveying to clarify current
location relationships, the following are to be studied by interview or other available means,
and consultation document prepared:
(1) Owners and users of farmland and residences
(2) Drawings given the location of farmland and buildings related to the proposed
construction.
(3) Work schedule

Following the survey, the owners, users, contractors and any other stakeholders in the
river embankment project are to consult about moving farm holdings or residences. If
necessary to obtain such farmland as permanent river bank, BWDB may acquire it for project
from land owner.
Mutual agreement is to be made about measures to be taken. As such consultation and
measures may require significant time. And sufficient time must be allowed for preliminary
studies.

Section 1.2 Construction Plan

1.2.1 General
Objective of Construction Plan is to draft the construction method and the construction
procedure in order to execute the river embankment with the structural shape and quality
defined by the designing documents. For drawing up the Construction Plan, it is necessary to
consider various factors such as natural conditions, social restriction, scale of budget and
status of access to the site more over the requirement of design.

1.2.2 Drafting the Basic Construction Plan

The construction plan includes absolutely every construction‐related item.

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The key items are given as follows:

a) Soil movement plan (cut/fill)
b) Construction methods for each category of work, a usage plan for the requisite
construction machinery, construction pace and required periods
c) Work sequences for each category of work, construction periods and the overall work
schedule progress
d) Labor and material plans
e) Work site organization and temporary facilities plan
f) Plans for access roads and other preparatory work
g) Plans for accident prevention and health and safety
h) Conservation plan for the local environment
The general procedure for preparing a construction plan is given in Figure 2.2.1. The
progress is outlined step by step in the items below.

1) Collection of information
Collect and sort through the requisite data for preparing the construction plan. Study the
design drawings and survey site conditions, including natural and social conditions.

2) Soil movement
Study the terrain, design height, borrow pit, locations where soil will be loaded and
unloaded, and other relevant details, and create a rational soil movement plan. Based on this
plan, specify transport distances and work out details for soil movement.

3) Establish a work sequence and mark work sections

Differentiate work sections according to soil movement status and structure locations.
Next, prioritize the sections and key work categories, and then establish a work sequence.
During this time, consider the necessity of any temporary or preparatory work, such as
access roads.

4) Examination for construction methods and work schedule progress

Construction methods and machinery for the key work categories are to be selected and
comparison of work costs are to be found. Based on the comparisons, calculate the days
needed for each work category. While considering work durations and sequences, arrange
the works so that they will fit into the construction period, finally establishing a work
schedule progress.

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5) Conduct overall assessments

Comprehensively evaluate all the alternatives based on the construction period, cost and
other conditions, and then select the plan that meets each condition. If no alternative satisfy
all the construction restrictions and conditions, the previous step are to be examined and an
appropriate plan are to be found out.

6) Finalization of construction plan

Once the construction plan is finalized for the key work categories, a detailed plan for each
item should be prepared while checking for inconsistencies and reviewing the work
management plan.

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Gather data to draft the construction plan

Natural conditions Design drawings Social conditions

 Terrain  Design specifications  Nearby structures
 Geology  Detailed specifications  Environmental conditions
 Weather  Other  Other
 Other

Allocate soil volumes

1) Mass curve soil volume allocation Modify soil volume allocations
2) Clarify work details (Excavation/dredging areas, banking areas, volume of soil to
transport)

Set work zones and construction procedures Modify work zones and
(1) Work zones corresponding to soil volume allocation status, river construction procedures
structures and construction road positions
(2) Construction procedures for key steps

Examine construction methods

(1) Discuss construction methods Modify construction methods
(2) Select construction machinery and combinations
(3) Calculate work capacities
(4) Consider work costs

Examine process plan

(1) Calculate working days Modify process plan
(2) Calculate operating days
(3) Discuss process plan
(4) Consider flood and non-flood seasons

Overall assessments (Are construction NO

cost, schedule environmental conditions
and other restrictions met?)

YES

Determine the construction plan

(1) Determine construction plan for key work types
(2) Discuss detailed plans for related items
a. Temporary facility plans
b. Disaster prevention plan
c. Safety plan
d. Machinery plan
e. Materials plan
f. Labor plan

Arranging by objective
(1) Schedule chart
(2) Labor deployment diagram
(3) Temporary material table

Discuss construction management

l
Figure 1.2.1 Procedure for drafting the construction plan

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Section 1.3 Progress Control

1.3.1 Progress Plan

Objective of drafting for construction progress plan is given as follows:
a) To decide the order to implement each progress or partial task.
b) To determine the appropriate actual working period for each progress or partial task and
c) To prepare a schedule that contains all work within the construction period and each
progress or partial task within a reasonable time.
More over setting the period for preparatory and temporary works, drafting procedure
and progress plans will be carried out as below;

1) Preparing the progress plan

First, formulate the schedule for earthworks and other types of work by determining the
combination of machinery to be used, number of workable days and daily workloads for each
construction method. Next, create a progress plan, looking at the days required for each type
of work and order of works.
The progress plan must be determined considering for the volumes of soil filled, excavated,
dumped and borrowed, as well as soil quality, terrain, weather, construction period,
temporary work and others.
There is a case where river training work must be performed in seasons with adverse
conditions. Particularly with earthwork, where weather can dictate work capacity or even
feasibility, factors such as rainfall, distribution of rain days, temperatures and hours of
daytime should be sufficiently studied. It is also necessary to study river water levels, flow
and geological features and consider protection of revetment in order to rationally
determine the number of workable days.

(1) Calculating number of working days

The number of working days is the number of days required to perform a certain task. This
can be calculated by the formula below. The principle is the same in calculations for
earthwork, even for complex work of great volume involving many types of construction
machinery.
Total earthwork volume, or volume for each site (m3)
Working days＝
Daily workload (m3/day)
Where:

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Daily workload ＝ Hourly workload for construction

(m3/day) machinery or combined × Daily operating hours
construction (m3/ hr.) (hrs./day)
Or:
＝ Hourly workload for manual labor × Daily working hours
3
(m /hr.) (hrs./day)
If working days as calculated above are used to represent the working days in the schedule
chart, calendar days must be calculated according to the percentage of working days in the
schedule.

1
Calendar days ＝ working days×
Working days %

Workable days during the work

Working days % ＝
Calendar days during the work

Calendar days during the work ＝ Workable days ＋ (days off + rain days + days off after
rainfall + other rest days)

(2) Percentage of operating days and workable days

Percentage of operating days must be determined the reasonable days on the basis of past
weather and hydrological records for the area of the site.
Additionally, for rest days, national public holidays must be put into estimates along with
monthly rest days.
Percentage of operating days is usually between 50 and 80 percent, but it is need to
consider the decrease by the condition of access road, characteristic of the soil, the scale of
the works and other factors.

2) Representation of the progress plan

There are various methods of representation used for progress plans depending on the
work scale, importance and other factors. In general, however, working days are calculated
for each type of work for use in schedules determined by horizontal line schedule charts,
such as bar charts.
Schedule charts must be useful in schedule management. Complex charts may sound good
in theory, but may not be practical; over‐simplified charts do not allow for the schedule to be
managed scientifically.

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(1) Horizontal line schedule charts (bar charts, etc.)

Horizontal line schedule charts include bar charts and Gantt charts.
As shown in the example in Figure 1.3.1, bar charts show the steps and working days for
each type of work at a glance for an easy‐to‐understand overall schedule. They divide
comprising work by type of work, displaying the working days (or calendar days) needed for
each type of work with the work period as the horizontal axis. Meanwhile, Gantt charts,
while not used in progress plans, are frequently used in schedule management and are
convenient for understanding progress by type of work.

(2) Progress control curve

The progress control curve is a useful tool in comparing the project schedule to the
implementation schedule. As given by the solid lines in Figure 1.3.1, the progress control
curve expresses the monthly work progress rates with work progress as the vertical axis and
work days required as the horizontal axis, where the work progress rate represents the
percent of finished work costs for each portion against the overall work costs. Normally,
progress control curves are used in combination with a bar chart. As shown in the figure, in a
progress plan in which river earthwork progresses smoothly, the progress control curve will
be an S‐curve, with output increases going from gradual to sharp to gradual again in the early,
middle and end stages of the construction period.

(3) Network
The network is a typical systematic approach used in planning and management of
construction work (see Figure 1.3.2).
In a network chart, work is divided into a critical path and a float path. The critical path
shows how long it will take to complete the work within the construction period with no
slack, while the float path involves a certain amount of slack. This chart thus shows how
important the start, finish and other progress of each work are, relating the processes to the
work as a whole.
Network method has been introduced as a part of the Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT). According to the same principle of PERT, Critical Path Method (CPM) is also
broadly used for project progress management.

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Figure 1.3.1 Horizontal line schedule chart (bar chart) for embankment work

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Preparation work
Excavation / slope
掘削・のり覆工
Planning
8

計画 準備工 掘削
Excavation
Excavation / soil transport
(掘削
) ・ 土運搬 （ I ） 土運搬 （ I I(II))
Soil transport
1 2 3 5

築立 （ I ） 築立 （ I(II)
Banking I） 築立 (III
Banking
Banking (I)
(III)
4 6

のり覆工 ( I ) 跡片付け
Trace cleanup
Slope lining (I)
7 9 10

のり覆工lining
Slope (II)

天候
Weather
日
Day
月
Month

Figure 1.3.2: Sample of network schedule chart

Table 1.3.1 summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of each of the schedule charts outlined
above.
Table 1.3.1: Comparison of progress plan charts

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1.3.2 Control for Construction Progress

1) Necessities and Preparation
Schedule management involves managing the work with the work progress so that it is
completed efficiently, economically, and within the construction period by following a
schedule created based on the construction plan.
In case the progress has changed for some reason, it is important for the actual work to
adjust the subsequent progress plan and move ahead with work again based on the new
progress plan.
During controlling construction progress, it needs to understand and check the following
issues;

Table 1.3.2 Checking items for controlling Construction Progress

Checking items Contents of checking

‐ Environmental conditions of the site (topography, geology,

metrology and hydrology)
(1) Site conditions
‐ Site conditions such as labor force, materials, and machinery
‐ Coordination of the schedule and implementation with
preceding and subsequent work
‐ Changes in site shape and work volume
(2) Contract conditions ‐ Securing easements, necessity of removal of obstacles and
consulting with local parties concerned
(3) Plans for temporary ‐ Ensuring the amount and safety of necessary equipment
Facilities ‐ How to handle changes to site conditions

2) How to Manage the Schedule

(1) Management approach
As stated in the Table1.3.1, schedule management approaches include horizontal line
schedule charts (bar chart, Gantt chart), accumulating curve charts (graph schedule chart
and cumulative progress curve) and network schedule charts.
The daily workload used in the progress plan is the average workload in normal conditions.
However, earthwork may be impeded by weather and other reasons, and slight changes to
construction machinery and the labor force may often delay the schedule in the long run.
Therefore, it is safer to expect these delays and to make workload during normal conditions
is bit larger than the planned average workload.

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There are various ways to create schedule charts, but generally a horizontal line schedule
chart is used. Figure 1.3.1 shows an example of a schedule chart combining a horizontal line
and graph for mainly earthwork.

(2) Daily workloads

The daily workload used in the progress plan is the average workload in normal conditions.
River earthworks in particular often do not proceed on schedule due to weather and other
causes and may be greatly delayed. Thus, it is safer to anticipate these delays so workload
during normal conditions should surpass the planned workload.
Moreover, if workloads are tracked at the site, such records should be used in schedule
management. For this reason, it is important to always organize daily work reports and
record construction conditions.

(3) Frequency of review to manage the schedule

While there is no definitive rule for determining how frequently to compare the project
schedule and actual progress, in principle they should be compared daily. Particularly
important review times over the entire construction period are listed below.

Table 1.3.2 Timing of progress management review

Time to review project schedule Details subject to review

First review to check if the initially planned temporary

Construction commencement facilities and construction‐related machinery are ready
per schedule, if the main work has commenced, if there
are any changes to site conditions and work can proceed
under these conditions.
During construction Ascertain the speed of construction work to reassess
(when work performance is scheduling for the subsequent work.
ascertained)
When there are any changes to When there are any schedule changes, immediately
the schedule reassess the schedule.

3) Handling Schedule Delays

If any delay to the schedule arises, it is important to ascertain the cause, decide how to
deal with it and act quickly.
The following items are to be detailed how to handle delays.

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a) Revise work procedures (improve work efficiency)

b) Shift work order
c) Change work times and crew numbers
d) Change the machinery to be used
e) Other considerations
Moreover, rework is a surprisingly frequent and major cause of construction delays.
Rework results from careless planning and insufficient management of the work, and
therefore care needs to be taken. It is also important to promptly consult with related parties
to determine necessary measures for delays that occur due to land issues, disasters, and
changes to the shape of the site.

Example of Handing Schedule Delay in a Pilot works;

1. Out‐line of the delay
Name of Project: Capacity Development of Management for Sustainable Water Related
Infrastructure, BWDB / JICA
Name of Works: The Pilot Repair Works of Manu River Flood Control Embankment in Moulvibazar
District
Commencement Date: 25 November 2015
Intended Completion Date: 15 May 2016
It has been extra ordinaly imclemnt weather, such as extraordinary inclement weather on 25th
February 2016 and heavy rain fall and its consequent water rise from 28 March 2106. At the middle of
May 2016, the water level has been above the bottom level of slope of proposed embankmentand.
Under such situation, slope protection works cannot be continued. Thus the Works were suspended
during coming monsoon season until next dry season. Intended Completion Date is extended by the 30
April 2017.

2. Anlaysis of the cause of delay

JICA Expert team made a report of the Delay on April 2016 as below;

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According to avobe anlaysis, including hydrogical checking, cause of delay was concludeed as follows;
1) Extra ordinaly water level and rainfall,
2) Backwater from the main discharging point (Sherpur on Kushiana River) and
3) Weatherforecast of heavy rain in the up‐steam of Manu River (in the Idian teretory)

3. Detaling the modified coctruction plan/counter measurs

On the basis of the joint site inspection and disccussion among BWDB officials, JICA Expert Team and
the Contractor, following measures were defined;
1) Time Extention of Intended Completion Date 15 May 2016 to 30 April 2017 and
2) Conducting a “Temporary Prevension work (TPW)” for proposed slope in the river‐side (refer to
Section 5.3.5 Additional prevension measures during the suspention of the Works and its example in a
Pilot Works.)

4. Result and Learnings

1) Up to the end of March 2017, all Toe and Slope Protection works in the river side have been
completed.
2) Unfortunately, due to unavoidable circumastances, extra ordinaly early rain fall attacked to
north‐east regions of Bangladesh including Moulvibazar site and other reasons, the Work had to be
extended to another few weeks. Actual completion date was the latter half of May 2017.
3) Importance of planning shedule
When procuring entity consider and design the construction perio for the project, past years hydrogical
data at the proposed construction site, including water level and rain fall, should be studied carefully.
4) Plural seasons of construction period
If the work volume/scale is relatively large and/or expection capability of the work‐force is limited and
the due to site condition, 2 years or more years construction period is to be recommended . For instant
first year, the Works includs only for Toe Protection works and earth work/embankment works, and
secondary year the Slope Protection works are carried out.

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Section 1.4 Supervision of Construction

1.4.1 Objective for Supervision

The objective of construction management is to systematically and sufficiently make
organization functions, execute safe and economical construction, and smoothly ensure the
planned quality and construction period.
Furthermore, the rationalization of construction management is an essential condition and
more practical management is required. Without this sort of management, engineering
innovations will fall short of their potential. The main contents of such construction
management are shown in Table 1.4.1.

