6.

IMPORTANT ARC WELDING PROCESSES

6.1 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS

6.1.1 Fundamentals of the Process

6.1.1.1 Definition and General Description

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is an arc welding process in which coalescence of metals
is produced by heat from an electric arc that is maintained between the tip of a covered electrode
and the surface of the base metal in the joint being welded.

The core of the covered electrode consists of either a solid metal rod drawn or cast material or one
fabricated by encasing metal powders in a metallic sheath. The core rod conducts the electric
current to the arc and provides filler metal for the joint. The primary functions of the electrode
covering are to provide arc stability and to shield the molten metal from the atmosphere with
gases created as the coating decomposes from the heat of the arc.

The shielding employed, along with other ingredients in the covering and the core wire, largely
controls the mechanical properties, chemical composition, and metallurgical structure of the weld
metal, as well as the arc characteristics of the electrode. The composition of the electrode
covering varies according to the type of electrode.

6.1.2 Principles of Operation

Shielded metal arc welding is by far the most widely used of the various arc-welding processes. It
employs the heat of the arc to melt the base metal and the tip of a consumable covered electrode.
The circuit begins with the electric power source and includes the welding cables, an electrode
holder, a work piece connection, the work piece (weldment), and an arc-welding electrode. One of
the two cables from the power source is attached to the work. The other is attached to the
electrode holder.

Welding commence when an electric arc is struck between the tip of the electrode and the work.
The intense heat of the arc melts the tip of the electrode and the surface of the work close to the
arc. Tiny globules of molten metal rapidly from on the tip of the electrode, then transfer through
the arc stream into the molten weld pool. In this manner, filler metal is deposited as the electrode
is progressively consumed. The arc is moved over the work at an appropriate arc length and travel
speed, melting and fusing a portion of the base metal and continuously adding filler metal.

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The process requires sufficient electric current to melt both the electrode and a proper amount of
base metal. It also requires an appropriate gap between the tip of the electrode and the base metal
or the molten weld pool.

The current may be either alternating or direct, depending upon the electrode being used, but the
power source must be able to control the level of current within a reasonable range in order to
respond to the complex variables of the welding process itself.

6.1.3 Arc Shielding

The arc shielding action, is essentially the same for all electrodes, but the specific method
shielding and volume of slag produced vary from type of type. The bulk of the covering materials
on some electrodes is converted to gas by the heat of the arc, and only a small amount of slag is
produced. This type of electrode depends largely upon a gaseous shield to prevent atmospheric
contamination. Weld metal from such electrodes can be identified by the incomplete or light layer
of slag which covers the bead.

For electrodes at the other extreme, the bulk of the covering is converted to slag by the heat of the
arc, and only a small volume of shielding gas is produced. The tiny globules of metal being
transferred across the arc are entirely coated with a thin film of molten slag. This molten slag
floats to the surface of the weld puddle because it is lighter than the metal. The slag solidifies after
the weld metal has solidified. Welds made with these electrodes are identified by the heavy slag
deposits that completely cover the weld beads. Between these extremes is a wide variety of
electrode types, each with a different combination of gas and slag shielding.

Variations in the amount of slag and gas shielding also influence the welding characteristics of
covered electrodes. Electrodes which produce a heavy slag can carry high amperage and provide
high deposition rates, making them ideal for heavy weldments in the flat position. Electrodes
which produce a light slag layer are used with lower amperage and provide lower deposition rates.
These electrodes produce a smaller weld pool and are suitable for making welds in all positions.
Because of the differences in their welding characteristics, one type of covered electrode usually
will be best suited for given application.

6.1.4 Process Capabilities and Limitations

Shielded metal arc welding is one of the most widely used processes, particularly for short welds
in production, maintenance and repair work, and for field construction. The following advantages
of this process:

a) The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive, and portable.

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 b) The filler metal, and the means of protecting it and the weld metal from harmful
oxidation during welding, are provided by the covered electrode.
c) Auxiliary gas shielding or granular flux is not required.
d) The process is less sensitive to wind and draft than gas shielded arc welding
processes.
e) It can be used in areas of limited access.
f) The process is suitable for most of the commonly used metals and alloys.

SMAW electrodes are available to weld carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steel, cast irons,
copper, and nickel and their alloys, and for some aluminum applications.