Table 1.4.1 Construction work management

Progress
Compare the plan and actual schedule
management
Construction
Quality control Compare the design and construction quality
management
Completion Compare the design and actual form
management dimensions
Operation Improve machinery operation rate and work
Machinery
management efficiency
management
Maintenance Maintain machinery
On‐site
Safety measures directly related to site
management
Safety Accident Prevention of accidents related to workers
management prevention and third parties
Flood protection
Prevention of water damage from disasters
measures
Environmental
Various countermeasures for environmental impact
protection

1.4.2 Quality Control

1) General
Faults found during inspections are usually not an easy matter to be repaired and, even if
possible to repair such faults will cost a considerable amount of labor, time, and money.
Quality should therefore be rationally managed during construction and work must progress

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so that construction definitely passes inspection.

Objective of quality control
Quality control is a method for economical construction that sufficiently satisfies the
quality standards described in the design and specifications. The objective is to prevent
construction faults before they occur, reduce variations in quality, and make the construction
work more reliable.
Embankment quality control
Most of the quality control in earthwork usually deals with embankment materials and
degree of compaction, and also sometimes with base material.
As soil is the material used in embankments, it is difficult to ensure homogeneity. It is
therefore vital to check quality daily to obtain homogeneity.
To manage embankment compaction, a density test using the sand replacement method
is generally employed as the quality control method to measure compacted soil density and
water content. And radioisotope (RI) gauge method might also be conducted for such test.

2) Quality control procedures

Quality control can generally be implemented based on the following policies and it is
shown on Figure 3.3.1;
(1) Determining quality characteristics
Quality characteristics such as grading of fill material and compaction degree of
embankment body should be determined as control items for each work process in the river
embankment construction.
In contract work, specifications usually show the quality characteristics to be managed in
advance and the quality is managed with a quality control test that corresponds to the
characteristics.
(2) Determining work standards to ensure quality standards
The methods and order of work must be decided to ensure quality standards, so it is
necessary to determine work standards with consideration for previous experience and
construction capabilities based on the design and specifications to have sufficient allowance
in the schedule.
For embankment, work standards are to determine methods that are appropriate for each
type of soil and standards, including compaction methods, types of machinery and weight to
be used for compaction, thickness of spread soil, construction water content and number of
compaction passes. These standard construction methods should also be determined in
principle through trial construction.
(3) Checking quality

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When quality does not meet the standard values or works are not consistently carried out
according to the daily management results, reconstruction such as re‐compaction or review
the standard work procedures are to be made.

1.4.3 Measurement of works

Civil works are often large in scale, and it is extremely difficult to do rework, even if
defects are found after completion. Thus, it is important to check that construction meets
the standards and dimensions indicated in the design drawings and specifications during
construction work—a process called “measurement of works” control.
Finished forms in earthworks include river embankment alignment, width of crest, slope
width and length, gradient, and standard elevation.
Tolerances are the limitation values of the differences between design values and the
completed work. Table 1.4.2 shows examples of standard management values or tolerance.

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Table 1.4.2 Example of standard management values for measurement of works

(mm)
Table 5.3.3 Examples of work progress control standard values

Measurement Items Stand. Value Measurement Standards

or tolerance

Reference elevation One place for work lengths of 40 m (50 m if

measurement spacing is 25 m), two places for every
Excavation work spot for lengths under 40 m long (or 50 m).
Slop
work e Reference elevation measured at both ends of
leng excavated area.
th L
Slope length – 4%
River earthwork

Reference One place for work lengths of 40 m (50 m if

elevation measurement spacing is 25 m), two places for every
work spot for lengths under 40 m long (or 50 m).
Slop Reference elevation measured at the shoulder of
Embankment
work e each slope.
lengt
hL Slope length – 2%

Width w1, w2

Note: Payment shall be made by work‐done quantity

Crest width

Excavation work

Embankment work

(quoted by “ River Embankment manual” )

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Chapter 2 Preparation & Temporary Works (200 Site Preparation)

Preparation work involves making arrangements for the main construction. Whether it is
done properly or not has a huge effect on the efficiency, quality, economic efficiency and
schedule of the construction. It is an extremely important part of proper construction
management. It is important to consider preparation work carefully in the construction
period, work scale, site conditions and other project details, selecting the methods best
suited to working conditions in order to make work more efficient.

Section 2.1 Surveys & Profile Stake & Finished profile stake

2.1.1 Preparatory surveying

Preparatory surveying before the work is important to fully understand how the design
drawings relate to the site. If preparatory surveying reveals inconsistencies between the
design drawings and the site, it is important to promptly survey the causes of those
inconsistencies and take proper actions.

(1) Setting temporary Bench Mark

Temporary bench markers are to be set up using official Bench Mark (BM) on the
foundations of permanent structures and other immovable objects. When such objects are
not usable due to site circumstances, temporary bench markers are to be installed. They are
to be set outside of construction areas on solid ground where there is no chance that the
pillars will be damaged by general traffic, and they require proper protection.
Elevation for temporary bench markers is to be determined by horizontal leveling from
existing official BM and confirming positions by referencing at least one other existing official
BM. Temporary bench markers cannot be placed unless this confirmation is done. The
elevation of the temporary bench markers must be verified regularly.

(2) Placing backup pillars

The alignment markers, transverse markers and backup pillars needed for the work must
be provided. Backup pillars must be put in places where the original position of alignment
markers and transverse markers will be known if excavation or embanking changes the
topography.
Note that backup pillars will preferably be put somewhere off site with hard ground where
there is no risk of losing the pile. If the pile has to be put within the site, a suitably protected
location must be selected which will not obstruct operation of work machinery or the

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loading and unloading of materials.

(3) Checking and setting boundary markers and survey markers

Boundary markers and survey markers must be checked before construction.
Boundary markers may be broken, removed or become lost if any time has passed between
work site acquisition and tree clearing before construction starts, resulting in discrepancies.
Thus, markers need to be verified to make sure that they are in the correct positions.
In addition, the concerned authorities must be consulted and proper measures taken
before repositioning existing distance markers or bench markers when construction requires
them to be repositioned.

(4) Introduction of survey instruments

Followings are introduction of some main instruments for survey works in river embankment
works.

a) Auto‐Level <SOKKIA:B20/B30A>
To survey the elevation of the ground and
the structure, “Level” is essential and basic
instrument. Now “Auto Level” is broadly used
in construction field. Left is one latest model.

Ph. The picture was taken for Cross Section Survey by TSS (JV)

carried out at field on 13 &14 December 2016, with checking by

JET SV Team as Pilot Repair Works in Manu River

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b) Total station
To topographic survey, “Total Station” is now broadly used. Previously Theodolite instrument
have been used for such survey but “Total Station” has more convenient function, such as
measure the distance and calculation/sophisticated applications.
Below is one of example of latest model by “SOKKIA”.

c) UAV (drone)
Last only few years, newly producing UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, or “Drone”) has been
developing on many activities. Also in construction field, it will be very useful instrument,
especially survey works, including river embankment works, and emergency information
collection on the site.

Ph. Lying UAV Fig. 3D mapping from UAV taken photographs

Left Ph. Operating UAV on the river

flood plain during the flight
to take photos in order to make
topography drawing for the
damaged river banks

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2.1.2 Finished profile stake

Finished profile stake, or grade stake / leading frame, serve as references in the course of
the target work and must be firmly installed to remain in place during construction. They
must be inspected regularly and verified and corrected when doubts exist.
As a rule, finished profile stake will be placed at 10‐meter intervals on straight reaches of
the river and at five‐meter intervals on curved and other complicated reaches, but it is best
to place them at closer intervals when necessary.
Note here that there are finished profile stake for cutting, embanking, rubble work and
other purposes. The type of finished profile stake to use must be selected to fit site
conditions and the target work.

Section 2.2 Temporary Access Road

2.2.1 Investigation for Temporary Access Road

Used in the transport of equipment and materials as well as soil and sand, access road for
construction is vital to the success of the project. As such, the existing road network close by
to the work site in particular is crucial and must be sufficiently surveyed before the work.
When road is to be newly constructed or improved, there are a few points which must be
kept in mind in the survey. It is required to check the terrain and the geological features on
the route and it is need to determine the route and road structure rationally with setting the
objective of usage and volume of traffic considering for local land use plans after the
embankment body is complete.

2.2.2 Temporary works for Access Road

There are two kind of temporary access road; one is used for the existing public road and
the other is the use newly constructed temporarily.
Basically the existing public road is to be used as access road, but in case it is difficult to
use the public road newly construction or improvement of the road will be needed.

1) Using existing public Road

Firstly check the status of traffic condition and secondary assess the proposed work load
during the usage for access road. And if necessary, the road will be strengthened. Discussion
will be made with the parties concerned the road, Representative of maintenance
department of RHD and others, regarding the repairing works for that road or traffic

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restriction and other issues of the road.

2) In case of newly construction for a temporary access road

As a temporary works of access for construction material and equipment, the temporary
road will be made as possible as small in scale and structure. In case the access road is
newly constructed, it must be considered to minimize the environmental impact to
surroundings as possible as little. Basically, the temporary works shall be restored as well as
before.

Section 2.3 Temporary Construction Yards

It is necessary to provide fabrication yards for CC‐block manufacturing, temporary stock

yards for construction material such as geo‐bags, temporary stockpile area for imported
embankment material and temporary construction area for temporary office and storage and
vehicles parking space during the construction nearby the site.
In the river embankment works, these temporary construction yards will be placed
basically at the country side because of water rise at flood.
Where the existing farmland is utilized for the temporary yards as lease, basically such
farmland shall be restored for cultivation after the completion of the Works.

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Chapter 3 Earth Works (300 Earth Works)

Section 3.1 General items of Earth Works

3.1.1 Soil Movement Plan

The plan for allocating soil to be excavated and embanked is called the soil movement plan.
As this plan will greatly affect work arrangements, selection of construction machinery and
the schedule, the soil movement plan must be prepared to allow soil to be delivered
economically.

1) Deformation of soil volume change rates

When excavating, transporting and constructing the river embankment with soil, the
volume of soil will differ based on whether the soil is in the ground, loosened from the
ground, or compacted. Accordingly, soil volumes at each state (or location) must be
determined in advance in order to formulate the soil movement plan.
The three soil states and their relations with earthwork are as follows:
Ground soil volume Volume of soil to be excavated (soil in the ground)
Loosened soil volume Volume of excavated soil to be transported (excavated, loosened soil)
Compacted soil volume Volume of compacted soil in embankment (compacted)

The soil volume ratios for other states against the ground soil volume, are called the soil
volume change rates and are defined as follows:
Loosened soil volume (m3) Compacted soil volume (m3)
L ＝ C=
Ground soil volume (m3) Ground soil volume (m3)

The state of soil differs according to its usage and keep it mind that each volume of soil of
each phase shall be different.
Thus, each volume of soil shall be calculated according to its usage when planning soil
allocation.

(a) For deciding the necessary volume of embankment;

Volume of embankment = (Ground soil volume) × C

(b) For deciding the necessary volume of transportation;

Volume of transportation = (Volume of embankment) ÷ C × L

Soil volume change rates can be determined either through simple measurements, trial
construction or through estimates based on results of past work. Table 3.3.1 gives standard
ranges for soil volume change rates by soil class.

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Table 3.3.1 Soil volume change rates

Class Name Change Rate L Change Rate C
Reference Normal
Key Classes Normal Range Reference Vale
Value Range
1.15 0.95
Gravel 1.05~1.25 0.85~1.05
(1.20) (0.95)
Gravelly soil
1.20 0.95
Gravelly soil 1.10~1.30 0.85~1.05
(1.20) (0.90)
1.2 0.95
Sandy soil Sand 1.10~1.30 0.85~1.05
(1.20) (0.95)
and
Sandy Soil 1.20 0.90
sand 1.10~1.30 0.80~1.00
(normal soil) (1.20) (0.90)
1.30 0.90
Cohesive soil 1.20~1.40 0.80~1.00
(1.30) (0.90)
Cohesive soil High water
1.25 0.90
content 1.15~1.35 0.80~1.00
(1.25) (0.90)
cohesive soil

Notes:
1) Maximum values are standard values closer to consolidated or packed soil values, while
minimum values are closer to loose soil values.
2) Standard values within parentheses are from the Cost Estimate Standards for Civil Work from
the Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (2008 Ed.).

2) Preparing the soil movement plan

Soil allocation is a central facet of the construction plan. Normally, river embankment
use soil excavated from the setback area or other sources as fill material. However, in some
cases where soil is not fit for fill material, or long transport distances make it an economic
burden. In such cases a suitable soil movement plan must be considered, outlining location
of excavated soil to be embanked, rules for dumping of purchased soil, and other details.
The basic concept is to plan soil movement to minimize “the volume of transported
soil‐by‐ transport distance”, and also considering for the following:
a) Make a plan that will allow construction to go smoothly, giving sufficient thought to
coordination between the earthwork plan and the schedule for any sluiceways, sluice
gates and other structures.
b) If excavated soil is used for embankments, soil type and quality may differ greatly. In such
cases, the plan should be effectively made for different soil by type and quality to
complete the embankment bodies as effectively as possible.
c) For transport facilities, consider building a temporary bridge if excavation area and the
embankment are on opposite sides of the river, or building a temporary road if they are

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upstream or downstream from each other. And also take consideration for ship or barge
transportation in such cases.

3.1.2 Construction Machinery Selection

When river eathwork is carried out mainly by consrtuction machines, selection of
construction machinery has large effect to the construction.
Which kind of construction machinery should be selected with consideration of the overall
work scale, soil volume, soil quality, terrain, construction period and other working
conditions, but also of economical factor and familiarity of machine operators

1) Applicable equipment by type of work

Table 3.1.2 gives the construction machinery suited to earthwork as classified into
excavation, loading, transport, spreading, compaction and other tasks. Some is used on a
single type of work, while others can be used in succession on several type of work.

Table 3.1.2 Applicable machinery by type of work

Type of work Type of construction machinery

Shovel excavators (power shovels, backhoes, draglines, clamshell
Excavation
buckets), bulldozers
Shovel excavators (power shovels, backhoes, draglines, clamshell
Loading
buckets)

Shovel excavators (power shovels, backhoes, draglines, clamshell

Excavation/ loading
buckets), crawler loaders, wheel loaders

Excavation/transport Bulldozers, scrape dozers, scrapers

Transport Bulldozers, dump trucks, belt conveyors

Spreading Bulldozers, motor graders
Bulldozers, tire rollers, rammers, tampers, vibrating compactors,
Compaction
vibrating rollers, road rollers

The construction machinery used may differ for one type of work if site conditions are
different. As such, it is important to fully consider the trafficability and soil conditions, work
site size and construction scale, construction period, familiarity with the machinery and
other conditions when selecting a type or standard of construction machinery.

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2) Models applicable for different soil conditions

For earthwork for river embankment, construction machinery selection will need to
account for soil conditions in the following cases:
a) Soil on the site is soft, and trafficability is an issue
b) Method or model is being selected when compacting
c) Excavation method is an issue due to soft rock or extremely densely packed soil

(1) Trafficability
When operating construction machinery on soft soil, work efficiency will depend greatly
upon the soil type and water content. In cohesive soil with particularly high water content,
construction machinery will create ruts which weaken the soil, sometimes to the point that
operation is impossible.

(2) Adaptability of compactors

The machinery to be used for compaction is to be selected based on construction
conditions, such as soil quality of fill material, type and scale of construction, and the
characteristics of compactors.
It should be noted that bulldozers are the standard compactor for river embankment. Also,
bulldozers are highly versatile, economical machines that can do the entire series of banking
work in one machine, from spreading to compacting.

3) Notes on machinery selection

It must be noted that items such as construction period, work scale and machine
familiarity are all important elements in selecting the machinery. Also, transport is a key task
in earthwork that accounts for a large percentage of earthwork costs. As such, selecting
suitable machinery for transport is essential in moving and transporting large volumes of soil.
(1) Construction period, work scale and familiarity with the construction machinery
Often in earthwork for river embankment, large volumes of earthwork must be
accomplished in a short period. In general, construction machinery is to be selected to fit the
scale of the work. Large machinery is generally ideal for use in large‐scale work, and likewise
small machinery is ideal for use in small‐scale work.