Low melting metals, such as lead, tin, and zinc, and their alloys, are not welded with SMAW
because the intense heat of the arc is too high for them. SMAW is not suitable for reactive metals
such as titanium, zirconium, tantalum, and columbium because the shielding provided is
inadequate to prevent oxygen contamination of the weld.

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Covered electrodes are produced in length of 9 to 18 in. (230 to 460 mm). As the arc is first
struck, the current flows the entire length of the electrode. Excessive amperage overheats the
electrode and breaks down the covering. This, in turn, changes the arc characteristics and the
shielding that is obtained. Because of this limitation, deposition rates are generally lower than for
a welding process such as GMAW.

Operators duty cycle and overall deposition rates for covered electrodes are usually less than
provided with a continuous electrode process such as FCAW. This is because electrodes can be
consumed only to some certain minimum length. When that length has been reached, the welder
must discard the unconsumed electrode stub and insert a new electrode into the holder. In
addition, slag usually must be removed at starts and stops and before depositing a weld bead next
to or onto a previously deposited bead.

6.1.5 Power Sources

a) Type of Output Current

Either alternating current (ac) or direct current (dc) may be employed for shielding metal arc
welding, depending upon the current supplied by the power source and the electrode selected. The
specific type of current employed influences the performance of the electrode. Each current type
has its advantages and limitations, and these must be considered when selecting the type of
current for a specific application.

b) Power Source Selection

Several factors need to be considered when a power source for SMAW is selected:

1. The type of the welding current required

2. The amperage range required
3. The positions in which welding will be done.
4. The primary power available at the work station

Selection of the type of current, ac, dc, or both, will be based largely on the types of electrodes to
be used and the kind of welds to be made. For ac, a transformer or an alternator type of power
source may be used. For dc, transformer-rectifier or motor-generator power sources are available.
When both ac or dc will be needed, a single-phase transformer-rectifier or an alternator-rectifier
power source may be used. Otherwise, two welding machines will be required, one for ac and one
for dc.

6.1.6 Accessory Equipment

a) Electrode Holder

An electrode holder is a clamping device which allows the welder to hold and control the
electrode. It also serves as a device for conducting the welding current from the welding cable to
the electrode. An insulated handle on the holder separates the welder’s hand from the welding
circuit. The current is transferred to the electrode through jaws of the holder. To assure minimum
contact resistance and to avoid overheating of the holder, the jaws must be kept in good condition.
Overheating of the holder not only makes it uncomfortable for the welder, but also it can cause
excessive voltage drop in the welding circuit. Both can impair the welder’s performance and
reduce the quality of the weld.

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The holder must grip the electrode securely and hold it in position with good electrical contact.
Installation of the electrode must be quick and easy. The holder needs to be light in weight and
easy to handle.
Electrode holder are produced in size to accommodate a range of standard electrode diameters.
Each size of holder is designed to carry the current required for the largest diameter electrode that
it will hold. The smallest size holder that can be used without overheating is the best one for the
job. It will be the lightest, and it will provide the best operator comfort.
b) Work Piece Connection
A work piece connection is a device for connecting the workpiece lead to the workpiece. It should
produce a strong connection, yet be able to be attached quickly and easily to the work. For light
duty, a spring-loaded clamp may be suitable. For high currents, however, a screw clamp may be
needed to provide a good connection without overheating the clamp.
c) Welding Cables
Welding cables are used to connect the electrode holder and the ground clamp to the power
source. They are part of the welding circuit. The cable is constructed for maximum flexibility to
permit easy manipulation, particularly of the electrode holder. It also must be wear and abrasion
resistant.
Welding cable consists of many fine copper or aluminum wire stranded together and enclosed in a
flexible, insulating jacket. The jacket is made of synthetic rubber or of a plastic that has good
toughness, high electrical resistance and good heat resistance. A protective wrapping is placed
between the stranded conductor wires the insulating jacket to permit some movement between
them and provide maximum flexibility.
The size of the cable required for a particular application depends on the maximum amperage to
be used for welding, the length of the welding circuit (welding and work cables combined), and
the duty of the welding machine. Cable sizes are increased as the length of the welding circuit
increases to keep the voltage drop and attendant power loss in the cable at acceptable levels.
If long cables are necessary, short sections can be joined by suitable cable connectors. The
connectors must provide good electrical contact with low resistance, and their insulation must be
equivalent to that of the cable. Lugs, at the end of the each cable, are used to connect the cables to
the power source. The connection between the cable and a connector or lug must be strong with
low electrical resistance. Soldered joints and mechanical connections are used.
Care must be taken to avoid damage to the jacket of the cable, particularly for the electrode cable.
d) Helmet
The purpose of the helmet is to protect the welder’s eyes, face, forehead, neck, and ears from the
direct rays of the arc and from flying sparks and spatter. Some helmets have an optional “flip lid”
which permits the dark filter plate over the opening in the shield to the flipped up so the welder
can see while the slag is being chipped from the weld. This protects the welder’s face and eyes
from flying slag. Slag can cause serious injury if it strikes a person, particularly while it is hot. It
can be harmful to the eyes whether it is hot or cold.
Helmets are generally constructed of pressed fiber or fiberglass insulating material. A helmet
should be light in weight and should be designed to give the welder the greatest possible comfort.