(2) Transport distance and work site area

As soil transport is a key task in earthwork and transport expenses are a large percentage
of earthwork costs, it is important in work where large volumes of soil are being moved to
select the right transport machines. Pay particular attention to details such as transport

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distance, gradients and work site area when selecting transport machines.
While the machinery suited to the transport distance must be selected on a per‐site basis,
Table 3.1.3 gives the standard transport distance ranges for each transport machine. In
general, bulldozers are often used for transporting short distances, and dump trucks are used
for transporting longer distances.

Table 3.1.3 Soil transport distances for transport machinery

Type of machinery operated Transport distance
Manual Under 40 m
Bulldozer Under 60 m
Scrape bulldozer (150HP) 40 ~ 250 m
Towed scraper 60 ~ 400 m
Self‐propelled scraper 200 ~ 1,200 m
Shovel excavator
+ Dump truck Over 100 m
Tractor shovel

Notes:
2) In special cases, tractor shovels are suited for use in excavating and transporting under
100 meters.
3) For transport distances of 60 ~ 100 meters, compare use of a bulldozer, dump truck and
other machines according to the site conditions.
(Quoted from “River Embankment manual”)

Also note that machine selection must account for how much area there is at the
excavating and loading points on the work site. Scrapers in particular require wide areas to
turn. Also, width of the transport route must be confirmed to select the size of transport
machinery.

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Section 3.2 Excavation

3.2.1 General
Excavation methods will differ by the soil excavated, terrain and other conditions.
The methods for excavation and transport in river earthwork should be selected based on
whether excavation is just to expand the river channel or the excavated soil is planned for
use in embanking or other work. If excavated soil is to be used, methods must account for
items such as balancing soil volume with the soil movement plan and controlling fill material
quality.

3.2.2 Excavation for soil

(a) Mechanical excavation
Where machines are used for excavation for soil, shovel excavators, bulldozers, tractor
shovels and similar machinery are used.
If dump trucks are to be used as the main machine of soil transport, shovel excavators will
be used to both excavate and load the soil. Note that often bulldozers can be effectively
combined with such shovel excavators as a support excavator for piling soil and finishing.
Also, it will generally be helpful for the excavator to work from an elevated position in river
earthwork when water flowing from small leaks can impact construction. This is an important
point to consider when selecting your combination of machinery.

a) Excavation height exceeds shovel range b) Piling with a bulldozer

Figure 3.2.1 Combination with supporting excavator
(quoted by “ River Embankment manual” )

(b) Manual excavation

Manual excavation is used when mechanical excavation would be uneconomical, or in
smaller work where machinery cannot excavate or move freely in certain areas, such as
mechanical excavation close to the finished surface or with structures nearby due to the plan.
Finished surface excavation, meaning excavation of the last 5 to 10 centimeters left after
mechanical excavation, is generally performed manually. An effective method is to devise a

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way to leave extra soil alongside mechanical excavation, finish the surface manually and
deliver out the excess soil by machine.

With works digging below the

ground surface in manual excavation,
safety is paramount.

The lesser gradient of the slope is

more safety than the steeper gradient
of which. Usually the gradient are
described the ratio of horizontal 1 to
vertical x, such as 1:1, 1:1.5, 1:2 or 1:3.
And there are also some “gradient
standards for excavation in manual”
based on rules of thumb determined
by depth of excavation and ground
type.

Left figures is one of introductive

example for such standards.

Reference Figure 3.2.1: Experience‐based samples of

gradient and height for manual excavation
(source; “Occupational Health and Safety Regulations”
Articles 356 and 357, Japanese)

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3.2.3 Notes on Excavation works

(a) Excavation must be performed properly according to the design section without
disturbing the original ground. The finished surface has to perform its designed functions
of directing river flow, and excessive dig depths or an uneven surface will disrupt normal
flow. Thus, great care must be taken when close to the finished surface. Tolerances for
unevenness on the finished surface are generally specified as (+) or (‐) 10cm, and care
must be taken to keep intervals to a minimum for the finished profile stake showing
excavation height during the work.

Ground

Design section (+)Insufficient cross section

(‐) Excessive digging

Figure 3.2.2: Example of section irregularities

(Figures 3.2.2, 3.2.3 & 3.2.4 are quoted by “River Embankment manual”)

(b) Excavation methods for river channels, and low flow channels in particular, must not
significantly disrupt the direction of flow during the work.
i. In general, excavation of a section series is to proceed from downstream to upstream.
As shown in Figure 3.2.3, starting excavation upstream will change the direction of flow
on the excavation surface, causing turbulence. This can not only cause deep holes and
scouring on the riverbank or river bank where the water hits, but can also scour the soil
from the area being excavated.
ii. If a wide area across the river is to be excavated as in Figure 3.2.4, excavation should
be divided into several blocks almost parallel in flow, starting from the embankments
and moving upstream.

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Turbulence

Scouring

Figure 3.2.3: Example of incorrect excavation order

Legend:
①；First excavation
②；Secondary excavation

Figure 3.2.4: Example of correct excavation order

(c) Measurement for high water content

Excavation methods must be fully considered based on how excavated soil is to be used. If
the soil is to be used in embanking work, water content is of particular concern. The soil
must be transported directly to the embankment and compacted to specified levels. In
excavation of setbacks and low flow channels, water content should thus be lowered to
be as close to optimal as possible. Water content can be lowered with cut‐and‐cover or
cofferdams to lower groundwater and river water levels, installing ditches for pumping
out or temporary staging of the excavated soil. With cohesive soil, as lowering
groundwater levels can prove difficult, methods such as dividing excavation area relatively

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into thin layers in the hopes of drying from the ground surface must be considered.

(d) Shelter for machinery

A plan is needed for swiftly evacuating excavation machinery to a safe location in case of
flooding. Given that excavating machinery generally moves slowly and water levels will
rise quickly in short time after rainfall, especially on smaller rivers, a shelter location that
can be safely reached in time must be prepared in advance.

(e) Removing old river embankments

When removing old river embankments, work should proceed from downstream to
upstream, from the country side to the river side in order to avoid disrupting river flow
direction in a flood.

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Section 3.3 Management of embankment material & Transportation

3.3.1 Borrow pit and dumping area surveys

1) Borrow pit and dumping area surveys

It is advisable to be somewhat selective about fill material. River embankments require
firm fill material to be sufficiently safe against seepage water during flooding. A separate
borrow pit will be necessary if the soil excavated on site is not suitable as fill material, or
there is not enough fill material. In selecting a borrow pit in such circumstances, the borrow
pit that is most suitable and economical for that work must be selected. First, several
candidate sites are to be selected based on the quality and volume of soil that can be
borrowed, with each candidate surveyed for various conditions and sufficiently discussed.
Survey conditions shall include terrain, soil quality, transport distance, transport route,
access roads used, surrounding environment, buried cultural assets and local regulations.
Soil quality for the borrow pit will affect by factors such as embankment quality,
trafficability of construction machinery and compaction methods, meaning that investigation
will be needed to account for things like soil consistency, grain size and natural water
content.
In earthwork construction, the set back is often used as the borrow pit. The water content
of the fill material should be checked in particular, taking care that it will not hinder
compaction. Adjusting of water content or other measures may be advisable in some cases.
If it is necessary, stock pile area should be provided
If soil conditions are roughly similar, the borrow pit with the shorter transport distance will
generally be economical, but it is also important to compare transport routes in addition to
distance. In particular, borrow pits connected by routes with residential areas, school routes,
highly trafficked sections, railroad crossings or traffic signals should be avoided if possible. If
the borrow pit will require establishing a new road off of existing roads for construction
traffic, or if part of the road will need paving or reinforcement due to the amount of
construction vehicle traffic, such work will greatly impact construction costs. Such factors
must be fully considered in the survey.

2) Survey of loading/unloading sites for soil generated by construction

In recent years, land shortages near big cities, flood controls and environmental issues
have made it increasingly difficult to secure dumping areas. Upon sufficiently studying the
work periods, soil conditions and other factors on the soil loading and unloading sites,

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consider how the soil generated by construction can be used appropriately. In addition to
making effective use of as much soil as possible to the extent that these site factors are met,
stockyard use and other things also need to be considered.

3.3.2 Transportation
Whether transport should be performed by construction machinery or manual labor is
to be decided through comprehensive consideration of the work scale, work efficiency
and scheduling, site conditions, and economic efficiency compared to the price of the
work.

(1) Transporting soil with bulldozers

Considering general construction machinery, bulldozers can increase excavation and
transport capacities over short transport distances up to 70 meters. As such, bulldozers see a
wide variety of uses from excavation to dozing, and covering large excavation, clearing and
access road creation in small‐scale work.
As site conditions allow, excavating and dozing on a downgrade will maximize pulling
power and blade capacity for better efficiency. As work scopes are normally not uniform and
change often, safety precautions are a must, especially on sloped land.

(2) Transporting soil with dump trucks

Dump trucks are more economical than other methods the longer the transport distance,
but they also see frequent use over relatively short distances. Poor transport routes will
greatly impact efficiency, both slowing speeds and limiting load capacity.

3.3.3 Managing fill material

Ideal fill material will be easy to spread and compact, strong after compaction, have low
compressibility, be robust against erosion from river water and rain, and not expand much
when absorbing water. If treated properly, even cohesive soil with high water content can be
used as material in the embankment body with satisfactory structural stability. Except for
particularly poor material, such soil does no longer need to be seen as unsuitable as fill
material in most cases.
The following action is generally taken for soil that is rated as poor embankment body
material or for which trafficability cannot be guaranteed:
a) Mix soils with different characteristics (size control)
b) Dry out soil to reduce water content
c) Stabilize the soil with additives

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(1) Size control by mixing soils with different characteristics

As the main purpose of this soil is for river embankments, this method is used to lower
permeability by mixing small particles into sandy soil with high permeability, or to prevent
cracks from drying by mixing coarse‐grained soil into cohesive soil.

(2) Drying soil to adjust water content

The goal of water content adjustments is to match the water content of embankment body
materials with the water content ranges stipulated in compaction regulations. Available
methods include aeration for drying, trench excavation to reduce water content and spraying
water.

(a) Aeration
Aeration is drying to lower water content through spreading, leaving, and mixing prior to
compaction.
Aeration plan should be made with consideration that aeration work requires a wide area
and is efficient in the dry season.

(b) Trench excavation

This involves excavating a trench underneath the cutting work area prior to excavating a
borrow pit to decrease the water content of the material and lower the ground water level.
Lowering the natural ground water content by trench excavation will also increase work
efficiency.

(c) Spraying water

As spraying water increases the water content of materials, water is sprayed during
compaction after soil spreading. The necessary water content can easily be calculated as the
difference between the natural water content of materials after spraying and the necessary
water content for compaction.
It is important to make the soil adequate to the construction water content for
compaction in order to increase the degree of compaction and to prevent from water
adsorption with spraying water in case clay or sand is dry.

(3) Stabilizing the soil with additives

Sometimes soil stabilization treatment is used to improve trafficability and strength
deficiencies. This method uses lime and cement as additives, stirring the additives into the

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soil with mixing machines such as backhoes and stabilizers. As this soil stabilizing treatment
methods will increase the cost of embankment construction, however their effect and
economic efficiency should be considered carefully.

3.3.4 Quality control of fill material

Perform a soil compaction test in advance on fill materials to understand the maximum
dry density (MDD) and optimum water content (Wopt) to determine the quality control
standard. Also perform the following tests as necessary to determine appropriateness as fill
materials:
・Soil particle test ・Soil particle density test
・Soil water content test ・Soil liquid limit and plastic limit test
・Soil unconfined compression test ・Soil triaxial shear (compression) test
・Soil consolidation test ・Soil shear test
・Soil permeability test

If the results of these tests show different fill material characteristics compared to the
design, the following measures are generally enacted:
a) Size control by mixing soils with different characteristics
b) Adjust water content if it is dry or moist
c) Stabilize the soil with additives
Items to be investigated for quality control of fill materials are described in Table 3.3.1.

(1) Size control by mixing soils with different characteristics

Carry out the work in accordance with “3.3.3 (1) Size control by mixing soils with different
characteristics.” During this work, perform the following quality control tests for each
material and mixed materials to confirm that the quality of each meets the prerequisites:
・Particle size distribution and cumulative particle size distribution tests
・Compaction test ・Penetration test

(2) Adjust water content if it is dry or moist

Management of water content is essential for embankment material quality control to
meet the prescribed degree of compaction. On‐site water content adjustment methods
should follow “3.3.3 (2) Drying soil to adjust water content.”
Measure the water content before and after adjustment to check that the quality
improved.

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(3) Stabilizing the soil with additives

Stabilizing the soil with additives—mixing cement or lime into embankment
materials—improves soil, and a mix proportion test should be performed to determine the
appropriate amount of additives.
Lime and cement can be used as additives and stabilizers or other machinery can be used
for mixing. When using soil stabilization for the entire embankment, the methods must be
thoroughly reviewed for effectiveness, impact to the environment, and economic efficiency.

Table 3.3.1 Quality control test and frequency (examples)

Class Test Test Items Test Method Testing Standards Notes
category ( frequency or criteria )

 Maximum dry
Neces‐ density (MDD) and
Soil compaction test ASTMD1557 Initially and when soil quality changes
sary optimum moisture
content (Wopt)

Soil particle test ASTMD422

 Soil classifications:
Soil particle density test ASTMD854‐00 (Confirm specified
soil material /
Materials

Soil water content test ASTMD2216 Initially and when soil quality changes
particle size
Soil liquid limit test ASTMD4318 distribution curve /
Soil Plastic test ASTMD4318 soil classification)

Other Soil unconfined compression test ASTMD2435

Soil triaxial shear (compression) test ASTMD2850 or D4767
Soil consolidation test ASTM D2435
As necessary
Soil shear test Geotechnical society standards
Soil permeability test ASTM D2434 or equivalent
reliable Standard / Specification
Neces‐ Site density or air void ratio / saturation JIS A 1213‐4 or ASTMD1556 Embankment compacted either once every 1,000 m3
sary measurements or three times per 20 m of embankment length,
whichever is higher.

Management guidelines for Standard construction area will be one layer per day.
2
embankment compaction using Control unit area will be set at 1,500 m . When the
an RI gauge construction area is more than 2,000 m2/day, the
construction area is to be divided into two or more
Construction

control units.
The following is a guide to the measurement points
per control unit:
Area (m2) 500 500‐ 1000‐
or 1000 2000
less
Measurement 5 10 15
Pts.
Soil water content test ASTMD2216 When water content change is noticed.
Other Handbook for pavement test
Cone index measurement When trafficability is poor.
methods

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Section 3.4 Embankment for river bank

3.4.1 Outline of Embankment

The cross section shapes of river embankments shall be designed and planed after the
consideration of characteristic of each soil condition based on past disaster history and other
records.
It is important to carry out embankment under the suitable condition with such
embankment material as adjusted in optimal construction water content and it must also be
noted that the material quality for the embankment body will greatly impact upon the
stability of the river embankment after completion and construction difficulty.
It is important to make the embankment body uniform and not leave harmful void for
water tight. A partial defect will result in failure of the entire river embankment during a
flood and destroy all the functions of the long embankment. So it is also important to
construct the river embankment with both long section and cross sections of uniform
strength.

3.4.2 Treatment of the foundation base

The main purposes of treatment of the foundation base prior to the embankment are as
follows:
a) Improve the attachment of the embankment to the foundation base
b) Ensure smoother initial embankment work
c) Increase the bearing capacity by stabilizing the base
d) Prevent subsidence caused by decaying detrimental materials, such as plants

(1) Clearing and topsoil treatment

Constructing an embankment without clearing plants and stumps in the foundation base
may loosen the embankment and cause harmful subsidence from the decay of these plants
and stumps, affecting the stability of the river embankment. To prevent this, stumps, plants,
and other obstacles such as stones or concrete blocks down to approximately one meter
under the foundation ground level should be removed so that the embankment will firmly
adhere to the foundation.

(2) Drainage treatment

If any puddles or water wells in the foundation are not dealt with before construction, the

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embankment cannot be compacted enough and the water may soak into the embankment,
affecting the stability of the river embankment after construction. Water therefore needs to
be drained carefully.

(3) Treatment for unevenness

Uniform and even quality is required for embankments. But where having a gap or uneven
foundation bases, the compacting depressed area and uneven areas would be insufficient
and not create a uniform embankment, and it will also affects embankment smoothing work.
For this reason, it is necessary to smooth out any unevenness as much as possible prior to
embankment work so that the finished embankment is uniform.

3.4.3 Embankment and Compaction

Water resistance is the focus for river embankment construction work. Therefore, it is
important to select construction methods that make the embankment body uniform.

(1) Spreading
The fill material brought by transport machines is to be spread evenly for compaction.
Spreading is the most important work for uniform compaction. Carefully spreading a thin
layer of fill material enables construction of an even and well compacted embankment.
Though this spreading work may not seem important for embankment construction, it
actually has the large impact on the quality of the embankment.
An embankment spread at a defined and even thickness is uniform and stable. On the
other hand, an embankment with a spread that is too thick is insufficiently compacted,
possibly leading to consolidation subsidence of the embankment itself or differential
settlement in the future. Therefore, it is important to understand that the utmost care must
be taken in spreading work for embankment construction.

Notes regarding machinery

As bulldozers are continuously excavating, hauling, and spreading, it is sometimes difficult
to confirm the layer thickness and care needs to be taken to avoid the layer becoming too
thick. In general, the thickness of the river embankment after compaction is defined less
than 30cm and in the TS and SSoRM, it is stipulated less than 23cm per layer. In such cases
the spread thickness (thickness before compaction) is the thicker one than such thickness
reduced by compaction. Care needs to be taken so that it does not become too thick.

Notes regarding manual labor

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When manually constructing an embankment, the thickness of the spread must be less
than 15 cm. No soil mass larger than 10 cm should be in the spreading materials, and soil
mass that is larger than this should be broken into smaller pieces in advance.

Notes regarding cohesive soil containing a high water content

When using cohesive soil containing high water content as fill material, ruts can easily be
created by haul vehicles and the soil strength is significantly lowered from remolding. In
order to prevent this, create other transportation routes or have secondary transportation to
embankment locations close to transportation routes.
Secondary transportation will also spread the fill material. It involves using a spreading
machine to press soil from the unloading point on the transportation route to the
embankment site. As the length for this spreading work is longer than usual, bulldozers with
small ground contact pressure are generally used.

(2) Compaction Work and Machinery

Whether compaction work should be performed by construction machinery or manual
labor is decided through comprehensive consideration of the construction scale, importance
of structures, on‐site conditions, flexibility of compaction machines, and economic efficiency
compared to the price of construction.
Understanding the effects of trial construction (spread thickness, number of compaction
passes, and water content) as much as possible, it is important to secure the embankment
body by compacting to a specified level of quality. The following points need to be
considered for construction:
a) Compact the entire embankment evenly. Carefully compact the ends and corners of the
embankment to ensure sufficient compaction.
b) Carefully drain during embankment construction, accounting for transverse gradients.
When rain is forecast, smooth the soil surface so that rain does not pool or soak into the
soil.
c) Water content impacts mostly the compaction works and the result of compaction
degree of the compacted embankment. It is important to check the water content and
to take action for suitable water content of the fill material during the construction.

Notes regarding manual compaction

(a) As manual compaction is low energy, the spread thickness should be less than 15 cm
per layer when completed.
(b) To meet the construction deadline, the required number of workers should be

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calculated based on the target work amount per day. Whether the necessary number of
workers can be procured must be confirmed during planning.
(c) To ensure a specified level of quality, small compaction apparatuses that can be used
manually, such as seven‐kilogram rammers, plate compactors or hand‐roller, are
preferable.
(d) When using a tamping apparatus, a trial construction should be conducted in advance
to determine how many times each soil layer needs to be tamped in order to achieve
the desired level of quality (degree of compaction on‐site).
(e) As spread thickness will differ depending on the soil or combination of support
equipment (rammers, roller etc.), an appropriate thickness should be set through trial
construction in advance.

Notes regarding compaction using heavy machinery

The heavy machinery to be used for compaction is to be selected based on construction
conditions, such as soil quality of fill material, type and scale of construction, and the
characteristics of compactors. Soil quality is a particularly important selection criteria. Fill
materials vary widely from crushed rocks, sandy soil, and cohesive soil containing a high
water content. Moreover, the adaptability to compaction often differs greatly even within
the same soil according to water content. At the same time, the compacting functions will
vary depending on the model of compactor, and the compaction effect varies even with the
same model depending on standards and performance, including size, weight, linear
pressure, tire pressure, frequency, vibratory force, impulse force, and travelling performance.
It is important to understand these points well when selecting machinery to compact the soil
effectively.
For river embankment construction work, soil quality used to vary based on how the soil is
obtained, with moist soil being used frequently. Also, conventional bulldozers were often
used as they allow spreading and compaction to be performed with the same machine. In
case of use of purchased fill material, different machinery is to be used according to quality
of the soil to be compacted in order to increase river embankment stability. Reference table
3.4.1 roughly indicates the machinery selected for general compaction work and outlines the
work features of major compactors.

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Reference table 3.4.1 General adaptability of soil and compaction machinery

分類名称
Machine 普 振

Vibrating compactor
タ

Regular bulldozer

Vibrating roller
category 通 振 動
イ
ブ 動 コ タ

Tamper
Tire roller
ヤ 備
ル
ロ
ロ ン ン Notes
考
ド ｌ パ パ
ｌ
Main soil ｌ ラ ク
主要区分 ラ
ザ タ
Sand of one particle size,
単粒度の砂、細粒分の欠け
砂
Sand broken Gravel, desert sand
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ た切込み砂利、砂丘の砂な
礫混り砂
Sand with gravel
ど
Fine soil and pit gravel with an
細粒分を適度に含んだ粒度
砂、砂質土
Sand, sandy soil optimal particle ratio for
◎ ◎ ○ ○ ○ 配合の良い締固め容易な
礫混り粘性土
Cohesive soil with gravel compaction
土、マサ(？)山砂利など
Soil containing many small particles
細粒分は多いが鋭敏性の
粘性土
Cohesive soil with less sensitivity, loam soil with
Cohesive soil with gravel ○ ○ ○ × ○ 低い土、低含水比のロー
low water content, hardpan that
礫混り粘性土
ム、砕き易い土丹など
can be easily broken

Sandy soil with high water Soil difficult to adjust water

content 含水比調整が困難でトラフィ
高含水比の砂質土
Cohesive soil with a high ○ × × × × content to obtain trafficability,
カビリティが容易に得られな
高含水比の粘性土 silt soil
water content い土、シルト質の土など

◎： Effective
有効なもの

○： Can
使用できるもの
be used
○： Can be used where other apparatus cannot be used due to construction scale
施工現場の規模の関係で、他の機械が使用できない場所などで使用するもの

×： Inappropriate
不適当なもの
(Quoted from “River Embankment manual”)

(a) Compaction using bulldozers

Bulldozers are often used as compactors
for river embankment construction. In
such cases, careful construction is required
so that the embankment does not become
rough. Depending on the fill material, a
decrease in spread thickness must also be
considered for more effective compaction.
The river embankment should ideally be
compacted along its parallel line. It is
necessary to always ensure that the
compaction width can be overlapped
during compaction.
Photo3.4.1 Spreading & compaction by
bulldozer

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(b) Compaction using tire rollers

This type of compaction takes advantage of tires filled with air. Tire contact pressure on
the ground can be changed through loaded weight and air pressure. Tire pressure is directly
related to compaction; generally a higher ground contact pressure is used to compact
crushed stones, and a lower pressure is used to compact cohesive soil.
When using tire rollers, care must be taken to track conditions such as tire load and
pressure during compaction as these could result in great difference in the effect of
compaction.

Photo3.4.2 Compaction by tire‐roller

(c) Compaction using vibrating rollers

A vibrating roller combines a vibration generator with a roller to obtain high compaction
with a small weight by aligning soil particles through vibration. Vibrating rollers are known to
be effective for compaction of gravel and sandy soil, which are generally less cohesive.
Appropriate selection of the weight of the roller and vibration frequency is necessary.
Small vibrating rollers have seen wide use in the past. Large vibrating rollers are more
effective than other machines at deep compaction, enabling increased spread thickness.
Conversely, vibrating rollers tend to slip and are unable to function on rocks, soil mixed
with rock pieces, and sand with the same particle size. This must be taken into consideration.

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(d) Compaction using vibrating compactors and tampers

Vibrating compactors and tampers compact by directly attaching the machine to flat
plates using vibrations. Due to their light weight, they can be used in places where other
machines cannot, such as around buildings, the top and slopes of embankments, as well as in
small scale and manual compaction.

Photo 3.4.3: Compaction using a hand‐roller, Plate vibrating compactor & tamper

3.4.4 Checking quality of embankment

Measure the characteristics (compaction degree, air void ratio and others) that show
quality, make sure that these results sufficiently meet the quality standard by attending the
inspection and checking the test record, and check if work was carried out consistently by
using control charts.
When quality does not meet the standard values or work was not consistently carried out
according to the daily management results, review to see if work standards are being
followed and there are no errors, and make appropriate corrections. If quality varies
drastically from standard values, on‐site corrective action, such as re‐compaction, is
necessary. Particularly if weather is the cause, stop work conditions must be reassessed.

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I. Confirmation of embankment material

Required fill material and characteristic

Selection for Borrow Pit or
purchased material

Soil Test

・Required category of soil, such as minim 30%

or others（Soil particle test）

oefficient of permeability：not more than10‐X No
Quality Control

Consideration for material

Yes improvement method

II .Quality Control for Compaction

Prior laboratory Test Understanding of Maximum Dray Density (MDD), Optimum
moisture content (Wopt) or maximum air void

Setting criteria for quality (characteristic) Decision of standard construction method

‐ Sandy soil：Degree of compaction, more than (by Trial construction or others)
85, 90% or others ‐ Method of compaction (spreading thickness,
‐ Clayey soil：Air viod ratio(Va) passing number of compaction)

Re‐consideration
Va≦15% or 2%≦Va≦10%, and others ‐ Compaction machinery (Type and weight)
‐ Deciding frequency of tests ‐ Construction water content

Checking construction procedure

Quality Control on site Construction
Inspection for testing
Field density and water conten
Re‐construction

tests
‐Compaction degree (sand replacement Utilize control
method, RI instrument) or Air void rati sheet
‐Construction water content
Quality Control record No

Yes

Next Construction Steps

Figure 3.4.2 Procedure of Quality Control for embankment

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3.4.5 Quality Control for Compaction

Compaction management should follow the criteria and compaction frequency described
in the Specifications and the Contract Documents. The following criteria and frequency are
used as reference values when specifications are not defined.

1) Quality control test by Sand Replacement Method

Sand Replacement Method is conducted by the provisions defined in the specifications of
ASTM D1556 (AASHTO T191), BS 137 or JIS 1214. The criteria and frequency of the tests are
as follows;

(a) Applicable grain size

Applicable soil for Sand Replacement method shall have the maximum its article size with
53mm. The soil with the maximum particle more than 53mm will be conducted in other test
method such as “Strike Sand method”.

(b) Criteria of the Tests

Criteria of the test are to be in accordance with followings by its characteristic factors
unless otherwise specified in the provisions or specifications in the Contract Document.
i) Criteria of “Degree of Compaction”
Degree of compaction can be obtained by the ratio between the maximum dry density
(MDD) previously determined by indoor compaction test (ASTM D698/D1557 or JIS A1210)
and the field density (FD) by using the sand replacement method (ASTM D1556 or JIS A1214)
on materials compacted at the site on fill materials as below formula;

Dry density (FD) of fill materials compacted at the site

Degree of compaction ＝ × 100 (%) ・・(1)
MDD from indoor compaction test

The criteria of Degree of Compaction will be decided according to nature of proposed

embankment material and strength required by design for each Works, within the range
between 85% ～90%.

II) Criteria of “Void ratio of air” or “Saturation rate”

In case it is difficult to test based on above mentioned “Degree of Compaction”, a method
using “Void ratio of air” or “Saturation rate” may be allowed for test.

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When sandy soil (25%≦passing through 75μsieve<50%)

Void ratio of air Va: Va ≦ 15%

When cohesive soil (50%≦passing through 75μsieve)

Saturation rate Sr: 85% ≦ Sr ≦ 95% or
Void ratio of air Va: Va ≦ 15%

(c) Frequency of Sand Replacement Test

On an embankment, test is conducted by the frequency of either once every 1,000 m3 or
three times per 20 m of embankment length, whichever is much times.
Basically the test result of one (1) place (or one test) is evaluated by the average of three
data measured from three (3) holes of Sand Replacement method for one (1) place. Other
matter regarding frequency of test shall be carried out by the instructions of the Engineer.

2) Definitions of Characters for Compaction

Soil is consisted by soil article, water and air and its image of proportion of content are
illustrated as below figure 3.4.2;

……. (2)

……. (3)

Figure 3.4.2 Proportion of soil structure (image illustration)

By the compaction energy, such as rolling by compactor, soil will be consolidated and
water and air will be exhausted. Then soil will increase its density with crushing its particle
and changing its alignment. The enough compacted soil is not likely to be soft against
seeping water and become larger in its strength and bearing capacity, and is also to decrease
compressibility.

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Definitions of characteristic factor used in the quality control of compaction, such as dry
density and degree of compaction, are as follows;

Va
Void ratio of air: Va = × 100 (%) ….. (4)
V

Vw
Saturation rate: Sr = × 100 (%) ….. (5)
Vv

Here, Vv = Va + Vv : Volume of the part of void

3) Introduction and Notes of various testing methods

The detail of Sand Replacement Method and introduction of other testing methods are as
below;
(a) The detail of Sand Replacement Method
Sand Replacement Method is tested according to the standards described in ASTM or JICA
as sub‐clause 1) above. And Sand Replacement is carried out by the measuring the volume of
proposed soil space replaced by standard sand with previously known its specific gravity as
shown the below figure and photos;

Jar
pycnomete

funnel

④ Volume of test hole = mass of filled sand in hole / known specific gravity of standard sand

Figure 3.4.3 Measuring idea for Sand Replacement

Example Data sheet and calculation for field density (Compaction Degree) are shown on Table3.4.1;

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Table3.4.1 Data sheet and calculation for compaction degree

Density Test for soil by sand replacement method (JIS A 1214)

Project Name: Date of test:

Location of tests: Name of tester:

Testing apalatus No. Name of Soil

Mass of sand fully filled
Dry density of using standard sand ρds g/cm 3
for the funnel
No. of test hole 1 2 3 Remark
Largest particle size mm 37.5 37.5 37.5
No. of container 1 2 3
Mass of the container g 232.3 236.4 232.1
Mass of (the soil extracted from the
g 3171.8 3097.6 3084.5
hole + the container)
Mass of the wet soil extracted from
m7 g 2939.5 2861.2 2852.4
the test hole
Mass of the soil, after dried by m0 = 100 m7
furnace, extracted from the test g 2679.6 2606.5 2593.5
/(W +100)
hole
Mass of sand filled with jar and
m3 g 8550.2 8491 8461.5
pycnometer
Mass of remaining sand and
m8 g 5258.4 5234.6 5067.4
measuring apalatus
Mass of sand which enters into
m9 = m 3 - m 8 g 3291.8 3256.4 3394.1
test hole and funnel
Mass of sand need to fully fill with
m10 = m9 - m6 g 1936.8 1901.4 2039.1
test hole
Volume of test hole V0 = m10 / ρds cm 3 1501.4 1474 1580.7

Wet Density ρt = m 7 / V0 g/cm 3

1.958 1.941 1.805
Dry Density ρd = m 0 / V0 g/cm 3
1.785 1.768 1.641

No. of container 1 2 3
Water Content

Mass of sample and container ma g 1273.8 1299.5 1333.8

Mass of draied sample and
mb g 1184.8 1209.0 1239.8
container
Mass of container mc g 269.3 283.0 298.3

Water Content W % 9.7 9.8 10.0

Water Content W % 9.8

Average

Wet Density ρt g/cm 3

1.901
Dray Density ρd g/cm 3 1.731

Compaction Degree Cd = ρt / ρmax % 92.8

Notes;

1. Maximaum Dry Density: ρmax= 1.866 g/cm3 (Previously obtained at Laboratry test)
( ma - mb ) 100×(1273.8 - 1184.8 )
2. Water Cintent: W = % 9.72
/ ( m b - mc ) = / (1184.8 - 269.3) =
3
3-1. Mass of sand in funnel m6 = m 9 - m 10 = 1355 g 3-2. Density of standard sand : ρ ds =1.2899 g/m

4. Inclined figures in violet color: Example calcultation for Compaction Degree using the sheet

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Photo 3.4.4 Field density test (sand replacement method)

(b) QC by RI (Radio Isotope) apparatus

A Radio Isotope (RI) apparatus ,or gauge, is suitable for daily management because
measurements are easy to take and it shows the results at the site. This method can be
applied to fill material that is less than 100 mm in maximum particle diameter. It measures
the dry density of fill material that was compacted by using an RI gauge and obtains the
degree of compaction by formula (1) listed above. The maximum dry density (MDD) needs to
be obtained in advance by using an indoor soil test.