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6.1.7 Applications
a) Material
The SMAW process can be used to join most of the common meatels and alloys. The list includes
the carbon steels, the low alloy steel, the stainless steel, and cost iron, as well as copper, nickel,
and aluminum and their alloys. Shielded metal arc welding is also used to join a wide range of
chemically dissimilar materials.
The process is not used for materials for which shielding of the arc by the gaseous products of an
electrode covering is unsatisfactory. The reactive (Ti, Zr) and refectory (Cb, Ta, Mo) metals fall
into this group.
b) Thicknesses
The Shielded Metal arc process is adaptable to any material thickness within certain practical and
economical limitations. For material thicknesses less than about 1/16 in. (1.6 mm), the base metal
will melt through and the molten metal will fall away before a common weld pool can be
established, unless special fixturing and welding procedures are employed. There is a no upper
limit on thickness, but other process such as SAW or FCAW are capable of providing higher
deposition rates and economics for most applications involving thicknesses exceeding 1-1/2 in.
(38 mm). Most of the SMAW applications are on thicknesses between 1/8 and 1-1/2 in. (3 and 38
mm), except where irregular configurations are encountered.
c) Position of Welding
One of the major advantages of SMAW is that welding can be done in any position on most of the
materials for which the process is suitable. This makes the process useful on joints that cannot be
placed in the flat position. Despite this advantage, welding should be done in the flat position
whenever practical because less skill is required, and large electrodes with correspondingly higher
deposition rates can be used. Welds in the vertical and overhead positions require more skill on
the welder’s part and are performed using smaller diameter electrodes.
d) Location of Welding
The simplicity of the equipment makes SMAW an extremely versatile process with respect to the
location and environment of the operation. Welding can be done indoors or outdoors, on a
production line, a ship, a bridge, a building framework, an oil refinery, a cross-country pipeline,
or any such types of work. No gas or water hoses are needed and the welding cables can be
extended quite some distance from the power source. In remote areas, gasoline or diesel powered
units can be used. Despite this versatility, the process should always be used in an environment
which shelters it from the wind, rain, and snow.
6.2 GAS METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS

6.2.1 Introduction

Definition and General Background

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is an arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous
filler metal electrode and the weld pool. The process is used with shielding from an externally
supplied gas and without the application of pressure.

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The basic concept of GMAW was introduced in the 1920’s, but it was not until 1948 that it was
made commercially available. At first it was considered to be, fundamentally, a high current
density, small diameter, bare metal electrode process using an inert gas for arc shielding. Its
primary application was for welding aluminum. As a result, the term MIG (Metal Inert Gas) was
used and is still a common reference for the process. Subsequent process developments including
operation at low current densities and pulsed direct current, application to broader range of
materials, and the of relative gases (particularly CO 2) and gas mixtures. This later development
has led to the formal acceptance of the term gas metal arc welding (GMAW) for the process
because both inert and reactive gases are used.

All commercially important metals such as carbon steel, high strength low alloy steel, stainless
steel, aluminum, copper, titanium, and nickel alloys can be welded in all positions with this
process by choosing the appropriate shielding gas, electrode, and welding variables.

6.2.2 Principles of Operation

The GMAW process incorporates the automatic feeding of a continuous, consumable electrode
that is shielded by an externally supplied gas. The process is illustrated in Figure. After initial
settings by the operator, the equipment provides for automatic self-regulation of the electrical
characteristics of the arc. Therefore, the only manual controls required by the welder for
semiautomatic operation are the travel speed and direction, and gun positioning.

Given proper equipment and settings, the arc length and the current (wire feed speed) are
automatically maintained.

Equipment required for GMAW is shown in figure. The basic equipment components are the
welding gun and cable assembly, electrode feed unit, power supply, and source of shielding gas.

The gun guides the consumable electrode and conducts the electrical current and shielding gas to
the work, thus providing the energy to establish and maintain the arc and melt the electrode as
well as the need protection from the ambient atmosphere.

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6.2.3 Metal Transfer Mechanisms

The characteristics of the GMAW process are best described in terms of the three basic means by
which metal is transferred from the electrode to the work.

a) Short circuiting transfer

b) Globular transfer
c) Spray transfer

a) Short circuiting Transfer

This transfer mode is generally used on sheet metal and for welding in all positions. This process
also is called dip transfer, short arc, microwire, and pinch arc welding.

DIP-transfer MIG welding deposits electrode metal by contact between the tip of the electrode
and the molten weld metal. Contacts are made regularly between the electrode wire and
workpiece at a rate of from forty to hundreds of times per second.

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Spatter is practically non-existent when dip-transfer welding if the settings are correctly made.
Drops are not transferred across a space between the electrode and the work. The molten metal
transfer is made only when the electrode wire touches the weld puddle.

The DIP transfer process uses low welding currents and voltage.

DIP transfer is a dc welding process used for joining materials up to several inches thick, as well
as for welding thin-gauge metals. Reverse polarity is used for almost all jobs, DIP transfer
welding is especially useful for welding all kinds of steels. Aluminum can be welded with the DIP
transfer MIG process, but the results are not very good. The reason is that DIP transfer is a
relatively low heat process. The high thermal conductivity of aluminum causes the weld puddle to
freeze rapidly. The rapid freezing traps gases in the aluminum weld puddle, creating porosity. The
low thermal conductivity of steel delays the weld puddle’s solidification long enough for gas
bubbles to rise to the surface of the molten metal and escape.

The DIP-transfer welding current and arc-voltage is low and therefore the heat input also is low.
That’s why dip transfer is excellent for welding thin gauge steel that otherwise weld de distorted
by a high heat input. DIP transfer also is useful for welding in all positions.

b) Globular Transfer

With a positive electrode (DCEP), globular transfer takes place when the current is relatively low,
regardless of the type of shielding gas. However, with carbon dioxide and helium, this type of
transfer is characterized by a drop size with a diameter greater than that of the electrode.

At average currents, only slightly higher than those used in short circuiting transfer, globular
axially-directed transfer can be achieved in a substantially inert gas shield. If the arc length is too
short to the workpiece, become superheated, and disintegrated, producing considerable spatter.
The arc must therefore be long enough to ensure detachment of the drop before it contacts the
weld pool.

Carbon dioxide shielding results in randomly directed globular transfer when the welding current
and voltage are significantly above the range for short circuiting transfer. Spatter can be severe,
which limits the use of CO2 shielding for many commercial applications.

In globular transfer, the droplets detach when their weight exceeds the surface tension of the
molten metal that holds the drop on the electrode tip. The electro magnetic force that acts in a
direction to detach the drop is small relative to the force of gravity when the current is in the
globular transfer range. Consequently, molten metal droplets in globular transfer fall downward
regardless of the direction in which the electrode wire is pointed.

c) Spray Transfer

With argon-rich shielding it is possible to produce a very stable, spatter-free “axial spray” transfer
mode as illustrated in figure. This requires the use of direct current and a positive electrode
(DCEP), and a current level above a critical value called the transition current. Below this current,
transfer occurs in the globular mode. Above the transition current, the transfer occurs in the form
of very small drops that are formed and detached at the rate of hundreds per second. They are
accelerated axially across the arc gap. In spray transfer molten metal passing through the arc at the
electrode tip acts like the spray of water from a nozzle.

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The spray transfer mode results in a highly directed stream of discrete drops that are accelerated
by arc forces to velocities which overcome the effects of gravity. Because of that, the process,
under certain conditions, can be used in any position.