Photo 3.4.5 Field density test using an RI gauge

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(c) Control by Proof Rolling

Proof rolling is used to check embankment consolidation by having heavy machinery
slowly drive on the completed embankment surface and visually check ground settlement
and the tire rut. The test itself is quite simple, but the inspector needs experience and
judgment as it is determined visually.

(d) Alternative Method for testing field water content (Frying pan‐method)
As it is shown on the formula (3) (w=Ww/Ws*100%) in the above sub‐clause 2) Definitions
of Characters for Compaction, the water content of soil shall be described % of proportion
between “weight of water” and “weight of soil particle” in the lump of soil. This construction
water content greatly affects the workability of compaction and the quality of embankment
after compaction work. Methods of water content testing are stipulated in the standards of
ASTM D2216 and JIS A 1203 and other Standards.

But those ordinary methods by such standards have to wait at least 24 hours after drying
test sample at 110℃. However the accuracy is a little down, there are also some water
content testing methods with easiness and taking shorter time to test. “Frying pan‐method”
using ordinary kitchen cooking stove and frying pan are here introduced as well as the micro
wave‐ method being used on site.

○ Equipment and method of “frying pan‐method”

Equipment and method of “frying pan‐method” are as follows; “Frying pan‐method” for
field soil water (or moisture) content test was used in accordance with ASTM D4959 (ASTM
2000).
The frying pan serves as the specimen container and the mass of the empty pan and the
wet mass of the soil sample are measured before drying. The frying pan is placed on the
burner like cooking on a conventional stovetop and sample is stirred while heating.
The specimen and pan are removed from the heat and weighted at 1‐min intervals. The
process continues until a change in soil mass of less than one percent occurs during the
1‐min interval, at which point the moisture content is calculated (measure dry mass of soil).

the water content is calculated as below and shown on the photos;

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(a) Weigh the mass of wet sample + (b) Dry the material on burner or
frying pan (100 – 500 gramme) stove

(c) Weigh the mass of dry sample + (d) Weigh the mass of frying pan
frying pan

(a) － (c) mass of water

Water (Moisture) Content = ×100 = ×100 (%)
(c) － (d) mass of dry soil

Photo 3.4.6 Measuring field water content (Frying Pan‐Method)

e) Common items for density test methods

When either the sand replacement method or an RI gauge is used, make sure to
re‐compact when the degree of compaction does not meet control standards.
When using fill materials such as cohesive soil that lower bearing capacity from remolding,
make sure there is no excessive compaction. In order to prevent this from occurring,
compaction on the test embankment needs to be carefully observed to decide the
compaction machinery and construction methods.

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4) Data sorting
Measured data is to be sorted every day and shown on a progress capability chart, which
shows changes in quality in conjunction with construction progress and is convenient in
predicting abnormal values and investigating causes together with the daily management
status.

(1) Process capability chart

As seen in Figure 3.4.3, a process capability chart shows values of quality characteristics
(such as “degree of compaction”) on the vertical axis and sampling numbers on the
horizontal axis. It continuously catches data fluctuations of standard values by recording
measured values temporally and displaying upper and lower limit standard values for these
values. Therefore, when looking at a process capability chart it is necessary to carefully
watch for values outside of the standard, how the dots are aligned and the range of
variation.

Deg
ree
of
co
mp
acti
on
(%) Minimum quality value
Reference value:
Average of 91.1% up until 10/23

Sample
No.

Date

FigureFigure
3.4.35.3.1:
Example of process
Example process capability
capability chart chart

(2) Data usage and processing

It is difficult to apply a strict management chart for embankment quality control because
of changes in the soil and water content of the fill material, different compaction methods
depending on the embankment location, and a small number of documents for quality
control tests. Therefore, when abnormal variations are observed by plotting measured data,
it is important to investigate the cause and take the necessary action. In particular, suitable
action must be taken for changes in fill material and water content, reviewing the
appropriateness of construction methods and machinery if necessary.

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3.4.6 Trial Construction for compaction

Prior to the commencemet of main construction for river bank embankment, Trial
Construction for embankment shall be cariied out in order to define the standard
procedure of embankment works and the criteria for construction control. Basically Trial
Construction will be conducted under the same fill material and the same construction
condition as actual main construction.

(1) Trial Construction for deciding standard procedure of embankment works

As shown on Figure 3.4.2 “Procedure of Quality Control for embankment”, Trial
Construction shall be carried out and the following construction factors and quality control
values are measured in order to determine the standard method and procedures satisfied
the quality requirements at the time of commencement of the control of compaction quality;
‐ Method of compaction (thickness of spreading, numbers of compaction passes and others),
‐ Compaction machinery (type and weight),
‐ Construction water content and others
The most suitable combination of such construction factors is to be decided and it
becomes a standard method of embankment works of the Project.
At the Trial Construction for embankment, one of example of combination of construction
factors is shown the table below;

Table 3.4.2 Example of combination of thickness of spreading and

numbers of compaction passes

Passes compaction passes per one (1) layer by compactor

Thickness
Per one (1) layer 2 times 4 times 6 times

20cm Degree of compaction Degree of compaction Degree of compaction

25cm Degree of compaction Degree of compaction Degree of compaction

30cm Degree of compaction Degree of compaction Degree of compaction

(2) Trial Construction for Control by standard construction procedure

The standard construction procedure was decided by satisfaction with required quality
requirement, such as required degree of compaction and others, in Trial Construction. In
Control by standard construction procedure, actual embankment works shall be conducted
according to the defined standard construction procedure. Items and construction factors at
Trial Construction are the same as stated in sub‐clause (1) above.

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(3) Example of one of Trial Compaction for river embankment Works

Report for Trial Compaction for Embankment works

18 March, 2016
SV Team / JET and BWDB Moulvibazar O & M Division
Name of Project: Capacity Development of Management for Sustainable Water Related
Infrastructure, BWDB / JICA
Name of Works: The Pilot Repair Works of Manu River Flood Control Embankment in
Moulvibazar District

In order to consider the construction method for compaction, Trial Compaction for
embankment works, Step1, has been carried out on 08, 09 and 10 March 2016. And the same
of Step3, using Bulldozer, was carried out on 13 March 2016. The trial result and
recommended method of the works are reported herewith. According to the
recommendation, embankment works are to be implemented on the site.

1. Objective and procedure of Trial Compaction for embankment works:

1-1: Objective of Trial Compaction for embankment works
The objective of Trial Compaction is to determine the proper and adequate construction
method in order to keep the required quality by the Specifications and Drawings.
Trial Compaction will be carried out and the following construction factors and quality control
values are measured in order to determine the standard method and procedures satisfied the
quality requirements at the time of actual embankment construction;

Method of compaction:
- thickness of spreading of material, numbers of compaction passes and
- Compaction machinery or equipment (type and weight),
- Construction water content and others
The most suitable combination of such construction factors is to be decided and it
becomes a standard method of embankment works of the Works.

1-2: Step1, 2 & 3 procedure of Trial Compaction

Trail would be divided into three steps;
Step1. Using a relatively small compaction equipment (Plate Compactor) suit to the site
Step2. Checking manual compaction (by only 7kg hammer) in same condition of Step1.
Step3. In case Step1 is not attained satisfactory result or when compaction machinery is to be

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used on the site, Trial Compaction will be carried out using such machines.

Procedure of Trial Compaction for Step1.

a) Characteristics of proposed embankment material
Proposed material’s Maximum Dray Density (MDD) and Optimum Water Content are shown
on below table;

Table 1． Summary of test result of Laboratory Proctor Test

Name of Test The location of Sampling
Borrow Pit No.1 Borrow Pit No.2 Existing bank
Aver- Aver- Aver-
A B A B A B
age age age

Optimum Moisture Content

19.25 18.54 18.90 18.65 18.68 18.67 21.00 21.48 21.24
Wopt (%)
Maximum Dry Density
16.18 16.38 16.28 16.58 16.18 16.38 16.21 16.33 16.27
MDD (kN/m3)
*kN/m3 = 0.102 g/ cm3

b) Trial procedure for Step 1. (Using 110 kg weight “Plate Compactor”)

Trial Compaction will be carried out in two different thickness and three different numbers of
compaction passes, 6 different procedure of compaction are carried out as below;

Table 2. Combination of thickness of spreading and numbers of compaction passes

Passes by
compaction passes per one (1) layer by compactor
compactor
Thickness
Per one (1) layer 2 times 4 times 6 times

20 cm a) DC b) DC c) DC
30 cm d) DC e) DC f) DC
Testing parameter DC: Degree of compaction (% of maximum dray density (MDD)

c) Procedure of each test

i) Spread embankment material until required thickness (loose) for one layer
ii) Compacting each layer of 3m length and 3 m wide area in different numbers of passes of
compaction by Plate Compactor.
iii) Check settlement, height of compacted thickness, after two passes compaction.

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iv)
After compaction, field density test will be conducted with each two (2) holes by
sand-replacement method. Each test (holes) will be also checked its water contentment.

2. Record/result of Trail Compaction, Step 1.:

Basic conditions:
1) Material from borrow pit No.1
2) Optimum Moisture Content
Wopt : 18.9 (%)
3) Maximum Dry Density
MDD: 16.28 (kN/m3) = 1.66 (g/cm3)
4) Compaction by Plate Compactor
(110kg model, refer to photo right)

2-1: Spreading thickness 20cm, in different nos. of

passes by the compactor
Tests results of first layer of 20cm thickness are shown on below table;
Table 3． Summary of test result of Field Density for 20cm layer
Name of Test and Field Density Water Content Degree of Compaction ; DC
out-comes (g/cm3) (%) (%)
No of holes
Numbers 1 2 3 . 1 2 3. 1 2 3. Average
of passes
84.2
2 passes 1.357 1.438 1.397 25.0 17.6 17.5 81.7 86.7 84.1
84.2
84,6
4 passes 1.359 1.450 1.409 20.0 17.6 19.9 81.8 87.4 84.8
84.7
6 passes 1.449 1.550 19.0 14.3 87.3 93.4 90.3
on 09 on 09
Remarks
Mach’16 Mach’16
Note: 1) kN/m3 = 0.102 g/ cm3 2) No.3 hole of 2 & 4 passes are additionally tested one day after No.1 & No.2
Average of DC: upper is Av. Of No.1 & No.2, lower is Av. of 3 holes

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2-2: Spreading thickness 30cm, in different nos. of passes by the compactor

Tests results of first layer of 30cm thickness are shown on below table;
Table 4． Summary of test result of Field Density for 30cm layer
Name of Test and Field Density Water Content Degree of Compaction ; DC
out-comes (g/cm3) (%) (%)
No of holes
Numbers 1 2 3. 1 2 3. 1 2 3. Average
of passes

2 passes 1.508 1.456 24.3 23.1 90.9 87.7 89.3

4 passes 1.520 1.390 21.3 24.1 91.8 83.8 87.8

6 passes 1.590 1.330 24.1 23.5 96.1 80.3 88.2

Note: 1) No.2 holes of 4 & 6 passes are tested from the surface 5 cm below the compacted surface
level, after 5 cm compacted soil was taken away.
After No.1 hole test, with satisfactory result of DC 91.8 %, it is tried to test in other conditions
for No.2 hole in order to find the difference of test results (compaction degree) between the
test’s hole from the compacted surface and the test’s hole from 5 cm below the compacted
surface.

3. Findings from the results and recommendation of the method of the works
3-1. Relation between water content and field density (FD)
There is no particular finding of differences of FD according to water content.
Relation between
water content and field
dry density of the test
is shown on Figure 1.

However this time test

results, construction
water content is
desired to be as
possible as near as
optimum water
content (Wopt)
according to the
general theory of
Figure2. Relation between water content and Field Dry Density
compaction of the soil.

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3-2. Relation between spreading thickness and field density

There is no particular finding of differences of 20 cm thickness of loose spreading layer 30 cm
thickness of the same.
But as additional study of checking of field density of in-side body of the embankment, with
5cm taking out from the top of compacted embank in 4 passes and 6 passes of 30 cm thickness
layer, it is found apparently compaction is not effected with more depth from the surface of
compaction.

3-3. Relation between number of passes of compaction and field density

There found that the more passes makes embankment the more strong, more compacted.
Compare with the averages of 20 cm thickness layer and each No.1 holes results of 30 cm
thickness layer apparently shows 6 passes compaction is more satisfactory than others and 4
passes compaction is more effective.

3-4. Recommendation of the method of the works

According to above findings by Trial Compaction and taking consideration of the site
condition, following recommendation is made for the Quality Control for actual embankment
works;
1) When using Plate Compactor, numbers of passes of compaction is preferably 4 times.
But after actual Degree of Compaction (DC) is good enough, the times of compaction
may be decreased provided by obtaining DC more than requirement.
2) Thickness of spreading material is preferable not more than 20cm. In case of obtaining
satisfactory DC result, it may increase, but it is to be not more than 30cm.

4. Record/result and Findings/recommendation of Trail Compaction, Step 3:

4-1. Basic conditions:
1) Material from borrow pit No.1 & No.2
2) Optimum Moisture Content
Wopt : 18.78 (%)
3) Maximum Dry Density
MDD: 16.23 (kN/m3) = 1.655 (g/cm3)
4) Compaction by Bulldozer
(5 ton, D3 CAT Caterpillar)

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4-2. Initial plan for testing Step3

After preparation of base for test yard, 25cm thickness of material is spread in loose by
bulldozer or manual labour.
Number passes of compaction by bulldozer and associated one/more passes compaction by
Plate Compactor was initially planned for Step 3 Trial as below sketch;

c) b) a)

4 passes 4 passes 2 passes

by by by
bulldozer bulldozer bulldozer
+ + + t= 25 cm (loose)
Some One pass One pass
more by by Plate by Plate
Plate Compacto Compacto
Compacto r r
Figure 3 Image of Trial Compaction Step 3

4-3. Record/result of Trail Compaction by bulldozer, Step 3

1) After good result of test a), test b) was changed in the condition of 2 passes compaction by
bulldozer only (no extra compaction by Plate Compactor).
Test results are shown as below table;
Table 5． Test result of Field Density for 25cm layer compacted by bulldozer
Name of Test and Field Water Content Degree of Compaction ; DC
out-comes Density (%) (%)
(g/cm3)
No of holes
Numbers of passes Averag
1 2 1 2 1 2
By Plate
By bulldozer
Compactor
a) 2 passes 1 Pass 1.61 1.62 15.8 18.5 97.3 98.1 97.7

b) 2 passes nil 1.58 1.59 15.6 19.3 95.5 95.8 95.6

Remarks Good enough to over 85 %

Note: 1) Test b) were conducted are tested from the surface 5 cm below the compacted surface
2) Test c) were cancelled because of no need

2) Reference information of the thickness contracted by compaction

By supplementary checking the thickness of layer after compaction by 2passes of bulldozer
compaction, it is roughly found about 3- 4cm shrinkage from the 25 cm loose spreading
material layer.