The spray-arc transfer mode can be used to weld almost any metal or alloy because of the inert
characteristics of the argon shield. However, applying the process of thin sheets may be difficult
because of the high current needed to produce the spray arc. Weld spatter is negligible and you
get a weld-metal deposition efficiency as high as 99 percent (almost all of your filler metal
becomes weld metal). Since spray transfer is achieved in a gas shield made mostly of inert argon
gas, the harmful effects of a non-inert (reactive) gas such as carbon dioxide on the weld metal are
avoided.

6.2.4 Uses and Advantages

1. It is the only consumable electrode process that can be used to weld all commercial metals
and alloys.
2. GMAW overcomes the restriction of limited electrode length encountered with shielding
metal arc welding.
3. Welding can be done in all positions, a feature not found in submerged arc welding.
4. Deposition rates are significantly higher than those obtained with shielded metal arc
welding.
5. Welding speeds are higher than those with shielded metal arc welding because of the
continuous electrode feed and higher filler metal deposition rates.
6. Because the wire feed is continuous, long welds can be deposited without stops and starts.
7. When spray transfer is used, deeper penetration is possible than with shielded metal arc
welding, which may be permit the use of smaller size fillet welds for equivalent strengths.
8. Minimal postweld cleaning is required due to the absence of a heavy slag.

6.2.5 Limitations

As with any welding process, there are certain limitations which restrict the use of gas metal arc
welding. Some of these are the following:

1. The welding equipment is more complex, more costly and less portable than that for
SMAW.
2. GMAW is more difficult to use in hard-to reach places because the welding gun is larger
than a shielded metal arc welding holder, and the welding gun must be close to the joint,
between 3/8 and 3/4 in. (10 and 19 mm), to ensure that the weld metal is properly
shielded.
3. The welding arc must be protected against air drafts that will disperse the shielding gas.
This limits outdoor applications unless protective shields are placed around the welding
area.
4. Relatively high levels of radiated heat and arc intensity can result in operator resistance to
the process.

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6.3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS

6.3.1 Introduction

Gas tungsten arc Welding (GTAW) is an arc welding process that uses an arc between a tungsten
electrode (nonconsumable) and the weld pool. GTAW has become indispensable as a tool for
many industries because of the high quality weld produced and low equipment costs.

The possibility of using helium to shield a welding arc and molten weld pool was first
investigated in the 1920’s. However, nothing was done with this method until the beginning of
World War II when a great need developed in the aircraft industry to replace reveting for joining
reactive materials such as aluminum and magnesium. Using a tungsten electrode and direct
current arc power with the electrode negative, a stable, efficient heat source was produced with
which excellent welds could be made.

Helium was elected to provide the necessary shield because, at the time, it was the only readily
available inert gas.

The process has been called non-consumable electrode welding and TIG (tungsten inert gas)
welding. However, the AWS terminology for this processes gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),
because shielding gas mixtures which are not inert can be used for certain applications.

Since the early days of the invention, numerous improvements have been made to the process and
equipment. Welding power sources have been developed specifically for the process. Some
provide pulsed dc and variable polarity ac welding power. Water-cooled torches were developed.
The tungsten electrode has been alloyed with small amount of active elements to increase its
emissivity; this has improved arc starting, arc stability, and electrode life. Shielding gas mixtures
have been identified for improved welding performance.

6.3.2 Principles of Operation

6.3.2.1 Process Description

The gas tungsten arc welding process is illustrated in figure1. The process uses a nonconsumable
tungsten (or tungsten alloy) electrode held in a torch. Shielding gas is fed through the torch to
protect the electrode, molten weld pool, and solidifying weld metal from contamination by the

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atmosphere. The electric arc is produced by the passage of current through the conductive, ionized
shielding gas. The arc is established between the tip of the electrode and the work. Heat generated
by the arc melts the base metal. Once the arc and weld pool arc established, the torch is moved
along the joint and the arc progressively melts the faying surfaces.

Four basic components are common to all GTAW set ups, which are as fallow:

(1) Torch (2) Electrode

(3) Welding Power Source (4) Shielding gas

6.3.2.2 Direct Current

Using direct current, the tungsten electrode may be connected to either the negative or positive
terminal of the power supply. In almost all cases, electrode negative (cathode) is chosen. With the
polarity, electrode flow from the electrode to the work and positive ions are transferred from the
work to the electrode, as shown for DCEN (straight polarity) in figure. When the electrode is
positive (anode), the directions of electron and positive ion flow are reversed, as shown for DCEP
(reverse polarity) in Figure

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With DCEN and a thermionic electrode such as tungsten, approximately 70 percent of the heat is
generated at the anode and 30 percent at the cathode. Since DCEN produces the greatest amount
of the heat at the workpiece, for a given welding current, DCEN will provide deeper weld
penetration than DCEP. DCEN is the most configurations used in GTAW, and is used with argon,
helium, or a mixture of the two to weld most melts.

When the tungsten electrode is connected to the positive terminal (DCEP), a cathodic cleaning
action is created at the surface of the workpiece. This action with most metals but is most
important when welding aluminum and magnesium because it removes the refractory oxide
surface that inhibit wetting of the weldment by the weld metal.

6.3.2.3 Pulsed DC Welding

Pulsed dc involves the repetitive variation in arc current from a background (low) value to a peak
(high) value. Pulsed dc power sources typically allow adjustments of the pulse current time,
background current time, peak current level, and background current level, to provide a current
output wave from suited to a particular application. Figure shows a typical pulsed current
waveform.

There are several advantages of pulsed current. For a given average current level, greater
penetration can be obtained than with steady current, which is useful on metals sensitive to heat
input and minimizes distortion. Because there is insufficient time for significance heat flow
during the short duration of a pulse, metals of dissimilar thicknesses usually respond equally, and
equal penetration can be achieved. For a similar reason, very thin metals can be joined with
pulsed dc.

6.3.3 Process Variables

The primary variables in GTAW are arc voltage (arc length), welding current, travel speed, and
shielding gas. The amount of energy produced by the arc is proportional to the current and
voltage. The amount transferred per unit length of weld is inversely proportional to the travel
speed. The arc in helium is more penetrating than that in argon. However, because all of these

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variables interact strongly, it is impossible to treat them as truly independent variables when
establishing welding procedures for fabricating specific joints.

a) Arc Current

As a general statement, arc current controls the weld penetration, the effect being directly
proportional, it is not somewhat exponential. Arc current also affects the voltage, with the voltage
at a fixed arc length increasing in proportion to the current. For this reason, to keep a fixed arc
length, it is necessary to change the voltage setting when the current is adjusted.

The process can be used with either direct or alternating current, the choice depending largely on
the metal to be welded. Alternating current provides a cathodic cleaning (sputtering) which
remove refractory oxides from the joint surfaces of aluminum and magnesium, allowing superior
welds to be made.

b) Arc Voltage

The voltage measured between the tungsten electrode and the work is commonly referred to as the
arc voltage. Arc voltage is a dependent variable, affected by the following.

1. Arc current.
2. Shape of the tungsten electrode tip.
3. Distance between the tungsten electrode and the work.
4. Type of shielding gas.

Arc length is important with this process because it affects the width of the pool; pool width is
proportional to arc length.
c) Travel Speed
Travel speed affects both the width and penetration of a gas tungsten arc weld. However, its effect
on width is more pronounced than that on penetration. Travel speed generally is fixed in
mechanized welding.
d) Wire Fed
In Manual Welding, the way filler metal is added to the pool influences the number of the passes
required and the appearance of the finished weld. In machine and automatic welding, wire feed
speed determines the amount of filler deposited per unit length weld.
6.3.4 Equipment
Equipment for GTAW includes torches, electrodes, and power supplies. Mechanized GTAW
system may incorporate arc voltage controls, arc oscillators, and wire feeders.
a) Welding Torches
GTAW Torches Hold the tungsten electrode which conducts welding current to the arc, and
provide a means for conveying shielding gas to the arc zone.
Torches are rated in accordance with the maximum welding current that can be used without
overheating.

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b) Gas-cooled Torches
The heat generated in the torch during welding is removed either by gas cooling or water-cooling.
Gas-cooled torches (sometimes called air-cooled) provide cooling by the flow of the relatively
cool shielding gas through the torch. Gas cooled torches are limited to a maximum welding
current of about 200 amperes.
c) Water-cooled Torches
Water Cooled Torches are cooled by the continuous flow of water through passageways in the
holder. Cooling water enters the torch through the inlet hose, circulates through the torch, and
exits through an outlet hose.