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4-4. Findings/recommendation of Trail Compaction by bulldozer, Step 3

According to above results of Trial Compaction test and taking consideration of the site
condition, following recommendation is made for the Quality Control for actual embankment
works;
1) When using Bulldozer’s spreading & compaction of material layer by layer, numbers of
passes of compaction is 2 times enough.
But in case of actual Degree of Compaction (DC) is not good enough, the times of
compaction should be increased or other supplementary means must be taken.
2) Thickness of spreading material is preferable not more than 25cm. In case of obtaining
satisfactory DC result, it may increase, but it is to be not more than 30cm.

Attachments
Photos of Trial Compaction for embankment works

Photos of Trial Compaction

Photos: Trial Compaction for embankment Step 1 & 3 taken on March, 2016

Ph A. Preparation for testing yards (backfilled PhB. Step1(using “Plate Compactor”); compaction
existing Pond) and check thickness after 2 passes of compaction

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PhC. Field Density (FD) Test by sand-replacement PhD. Check the spreading thickness of 30cm.
method for 2 passes compaction

PhE. FD test of no.2 hole for 6 passes but from 5cm PhF. Preparation for testing yards (from beginning
below the compacted surface. point of down-stream, about 30m at 6.2m PWD)

PhG. Spreading material by bulldozer by layer by PhH. Field Density (FD) Test by sand-replacement
layer, until loose thickness 25 cm method for test a) area ; 2 passes compaction by
bulldozer plus one pass compaction by Plate
Compactor

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Section 3.5 Earth works on Slope

In general, compaction is insufficient on the crest and slopes of embankments;

embankment slopes must be compacted thoroughly as well to satisfy the designed cross
section. When the compaction on slope surfaces is insufficient in comparison with the entire
embankment, they are often destroyed by heavy rain. In order to avoid these collapses,
slopes are desired to be compacted with machinery to ensure sufficient compaction.

Slope erosion due to rainfall is an item to be careful of during construction. In particular,

runoff concentrated on one area of the slope is a main cause of slope erosion and may result
in defects on the completed slope. Even during construction, it is therefore important to
build provisional ditches at appropriate spacing to let the rainfall drain. The construction
method generally used, shown in Figure 3.5.1, prevents runoff from concentrating on one
area by having a gradient of a few percentage transverse to the embankment.

4% or more

4% or more

Figure 3.5.1
Figure Protecting thethe
4.3.20: Protecting slope
slopeduring embankment
during embankment work construction

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Section 3.6 Earth works accompanying structure construction

Sections of sluice gates that connect river structures and embankments often tend to
create different levels through differential settlement, resulting in cracks and leaks.
Different levels are often seen at the foundation base of embankments that are soft.
Causes of subsidence in the areas that connect embankments and structures are subsidence
of the foundation base, consolidation subsidence of the embankment itself, and changes in
structure position from embankments behind the structure. However, other construction
methods may also cause subsidence. Specifically, as structure and embankment construction
proceed in parallel when a new river embankment is being built, in many cases the
embankment is attached to the structure when the structure and the river embankment are
almost complete. The following problems are thus possible causes of subsidence at the
contact section:
a) The embankment at the connecting area tends to be thicker as is the last to be
constructed, and the construction area is narrow so compaction is often insufficient.
b) The embankment at the connecting area is often surrounded by structures, such as tall
sluice gates and embankments, so drainage may be insufficient.

For these reasons, the following points should generally be considered when constructing
embankment at the connecting area between embankments and structures:
(a) Select stable materials for the embankment at the connecting area with a certain
degree of water shielding that are easily compacted and do not weaken when exposed
to water.
(b) Select appropriate compactors for thorough construction work to avoid insufficient
compaction in limited and narrow work areas.
(c) As water tends to concentrate around the backfill of structures during and after
construction causing settlement and collapses, soil selection and drainage measures,
such as ensuring sufficient drainage gradient during construction, should be taken.
(d) The concrete surfaces of the intersection of concrete structures and materials for
embankment at the connecting area need to be damp prior to filling to avoid changing
the water content ratio of the fill material.
(e) As heavy machinery cannot sufficiently compact around walls, small machinery should
be used for sufficient compaction and the spread thickness should be thin for more
effective compaction.
(f) Ensure that the embankment at the connecting area does not apply earth pressure

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before the structure exhibits sufficient strength.

(g) Ensure that uneven earth pressure is not applied even after the structure exhibits
strength by compacting evenly from both sides of the structure.

Attention should also be paid to the following cases:

Soft ground
Preloading prior to constructing structures should be considered if the foundation base
consists of soft ground.
Expansion work for river embankment
In many cases, structures that accompany expansion work for river embankment are built
by excavating an existing river embankment, meaning that preloading from the existing river
embankment will keep subsidence below that of a newly built river embankment. However,
as new embankments will be constructed in an expanded area, they will subside the same as
a new embankment, frequently resulting in differential settlement. Therefore, preloading
must be considered for expansion areas in the same way as new construction if the ground is
soft.
It is also necessary to thoroughly investigate structures and the surrounding embankment,
and make repairs or fill any cavities if there are deformations when making extensions to
structures in addition to river embankment expansion.

Removing existing river embankments

If removing an existing river embankment to construct a sluiceway, the existing river
embankments should be excavated wider so that structures and approach embankments can
be readily constructed. On the other hand, in terms of river control, existing stable river
embankments should be excavated as little as possible, and care needs to be taken so that
the existing river embankment is not excavated more than necessary. The soil used for
existing river embankments should also be carefully considered for slope gradient during
excavation to avoid cracks on the existing river bank.

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Chapter 4 Protection Works for river embankment (500 Protective Works)

Section 4.1 Toe protection works

4.1.1 Cement concrete (CC) blocks
River embankment slopes may be damaged or scoured due to water flow, bed scour and
waves. To prevent damage and scouring, the slope can be covered and protected by CC
blocks.
Block dimensions and manufacturing quality
The standard CC block dimensions, mixture and strength at the time of manufacturing can
be categorized in the following table.
Table 4.1.1 (1) CC block quality by category
Quality
28 days compression Leanest mix Classification of Reference No.
strength (cement:sand: stone
(N/mm2) stone) (course aggregate)
Stone Chips 40‐140
9.0 N/mm2 1:3:6 (40 mm downgraded)
Shingles (single particles) 40‐190
(40 mm downgraded)
Stone Chips 40‐200
10.5 N/mm2 1:3:5.5 (40 mm downgraded)
Shingles (single particles) 40‐210
(40 mm downgraded)

Table 4.1.1 (2) CC block standard dimensions

Ref.No. Dimension (cm) V Ref.No. Dimension (cm) V
40‐160/ (m3) 40‐160/21 (m3)
210‐ W × L× H 0‐ W× L × H
10 60 × 60 × 60 0.216 55 30 × 30 × 15 0.0135
15 50 × 50 × 50 0.125 60 25 × 25 × 25 0.0156
20 50 × 50 × 40 0.100 65 20 × 20 × 20 0.00800

25 45 × 45 × 45 0.0911 70 45 × 45 × 20 0.0405
30 45 × 45 × 30 0.0607 75 40 × 40 × 15 0.0240
35 40 × 40 × 40 0.0640 80 50 × 50 × 60 0.150

40 40 × 40 × 20 0.0320 85 50 × 50 × 25 0.0625
45 35 × 35 × 35 0.0428 90 50 × 50 × 20 0.0500
50 30 × 30 × 30 0.0270 95 40 × 40 × 15 0.0240

Note: Reference No. refers to the items in the Standard Schedule of Rates Manual (SSoRM)
from BWDB

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Notes when manufacturing and installing CC blocks

a)Use sand with a fineness modulus (FM) of 1.5 or higher.
b) Clean gravel to be used with water to remove impurities.
c) Compact sufficient raw concrete in molds and cure for at least 21 days.
d) Sufficiently compact the area where the blocks are to be laid and remove any surface
water before laying them.
e) Casting method of concrete and block laying manner are carried out upon instructions
from or approved by the Engineer in charge.

4.1.2 Guny bags (refer to Item Code: 40‐400 ～ 40‐470)

1) Type and size of gunny bags
For bank protection, sand bags are caterglize various types acoording to mareial of bag
its, filled material and size as follows;

Table 4.1.2 Types of Sand bags according to the material

Passes Filled material in the bags

Sand or Sand cement;
Sand or earth Sand of
Material Sand : cement
earth Available FM≧0.80
Of bag itself at site 10:1 8:1
New gunny bag: 40‐400 40‐420 40‐440 40‐450 40‐460 40‐470

2nd hand gunny bag: 40‐410 40‐420 40‐440 40‐450 40‐460 40‐470

Synthetic bags: 40‐415 40‐420 40‐440 40‐450 40‐460 40‐470

Figures: refer to ItemCode of Standard Schedule of Rates Manual of BWDB

Size and volume of bags are as below;

Capcity 50kg: filled volume = 0.030 m3
Capcity 75kg: filled volume = 0.040 m3
Capcity 50kg with sand cement: filled volume = 0.026 m3
Capcity 75kg with sand cement: filled volume = 0.031 m3
Note: Volume of bags filled with sand cemet volume is 3/4 of normal ones

2) Sand‐Cement Gunny bags

(1) Normal usage for slope protection
Snad‐cement gunny bag are usually used on slope of the river embankment for slope
protection. Typical slope protection is shown following phtpo;

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Photo 4.1.1 With sand‐cement gunny bags Slope Protection on the left bank of
Manu River, Moulvibazar

(2) Special usage for the foundation of river bank embankment

Sand‐cement gunny bags are also used for the foundation of river bank embankment,
making the shape of bsement part of river embankment in order to strengthen to the
bottom part of embankment. Following is one of example of such case showing its cross
section;

Figure 4.1.1 One of cross‐section of sand‐cement gunny bags foundation

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(3) Example construction of sand‐cement gunny bags for embankment foundation

A. Traial Fabrication of sand‐cement gunny bags
1. Objective of Trial Fabrication for sand‐cement gunny bag (S‐C GB)
In order to define water cement ratio & curing days in fabrication of sand‐cement gunny bags,
Trial Fabrication will be carried out on different test items (factors), such as i)proportion of
mix (sand : cement), proposed sand and curing days. Furthermore, workability and strength for
the foundation of toe of embankment may also be rectified.

2. Fabrication of S‐C GB on 2nd December, 2015

According Plan of Trial Fabrication, 11 different mixture and total 99 nos. of S‐C GB have
been fabricated. Type and mixtures of trail fabrication are as below;

Checking workmanship after

mixing sand cement Measuring weight/volume of material

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3. Inspection Sand‐Cement Gunny Bag

1) After 7 days curing on 9th December, 2015

Dropping from 1 m above the ground, and check the strength against the impact

Inspection was carried out Workability and Condition of hardening by 1) measuring unity
weigh 2) dropping test 3) scratch surface and other observation

2) After 14 days curing on 16th December, 2015

Measuring weight and volume and find out unit weight

Interim evaluation after inspection for bags of 7 & 14 days curing:

1) Hardness of 8:1 mixture is harder than 10:1 mixture
2) Coarse sand used one is harder than fine sand used one
4) 8:1 mixture is good enough dumping and no need to 6:1 mixture.
5) 7 days curing is good enough curing time and it is desired furthertesting for 3
days or 5 days curing bag checking.

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3) After 3 & 5 days curing on 19th December, 2015

checking hardness and

degree of hydration of
mortar by scratching the
surface

It is clear that S‐C GB after 3 days curing is going hydration and not yet stiff enough for dumping.
SC‐GB after 5 days curing show the hardness as same as 7 days curing one.

4) Additional Inspection for 10:1 mix sand‐cement gunny bags

By conducting additional fabriaction and inspection for 10:1 mix S‐C GB, those also can be used
the same porpose of the works, provided that it is preferable for enough curing days of more
than 10 days.

4. Outcome from the result of Trial

Accoding to the result of Trial Fabrication, following factors might be difined in this Works;
1) Water cement ratio
Sand : Cement Unit Water Remarks Sand Type
cemet:225kg/M3
8 : 1 220 Kg/M3 Medium
sand:1,797kg/M3
material of mixing Site proportion of mixture as per batch of Mixer (Kg) W/C=
As per one butch (half W:Water C: Cement S: aggregate(sand) 0.979
bag of cemet) 24.5 kg 25.0 kg 200 kg

* In case of using 10:1 mix S‐C GB, water cement ratio is also decided accordingly.

2) Proposed curing days

Proposed curing days is decided 5 days.

3) Desired type of sand

Proposed sand‐cement gunny bag had better to be used high qulaity sand, medium sand
in the Trial Fabrication (F.M.1.49 > 1.0), instead of local sand (F.M.=0.94)

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B. Report of river bank foundation construction using snad‐cement gunny bags

This is a report for sand‐cement gunny bag works on the Pilot Repair Works of Manu River Flood
Control Embankment in Moulvibazar District (Nov. 2015 ‐ )in the Project for Capacity Development of
Management for Sustainable Water Related Infrastructure.

1. Fabrication

Measuring by steel measuring box (23.45kg/box):

Transfer bamboo bucket and 8.5 times of bucket
=200 kg sand

1) Check the quality of material 3) Adequate mixing

2) Keep the proportion of mixture: one butch = a half of cement
8:1 mix : W=24.5 kg C= 25.0 kg and Sand=200 kg

2. Curing and stockpile

From 14 Dec2015, Start stockpile Marking each day end

Curing at Yard 2 on 21 Dec 2015 Curing at Yard 1 on 8 Jan 2016

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3. Dumping

On 21 Dec 2015, duping S‐C GB started from the down stream

On 8 Jan 2016, ditto from the down & middle stream, 2,390bags dumped

4. Setting up proposed shape and Measurement

Setting up the location of S‐C GB mound for dumping on 21 Dec rgi

Set formation level and alignment & check remaining works on 16 Jan op6

Every day, numbers of fabrication & dumping are registered

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5. Difficulties
1) Water level of the River

Every day checking water level, WL=4.95 m (PWD) on 8 Jan 2016

By open/close of the gate of upstream Manu barrage affect the water level on site. Some
times suddenly rise over 60 cm within only one day.
So information of open/close the gate should be known to avoid the damage from the
normal works procedure.

2) Delivery of bags

Initial stage, access is narrow and steep for delivery

• Distance from stock pile yard to

dumping position is quite long
• However the weight of bag 50kg
instead of 60kg at Trial Fabrication, it
is quite heavy for manual delivery
through limited access route.

3) Hike of market price of gunny bags

* Market price of gunny bag has been increasing recently
* Main reason of this hike is Government recent announcement that chemical fiber
bag is prohibited to use for environmental affection

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4) Checking shape of S‐C GB mound under the water

 Final stage of dumping, S‐C GB mound

shall be checked as design shape.
 On land is Ok, but it is difficult to
survey for the portion under the
water.