Water-cooled torches are designed for use at higher welding currents. Typical welding currents of
300 to 500 amps can be used, although some torches have been built to handle welding currents
up to 1000 amps. Most machine or automatic welding applications use water-cooled torches.

d) Collets

Electrodes of various diameters are secured in the electrode holder by appropriately sized collets
or chucks. Collets are typically made of a copper alloy. The electrode is gripped by the collet
when the torch cap is tighten in place.

e) Nozzles

Shielding gas is directly to the weld zone by gas nozzles of cups which fit onto the head of the
torch. Gas nozzles are made of various heat-resistant materials in different shapes, diameters, and
lengths. These nozzles are either threaded to the torch or held by friction fit.

6.3.5 Process Advantages

The following are some advantages of the gas tungsten arc process:

a) It produces superior quality welds, generally free of defects.

b) It is free of the spatter which occurs with other arc welding processes.
c) It can be used with or without filler metal as required for the specific application.
d) It allows excellent control of root pass weld penetration.
e) Its produce inexpensive autogenous welds at high speed.
f) It allows precise control of the welding variables.
g) It can be used to weld almost all metals, including dissimilar metal joints.
h) It allows the heat source and filler metal additions to be controlled independently.

6.3.6 Process Limitations

The following are some limitations of the gas tungsten arc process:

a) Deposition rates are lower than the rates possible with consumable electrode arc
welding processes.

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 b) There is a need for slightly more dexterity and welder coordination than with gas metal
arc welding or shielded metal arc welding for manual welding.
c) It is less economical than the consumable electrode arc welding processes for thicker
sections greater than 3/8 in. (10 mm).
d) There is difficult in shielding the weld zone properly in drafty environments.

6.4 SUBMERGED-ARC WELDING PROCESS

6.4.1 Process Fundamentals

Description

Submerged arc welding (SAW) produces coalescence of meals by heating them with an arc
between a bare metal electrode and the work. The arc and molten metal are submerged” in a
blanket of granular fusible flux on the work.

In submerged arc welding, the arc is covered by a flux. This flux plays a main role in that

a) The stability of the arc is dependent on the flux,

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 b) Mechanical and chemical properties of the final weld deposit can be controlled by
flux, and
c) The quality of the weld may be affected by the care and handling of the flux.

Submerged arc welding is a versatile production welding process capable of making welds with
currents up to 2000 amperes, ac or dc, using single or multiple wires or strips of filler metal.

6.4.2 Principles of Operation

In submerged arc welding, the end of a continuous bare wire electrode is inserted into a mound of
flux that covers the area or joint to be welded. An arc is initiated and a wire feeding mechanism
begins to feed the electrode wire towards the joint at a controlled rate, and the feeder is moved
manually or automatically along the weld seam.
Additional flux is continually fed in front of and around the electrode and continuously distributed
over the joint. Heat evolved by the electric arc progressively melts some of the flux, the end of the
wire, and the adjacent edges of the base metal, creating a pool of molten metal beneath a layer of
liquid slag. The melted bath near the arc is in a highly turbulent state. Gas bubbles are quickly
swept to the surface of the pool. The flux floats on the molten metal and completely shields the
welding zone from the atmosphere.
The flux blanket on the top surface of the weld pool prevents atmospheric gases from
contaminating the weld metal, and dissolves impurities in the base metal and electrode and floats
them to the surface. The flux can also add or remove certain alloying elements to or from the weld
metal.

As the welding zone progresses along the seam, the weld metal and then the liquid flux cool and
solidify, forming a weld bead and a protective slag shield over it.
It is important that the slag is completely removed before making another weld pass. The
submerged arc process is illustrated in the figure.
a) Factors that determine whether to use submerged arc welding include:
b) The chemical composition and mechanical properties required of the final deposit.
c) Thickness of base metal to be welded.
d) Joint accessibility

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 e) Position in which the weld is to be made.
f) Frequency or volume of welding to be performed.
6.4.3 Process Variations
Submerged arc welding lends itself to a wide variety of wire and flux combinations, single and
multiple electrode arrangements and use of ac or dc welding power sources. The process has been
adapted to a wide range of materials and thickness. Various multiple arc configurations may be
used to control the weld profile and increase the deposition rates over single arc operation. Weld
deposits may range from wide beads with shallow penetration for surfacing, to narrow beads with
deep penetration for thick joints.