* Data of construction
Progress of numbers of fbricated and dumped S‐C GB is shown on the Chart below;

Progress Chart of Sand-Cement Gunny Bag construction

Nos. of design quantities for S-C GB = 110,088.- (Nos.)

110,088
Cummrative number of bags

100,000

90,000

Mamufacturing 80,000

70,000

60,000

50,000

Dumping 40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000
0
Date 14-Dec 17-Dec 20-Dec 23-Dec 26-Dec 29-Dec 1-Jan 4-Jan 7-Jan 10-Jan 13-Jan 16-Jan 19-Jan 22-Jan 25-Jan 28-Jan 31-Jan
Year 2015 2016
Numbers of Fabrication (nos.) 335 3,168 8,700 14,691 20,110 27,450 34,495 41,962 49,156 57,401 66,138 72,698 79,622 84,628
Numbers of Dumping (nos.) 0 1,817 3,865 7,235 11,691 19,237 26,156 34,748 43,238 50,425 58,173 64,023

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4.1.3 Geo Textile Bags

River embankment slopes, in particular the toe of the slope, may be scouring or erode due
to water flow and waves. In order to prevent these scouring and erosion, geo textile bags can
be used to protect the toe of the slope.

Standard specifications and dimensions of geo textile bags

The standard geo textile bag should be 400 grams per square meter in material mass, thicker
than 3.0 millimeters, and should also be treated for protection from ultraviolet light. The
standard geo textile bag dimensions are shown in the following table.

Table 4.1.3 Geo textile bag dimensions by category

Reference Size of Geo textile bag Weight (Kg)
No.40‐485/487/
490/495‐ W × L (mm) V (m3) (filled with sand)

‐10 1200 × 950 0.1664 250

‐15 1100 × 850 0.1333 200

‐20 1050 × 800 0.1164 175
‐30 900 × 700 0.0840 125
‐40 850 × 650 0.0730 110
‐50 750 × 600 0.0520 80
Note: Reference No. refers to the items in the SSoRM from BWDB

Notes when sand packing and dumping geo textile bags

a) The FM of sand to be packed should be greater than 1.0 so it does not leak out of the
textile mesh. FM larger than 1.2 is preferable.
b) After packing sand into bags, use a sewing device to firmly close the top of the bag so it
does not leak sand.
c) When dumping geo textile bags onto the provisional falling apron, do so from a stable
location, such as a fixed barge or flat pontoon. For eroded river embankment areas,
unload the bags from a barge, pontoon or the deck of a boat. This may not apply in
emergencies, such as disaster recovery.
d) Determine the bag dumping location based on the bathymetry survey result. Measure
and record the loading location by a total station.
e) Follow geo bag procurement, on‐site production, installation location and method on the
technical specifications, approved drafts, regulation of tender documents, and
instructions from the Engineer in charge.

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(a) Sand packing (b) Closing bags (sewing device)

Photo 4.1.1 On‐site geo bag sand packing

(@ Town Protection; In Rajshahi COTE College (military preparatory school), around the landing
place on 2013.10.8)

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Section 4.2 Slope Protection

River embankment slopes may have surface damage or scouring due to water flow and
waves. Rain may also wash away the slope surface. In order to prevent damage, scouring,
and washing away the slope surface, various slope protections can be applied to the surface
of the river embankment slope as follows:

4.2.1 Planting Grass

Plant is to be on the following specification as well as instructions from the engineer in
charge.

1) Sodding
The following is the standard sodding work for the river embankment slope and crest:
a) Dense, well‐grown sod should be used. It should be 75 millimeters thick, good quality
durba and charkanta sods of size 20 cm square.
b) After sodding, compact and water the sod until it grows well.
c) Stake the sod appropriately and spread sand on the surface so that it does not slide off
the slope.
d) Sod should be inspected for measurement after sod grows with root.

2) Planting vetiver
Standard planting procedure with vetiver to protect river embankment slopes from rain
grooves, surface erosion, and waves should be as follows:
a) Use Vetiver or Binnah grass.
b) Plant at horizontal and vertical
intervals of 20 cm.
c) After planting, maintain, compact,
spread sand, and water the grass
until it grows well.
d) Inspect sod that takes root and
e) grows normally.

Photo 4.2.1 Vetiver grass

4.2.2 Soil leakage prevention material (SSoRM: 40‐600, geo textile fabric)
Use the soil leakage prevention materials as filter material show below to prevent soil

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from leaking due to residual water level and other reasons on embankment bodies that use
permeable materials, such as structures in water, and where water touches the embankment
body.
a) Soil leakage prevention filter fabric material should be anchored at a depth from the
embankment body surface which ensures enough surface cover. The vertical height of
such filter material should not be higher than the low water level and provide necessary
lapping length.
b) The standard quality of the leak prevention geo textile fabric material is as follows:
Elongation: 60% ≤ MD ≤ 100% (maximum tensile direction)
40% ≤ CMD ≤ 100% (maximum tensile)
Permeability: K ≥ 2×10 (at 2kN/m2 )
3

Proper joint: Mechanical continuous joint (polypropylene(PP) or nylon)

35 cm wrap width while drying or
100 cm wrap width in water
Ultraviolet rays (UV) protection: Protection from UV rays or other harmful compounds
ISO certification: ISO certification and manufacturer information should be shown on the
geo textile material when delivered to the site.
c) The procurement, on‐site production, installation location and method of geo textile for
preventing soil leakage should be based on the technical specifications, approved
drawings, provisions of tender documents, and instructions from the Engineer in
charge.

4.2.3 Clay Blanket

Covering work (river embankment surface) using cohesive soil
When making an embankment body with sandy soil, there are times when cohesive soil
(clay) is used to protect the embankment surface to prevent the sand from being washed
away by an increase in river water level or rain. The thickness of clay blanket depends on the
materials to be used and river conditions, but is generally 0. 5 to 1.0 m.

Clay, covering soil

粘土 覆土（表層部）
t = 0.5 ～ 1.0 m
本体材料；砂
Body material; sand

Figure 4.2.1 Covering the surface with clay

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General standards and specification of construction of clay blankets are as follows;

a) material; Proposed desired clayey material composes mainly of clay and some of silt.
Composition of specified soil must be confirmed by laboratory test.
b) Layers and ranges; Throwing clay for one (1) layer is not exceeding 150mm in thickness
with clod breaking and benching the side slopes.
c) Compaction; The compaction degree is to be 85% to 90% of maximum dray density at
optimum moisture content defined by the specification.

4.2.4 CC‐blocks covering

CC‐blocks are utilized as slope protection of river embankment with covering the surface
of banks as well as usage for toe protection described in Clause 4.1.1 Cement concrete (CC)
blocks avobe. Fabrication of CC‐block for slope protection is the same as the manner of
afore said CC‐block for teo protection in Clause 4.1.1.
CC‐block covering is to be constructed with a) erosion protective material and b) filter
material underneath of CC‐block layers as below;

1) Erosion protective and filler material

a) Geotextile fabric material (40‐600)
As aforementioned in clause 4.2.2 “Soil leakage prevention material”, Geotexitile fabric
material is used in order to prevent soil leakage from the river bank underneath of
CC‐block covering on slope of river embankment.
b) Filter material for CC‐block covering
As a basement and filter for CC‐block covering on bank slope, following materials are to be
laid underneath of such CC‐blocks;
i) broken brick chips (refer to ItemCode of SSoRM: 40‐610)
ii) shingles and peagravels ( diito but 40‐620)
iii) stone chips ( diito but 40‐640)
iv) sand ( ditto but 40‐650)

2) Prevention measures for reduce the flow velocity

In order to reduce the velocity of river water flow, various measurement or methods have
been proposed. Some of them are introduced here as below;

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a) Alternately allocation
Different size or height of CC‐blocks
is laid on the slope of river embankment
or on the slope of revetment of bank,
alternately in position of the slope
in order to decrease the flow velocity.
One of sample photo is as left in the
seashore inner part of curving.
Photo 4.2.1 CC‐block on Revetment

b) Block with projection part

There is a CC‐block with projection part which ordinary had been previously fabricated in the
factory. In case of casting the concrete on site, most attention has to be taken regarding
setting formwork and quality of concrete. One example of this type of block is shown on the
photo below.

Photo 4.2.2 Example of prefabricated CC‐block in Factory and layout on the slope
( Example size: 480mm×250mm×250mm (45.7kg))

Example construction of Slope Protection using CC‐block with projection part

Traial Fabrication of CC‐block with projection part in the Pilot Repair Works
（Quated from “Report for Trial Fabrication for CC‐Block 40*40*20cm with projection part,
Supervising Team / JET and BWDB Moulvibazar O & M Division on March 2016 and others）

Name of Works: The Pilot Repair Works of Manu River Flood Control Embankment
in Moulvibazar District

In order to make sure the productivity, workability and practicality of CC-block 40×40×20cm
with projection part when manufacturing, Trial Fabrication for the block has been conducted. For
reference of actual works, the results, findings and recommendations from the Trial are reported
herewith.

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1. Objective and characteristic of CC-block 40×40×20cm with projection part:

Introduction of CC block with projection in order to decelerate flow along the protection work and
to limit generation of secondary flow along the protection work has been adopted in the Pilot Repair
Works.
It is challenging action for improvement of designing and construction works for river
embankment/ revetment under the Capacity Development Project.

Figure 1. CC-block 40×40×20cm with projection part for Slope Protection:

2. Checking points of Trail Fabrication:

Checking points of the Trial are followings;
1) Formwork for projection part
2) procedure of casting concrete for projection part
3) workmanship of manufacturing and inspection of completed shape of the block
4) difference between the concrete mixtures

3. Results and Findings from Trail Fabrication:

From 2nd to 7th March 2016, Trail Fabrication for CC-block 40×40×20cm with projection part
has been conducted. Observation of casting concrete and inspection for Formwork and
workmanship of completed shape of the blocks and others are recorded as below tables;

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Table. Checking results for Trail Fabrication for CC-block 40×40×20cm with projection part
Checking Concrete mixtures
Workmanship and
Point Formwork Casting concrete (1:2: 4 mix/ 1:3:6
shape of the block
Date mix)
1) Number of 1) Setting 1) After de‐mould, it 1) There are no
02 – 07 formworks are Formwork looks not bad with difference between
March need more 2) Scratching the some touching ‐up 1:2:4 and 1:3:6 mix
2016 2) Checking surface of lower plastering concrete when
dimen‐sions of part 2) Dimensions of the casting
the Form 3) Cement completed shape of 2) No difference
3) Stiffness of grouting on the CC‐block with found regarding the
Formwork surface of lower projection shaping the block
part
Result of
Checking Good Not bad Good No difference

4. Recommendation for manufacturing CC-block 40×40×20cm with projection part:

After above checking result and taking consideration for the productivity, workability and
practicality of CC-block 40×40×20cm with projection part when manufacturing, following
recommendation are made with some comments;
1) Procedure and method of manufacturing, carried out at Trial Fabrication, is satisfactory for the
manufacturing for CC-block 40×40×20cm with projection part for the Works
2) In order to catch up the Slope Protection Schedule, more steel made Formworks will be required
if necessary.
3) It would be considered the concrete mixture for CC-block with projection part using not only
1:2:4 mix but also 1:3:6 mix
4) Since additional trials of fabrication, it is preferable that a holes on to the lower part of concrete
(first casting concrete part) is to be made and the second concrete for the upper part (shaping
special steel form for the projection part) is to be casted. The connection between lower and
upper part of this method is more strong than that of only mortaring after scratching the top
surface of lower part.

Attachment: Reference photos of Trial Fabrication for CC-block 40×40×20cm

with projection part

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Reference photos of Trial Fabrication;

PhA. Checking steel made formwork, with require PhB. Scratching the surface and cement mortar
dimensions plastering before casting projection part

PhC. Checking the procedure of casting concrete and PhD. Checking completed shape of projection part
workmanship of manufacturing for projection part as per design

PhF. Doing room for improvement increasing adhesion

PhE. Ditto of Ph.D between lower/upper part, make a hole at the
lower part

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Chapter 5 Safety
The party in charge of the construction of river embankment should take great
responsibility for the safety during such construction. To keep safety, It is necessary to
provide adqueate safety facilities, to conduct safety management preventing construction
workers and third party people from accidents/dessastors and to prepare the special
protection measures when flood occurs in the river construction site.

Section 5.1 Safety Prevention Facilities

The safety facilities required for performing the work must be properly planned according
to the stipulations in relevant regulations, adjusting to the work site and the surrounding
environment.

(1) Signboards and observers

The signboards required for safety management must be determined before the work
commences and posted in their correct positions. Watchmen against third parties should
also be considered for safety as necessary.
Sufficient measures and care are required to prevent damaging the areas around existing
river embankments in particular, which will often have buried gas lines, water and
communication lines as well as housing nearby.

(2) Protective fencing

Areas considered dangerous during construction must be sectioned off with protective
fencing and other hazard preventions, along with no trespassing signs.

(3) Dust prevention

In locations where dust may be generated from construction, dust preventive measures
must be taken. Standard dust prevention measures include spreading water or asphalt
emulsions.

(4) Water pollution control

If the construction may pollute the water, measures such as providing fences for water
pollution fence, a sedimentation facility or chemical treatment are to be considered.

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Section 5.2 Safety Management

Construction sites often change from hour to hour due to the difficulties in achieving a
simple and uniformed working conditions. Therefore, the management system has to be
able to respond to these changes.
The fundamental principle of safety management is safety first, and pursuing this principle
leads to the speedy and economical creation of good work. Attention must be paid to safety
from the planning stage to the construction stage. Care also needs to be taken to ensure
that the on‐site construction system and safety measures are not detached from each other.
Furthermore, extra care is required when reinforcing or expanding existing river
embankments in comparison to the construction of new river embankments as it is more
likely that accidents happen to third parties with river embankment crests and berms acting
as combined roads or being adjacent to cities.

5.2.1 Regulations and checkpoints in regards to safety management

Regulations that are concerned with safety management are The Bangladesh Labor Act
(2006) and the audit on occupational health and safety (implementation of safe
construction) and are enforced by the Chief Inspector of Factory and Establishment of the
Ministry of Labour and Employment on construction companies.
The following are checkpoints for safety management:
a) Establish health and safety committees
b) Establish a plan for important construction, equipment, and machinery (excavation of land
that is higher than 10 m, temporary roads, etc.)
c) Work that should be carried out by work supervisors and operation chiefs (excavation of
land that is higher than 2 m, earth retaining support, construction machinery repair and
removing attachments, etc.)
d) Qualified workers (blasting engineers, construction machinery operators, etc.)
e) Work that requires the allocation of watchman and flag man (prevent machinery from
falling and colliding, work close to overhead power lines, open‐cut excavation work, etc.)
f) Set up no entry areas (within the work radius of machinery, land that is prone to collapsing,
locations with hazardous materials, etc.)
g) Presentation (work plans, signs and warnings)
h) Compulsory wearing of protective equipment (helmet, safety belts, monitoring whether
equipment is being worn, etc.)
i) Other work orders to be complied with against prohibited items (excavated surface
gradient, earth retaining structure, machinery speed limit, prevention of electric shocks,
etc.)

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5.2.2 Serious accident and Cause against construction disaster

1) Three biggest Serious Accidents
In the construction site, there are three (3) biggest Serious Accidents; falling and dropping,
accidents related machinery and cpllapse of earth. The following shows the main
construction disasters:
a) Accidents by construction machinery
b) Accidents caused by landslides or collapse during excavation
c) Falls from high places or falling objects
d) Traffic accidents within the construction site
When construction has to carry out close to the resident people such as re‐sectioning
and/or repair works for existing river embankment, it is likely to occur the third party
accident especially traffic accident concerning to the third party.

2) Princple of Cause of Accidents (Heinrich’s law)

There is one of the principle analyized for
construction accident experimentally which 1 One serious accident
consists of one serious accident (with dead
ordinary accident same
victim) accompied with 29 numbers of 29 condition
ordinary accidents and one ordinary accitent Feeling “Shudder”
induced by 10 numbers of the phenomenon 300 or“Startled”
where workers feel danger or fear saying
“Shudder” or“Startled”
It is imporatnt to prevent the accident on the sites that all the people on the site must not
forget such phenomenon of “Shudder” or“Startled” and take necessary measure do not
happen such suitation.

5.2.3 Preventing accidents on construction site

The following will be considered as precautions to prevent industrial accidents.
(1) Organize a safety management committee to plan and implement safety management,
and promote systematic safety management.
(2) The Employer (the Contractors in the case of contract work) is encouraged to educate
new workers when employing workers.
Education content includes:
a. Construction General, management systems, organization
b. Site rules and environment, facilities
c. Group work with other jobs

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d. Comprehensive work schedule

e. Safety construction cycle
f. Dangers and hazards of machinery, construction materials, and places, and how to
handle them
g. Performance and handling of safety and protective equipment
h. Work procedures
i. Inspection when starting work
j. Causes and prevention of diseases that may arise from the work
k. Maintaining tidiness and cleanliness
l. Emergency precautions and evacuation in case of an accident or disaster
m. Other necessary items for work health and safety
The following need to be confirmed for the workers at the time of education:
・ Qualifications, experience
・ Emergency contacts, blood type and past illnesses
・ Medical history records
(3) Display a communication system for emergencies in a place where workers can easily
see and familiarize themselves with it.
(4) Hold morning safety meetings, safety progress meetings, before work meetings (tool
box meeting), and conduct safety education/drills and evacuation/firefighting drills to
increase worker safety consciousness.
(5) Study the topography and geology of work locations thoroughly, and select machinery
and determine construction work methods to plan an appropriate safety management
plan.
(6) Assign a work leader to be in charge of important construction works. The work leader
will be selected from the appropriate workers depending on the construction
machinery or type of work.
(7) Wear protective equipment suited to the type of work, and use construction machinery
that has the appropriate equipment installed and has passed appropriate inspections.
(8) Inspect protective equipment, electricity, electric tools, construction machinery,
vehicles, ground, earth retention, and other necessary items before work. More over
implement separate monthly inspections.
(9) Store oxygen, acetylene, and fuel separately. Make sure that storage locations have fire
extinguishers and install leak prevention devices for fuel storage to protect the soil from
contamination.
(10) Determine a site speed limit and clearly display and advertise it.
(11) Organize a route for construction machinery and allocate the appropriate flag man to

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prevent machinery from tipping or colliding.

(12) When leaving machinery, stow buckets and earth removal plates, stop the engine,
remove the key, and lock the door to prevent the machinery from rolling away or
incorrect operation by workers other than the responsible operator.
(13) When using a mobile crane, extend the outriggers to their maximum position and place
planks or iron plates underneath them. Preselect machines with appropriate
performance according to cargo lift and work radius. Check the hook latch, over lifting
prevention device, and limiter operation. Also check for kinks and breaks in both the
main and slinging wires. Select a signaler who will check the cargo when it is being lifted
and use supporting ropes if necessary without going under the cargo. When there is
strong wind or thunder in the area, stop work, store the boom, and keep low. Also
make sure the crane is grounded.
(14) In order to react to landslides and collapses during excavation, make sure to excavate
with a safe gradient, and remove stones and soil that might fall from the slope. Prevent
the erosion and collapse of the slope by placing a berm at the shoulder of slope. Also
inspect the ground and pay extra attention to changes, such as cracks and swollen
ground, after rain and monitor them if necessary.
(15) Erect a fence at dangerous locations to keep un‐authorized persons out and raise
awareness by setting up safety signboards.
(16) Place a handrail above cut slopes and at the shoulder of river embankments with a
gradient sharper than 1:1.5 and a vertical height higher than 2.0 meters. If that is not
possible, secure enough space and indicate the shoulder of river embankment.
(17) Ideally, berms should be set at 5.0‐meter intervals for cut slopes and river
embankments that exceed a vertical height of 5.0 meters.

Example of Safety Gethering and Saftey education to the workers

Demonstlation of Safety Gathering held on the Pilot Repair Works

Objective of “Safety Gathering”:

To promote participants’ awareness of Safety during construction works

Order of “Safety Gathering” Reference:

1） gathering everybody on site
2） providing safety goods and everybody wear it
3） safety address, such as 1:29:300 theory, by
Engineer in charge of the Pilot Repair Works
< Education to all of the Workers>
4） “Safety First” Call in Bengali word (“Shabar Age
Nirapatta”) leaded by a representative of the workers

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Photos : “Safety Gathering” on Pilot Repair Works of Manu River Flood Control Embankment in
Moulvibazar District held on 23rd January, 2016

Ph A. 150 workers and 40 WS participants gathered Ph B. Safety Gather was conducted 9:05 –
9:25 am

Ph C. Safety idea is introduced (Lecture by PM) Ph D. Emphasized “Safety First”

Ph E. Closing with safety first “Call”

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5.2.4 Preventing accidents to third parties

The following will be considered as to prevent accidents to third party;
a) Select construction methods that account for prevention of disasters to the public.
b) Clearly indicate and distinguish areas that are necessary for construction by setting up
fences and the like so that third parties do not mistakenly enter. In the event that someone
does enter the site, give consideration to preventing accidents, such as falling into holes.
c) Consult with road administrators and the local police station if necessary to decide
construction traffic routes. If roads are used, make sure the necessary procedures are
carried out and precaution signs to inform the general public.
d) At construction vehicle entrances and exits, enforce drivers to stop once, and if necessary
place entrance and exit signs and allocate a flagman.
e) To prevent dangerous traffic and traffic jams, clearly indicate the transportation route,
place necessary direction signboards, and allocate traffic guard to ensure safe traffic.
f) If dump trucks travel on public roads, prohibit overload (allocate watchmen) and prevent
dust (install a wheel washing system, remove and clean mud, enforce tailgate closure,
cover the load with a sheet, etc.).
g) Conduct trial excavation for work adjacent to buried objects such as gas pipes, water pipes,
and electric and communication cables. Confirm their plane position and depth and take
necessary safety precautions with administrators in attendance.
h) Pay close attention to construction machinery usage and movements by allocating watch
man. Also take appropriate action to prevent machinery from tipping due to soft ground
(lay iron plates or timber mats, improve the foundation, etc.).
i) In order to prepare the case that an accident occurs from hitting buried objects or
overhead electric wires or those objects are broken, clarify to contact person(nel) of
utilities in advance and review emergency procedures.
j) Keep the construction site tidy and orderly so that dust from the construction does not
disturb the surrounding areas.
k) Display a construction organization chart where third parties can visually check the
construction system and the responsible engineers for each construction work.

Section 5.3 Flood Prevention

In principle, river training work should not be performed during flood season. When there
is no other alternative, care must be taken with the method and order so that the setback
does not collapse during the flood season. Care must especially be taken for earthworks

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close to the embankment body. It also is required to take necessary measure preventing
flood disaster even in dry season.

5.3.1 Flood countermeasures

Create an emergency plan, procure staff and equipment, and c larify the division of roles
and chain of command with an organizational chart.
In certain cases in river training work, unusual amounts of rainfall may result in flooding
even in the non‐flood season. As such, always keep the following in mind during the work
period:
a) Gather information such as weather forecasts and river information.
b) Anticipate rises in river water levels by consulting records of past rainfall and water
levels.
c) Inspect the work site to deal with flooding quickly and effectively.
The following measures are listed for flooding:

(1) Check work progress just before flooding

If flooding is expected, work progress must be checked just before flooding hits.

(2) Secure flood preventing equipment

If there is a chance of flooding during embankment or excavation work affecting the target
structure, consider stocking drainage pumps, sandbags, waterproof sheets or other
emergency treatment and recovery equipment in normal times to ensure flood preventing
capacity.

(3) Sheltering for people and machinery in floods

It is important to decide a storage space for machinery and evacuation route and to hold
evacuation training in order to safely and smoothly shelter workers and machines against
unexpected or nighttime floods.
Also, a safe location to moor and other considerations will be needed for work ships in
case of floods.

(4) Emergency organization at flood

The following items must be determined in advance for emergency flood situations and
taught to all staff on site.
b) Staffing plan (organization chart)
c) Chain of communication (emergency contact sheet)

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(5) Flood response

In the case of a flood, swift and precise action will be required. Set up an emergency
organization immediately with gathering the information of rainwater and water level,
inspecting the site and relaying necessary information to those in the predetermined chain
of communication.

5.3.2 Preparing flood countermeasures during earthwork

When a flood is anticipated, prepare sandbags and other flood prevention materials and
take necessary action so that river structures are not threatened due to construction. Even
outside work hours, the mobilization system for staff and construction machinery must be
ready.

5.3.3 Additional prevension measures during the suspention of the Works

When the Works cannot be continued or are to be suspendited during the monsoon
and pre/post monsoon season, temporary prevension works may be carried out
according to the site condition and the nature of the Works.
In case of additional temporary prevension works is planning, the necessity and the
effects of such prevension works must be considered among the all parties concerns of
the project/the Works. Following is one example of additional prevension measures
conducting in one Pilot Works in river embankment.

“Temporary Prevention works during monsoon season”

(Order of Variation No.4)
Name of Project: Capacity Development of Management for Sustainable Water Related
Infrastructure, BWDB / JICA
Name of Works: The Pilot Repair Works of Manu River Flood Control Embankment in
Moulvibazar District

1. Reason of the suspemsion of the Works and the progress of the works
It has been extra ordinaly imclemnt weather in the construction works of the Works, such as
extraordinary inclement weather on 25th February 2016 and heavy rain fall and its
consequent water rise (caused by flash flood) from 28 March 2106. At the middle of May
2016, the water level has been above the bottom level of slope and it would be expected to be
continute above such level. Under such situation, slope protection works cannot be

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continued. Thus the Works were suspendited during coming monsoon season until next dry
season.
The main works done in the Contract by the middle of May are as below;
1) By the 29 March 2016, manufacturing CC-block (both 40:40*40cm and 30*30*30cm size)
has completed and dumping of them has almost completed.
2) Earth work; Cutting & construction of embankment is completed about 90% and 80%
respectively by the end of April, 2016
3) The numbers of Slope Protection CC-block has been manufactured by the 24 May 2016;
40*40*20cm with projection part and others have been almost completed.

2. Prevension works and method

1) As joint Inspection, BWDB Design Circle, BWDB Moulvibazar O&M, JET and TSS, the
“Temporary Prevention works” (TPW) has been proposed and planned to avoid the further
damage during coming monsoon season, and JICA approved it as Variation No.4 to carry out
the works.
2) TPW includes laying geo-sheet to the executing and under-constructing slope and
placing/dumping geo-bag with sand (125kg) to prevent the slope from washing away with
executed embankment material by flow/movement river water during monsoon season
(including pre- and post- seasons) and minimize the damage for re-starting Pilot Repair
Works.
3) Proposed drawing of standard section for TPW;

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3. Reference photos of prevension works for during monsoon season

Dressing the surface of earth of slope Laying geo‐sheet and geo‐bag

before laying Geo‐sheet on 2016.06.2 on the slope on 2016.06.02

Ditto but on 2016.06.06 : Condition of the slope during

From down‐stream to up‐stream monsoon season @2016.08.23

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Chapter 6 Inspection
There are two inspection, i.e. one is construction inspection conducted during the
execution of the construction and the other is completion inspection when the Works has
been completed to confirm the its completion.

Section 6.1 Inspection for Construction

6.1.1 Objective and Notes of Inspection
1) Inspection objective
Inspections are meant to check whether the construction is being implemented as
contracted upon completion and partial completion by observing, measuring, testing, and
other means, and to determine whether the work is acceptable. The main objective of
inspections is to guarantee the finished form and quality of the construction work based on
the Contract.

2) Notes on river embankment inspections

The quality of river structures requires uniformity. It is important not to miss the big
picture by focusing too much on the details. It is therefore unforgiveable to consider the
completed form uniformly when some parts are too large but others too small to maintain
balance.
The inspection is to check whether construction was implemented based on the design,
specifications, drawings and other contract documents, and whether the target structures
were built.
Items for inspection are as follows;
Table 6.1.1 Items for Inspections

Inspections
work item / Items for Inspections
items
Control items
Record of manufacturing,
Material
Test record at delivery
Quality Grading of fill material, Degree of compaction,
Earth work
Construction water content
Protection Compressive strength of concrete
Length of river embankment, Elevation and width of crest,
Measurement of works
Grade of slope
Construction Progress Commencement date, Completion period

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6.1.2 Inspection types

1) Daily inspections
In principle, measurement of works and quality are to be inspected daily. In particular,
items where quality and the completed form cannot be checked afterwards due to further
work must be inspected at each construction steps.
The following are concrete examples:
a) Measuring the water content of fill material that will be compacted during embankment
construction.
b) Spread thickness and degree of compaction for each layer during embankment or
backfilling work.
c) Inspection of rebar arrangement status for reinforced concrete structures.

2) Phased inspections
Phased inspections check the completed form and the works done at each phase of the
work (indicating work progress by the cumulative construction amount). There are
inspections for each phase to check construction progress at the end of each month or for
cases with regulated partial payments.
Quality inspections at important work and type phases are another type of phase
inspection. Phased inspections can be used in the following situations:
a) Current ground elevation and shape of excavation or embankment before starting the
work.
b) Quality inspection for whether the fill material has certain characteristics before
embanking work.
c) Quality inspection of cement and rebar to be used to manufacture concrete blocks.
Furthermore, phased inspection can be the foundation for partial payment. In this case,
the completed form is inspected where mainly quality has been inspected satisfactory and
work progress that shows the cumulative total amount can be calculated based on the
cumulative total quantity.

Section 6.2 Completion Inspection

6.2.1 Objective of Completion Inspection
The completion inspection is conducted for confirmation of the completion of the
contracted work, hand over the permanent structure to the client and determines the
payment to the contractor upon completion, the completion date of construction, and the
start date to repair any defects. Once the work has been confirmed to meet the purpose

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defined in the Contract, a certificate of completion is issued. As the certificate of completion

shows the rights and obligations of the parties concerned upon completion, a completion
inspection is important to complete the work.
6.2.2 Notes of Completion Inspection
1) Role of inspectors
The completion inspection is conducted by the client, so inspectors who manage the
inspection, determine whether construction has passed or failed, and confirm that the
inspection has been completed by persons put in charge or delegated by the client.
2) Order of general inspection
While the order of inspection depends upon the type of work, inspectors and the situation
at the time of the inspection, the general flow is as shown in Figure 6.2.1.

3) Required documents at the time of the completion inspection

The following deliverables need to be prepared for the completion inspection.
a) Completion documents d) Calculation documents of quantity for completed
b) Quality control records form (calculation sheet for quantities)
c) Construction log photos e) Completion inspection log

4) Checking repaired works

When items are pointed out for repairs during the completion inspection, they need to be
repaired. After patching work is finished, these repairs will be checked by the inspector or
parties delegated by the inspector. The inspector will then sign the inspection log to
complete the inspection.

5) Certificate of completion and hand over

After confirming that the completion inspection has been conducted, the Client issues a
certificate of completion to the Contractor and the objective of the Contract is handed over
to the Client. The defects liability period needs to be stated in the contract document upon
completion and handed over.

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Document inspection Field inspection

Needed before inspection: Needed at inspection: Progress tables

Inspection‐related documents progress quantity statements, progres
control data, measurement equipment

Schedule management related documents

Quality control‐related documents

Work meeting‐related documents

Quality / performance
Measurementof worksof
As‐built drawings / other
Measurement of works‐related
Contract documents

checks (all work

Construction plan
Design books

Work photos

Measurement
d t

Figure 6.2.1 Order of general completion inspection

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