Various types of power sources and related equipment are designed and manufactured especially
for multiple arc welding. These relatively sophisticated machines are intended for high production
on long runs of repetitive type applications.

6.4.4 Equipment

The equipment required for submerged arc welding consists of

a) A power supply
b) An electrode delivery system
c) A flux distribution system
d) A travel arrangement and
e) A process control system. Optional equipment includes flux recovery systems and
positioning or manipulating equipment.
6.4.5 Power Sources
The power source chosen for a submerged arc welding system plays a major operating role.
Several types of power supply are suitable for submerged arc welding. A dc power supply may be
a transformer rectifier or a motor or engine generator, which will provide a constant voltage (CV),
constant current (CC), or a selectable CV/CC output. AC power supplies are generally
transformer types, and may provide either a CC output or a CV square wave output. Because
SAW is generally a high-current process with high-duty cycle, a power supply capable of
providing high amperage at 100 percent duty cycle is recommended.
6.4.6 Controls
The control systems fused for semiautomatic submerged arc welding are simple wire feed speed
controls. Controls used with constant-voltage power supplies maintain a content wire feed speed.
Controls used with constant-current power supplies monitor the arc voltage land adjust the wire
feed speed to maintain a constant voltage. The simplest wire feeders have one-knob analog
controls that maintain constant wire feed speed. The state-of-the art wire feeders used for
automatic SAW, have microprocessor based digital controls. These controls have feed-back loops
interfaced with the power supply and wire feed motor, to maintain the welding voltage and wire
speed at preset values. The great advantage of digital controls is their precise control of the
welding process.
Digital controls are currently available only for fuse with constant voltage power supplies. These
controls, provide for wire feed speed adjustment (current control), power supply adjustment

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(voltage control), weld start-stop, automatic and manual travel on-off, cold wire feed u-down, run-
in land crater fill control, burnback, and flux feed on-off. Digital current, voltage, and wire feed
seed meters are standard on digital controls.
6.4.7 Weld Heads and Torches
A submerged arc welding head comprises the wire feed motor and feed roll assembly, the torch
assembly and contact tip, and accessories for mounting and positioning the head. A flux nozzle
list usually mounted on the weld head, to deposit the flux either slightly ahead of or concentric
with the welding wire.

Wire feed motors are typically heavy duty, permanent magnet-type motors with an integral
reducing gearbox.

The feed roll assembly may have one drive and one idler roll, two drive rolls, or four drive rolls.
Feed rolls may be knurled-V or smooth-V type; knurled-V rolls are the most common. Torch
assembly designs are numerous, but their purpose is always the same. The torch assembly guides
the wire through the contact tip to the weld zone, and also delivers welding power to the wire at
the contact tip.

Special equipment is needed for standard submerged arc welding, narrow groove (SAW-NG), and
strip electrode SAW, parallel wire SAW uses special feed roll and torch assemblies that provide
positive feeding of two wires through one torch body. Strip electrode SAW also requires a special
feed roll and torch assemblies that provide positive feeding of two wires through one torch body.
Strip electrode SAW also requires a special feed roll and torch assembly.

6.4.8 Accessory Equipment

Accessory equipment commonly used with SAW in---- travel equipment, flux recovery units,
fixturing equipment, and positioning equipment.

a) Travel equipment

Weld head travel in SAW is generally provided by a tractor-type carriage, a side beam carriage, or
a manipulator.

A tractor type carriage, as shown in figure provides ---- along straight or gently curved weld joints
by riding --- tracks set up along the joint, or by riding on the work piece itself. The weld head,
control, wire supply, and flux hopper are generally mounted on the tractor. Maximum travel
speeds possible with tractors are about 100 in./min. (45 mm/s). Tractors find the most use in field
welding where their relative portability is necessary because the workpiece cannot be moved.

Manipulators are similar to side beams, in that they are fixed and the workpiece must be brought
to the welder. Manipulators are more versatile than side beams in that they are capable of linear
motion in three axes. The weld head, wire, flux hopper, and often the control and operator ride on
the manipulator.

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b) Flux recovery units

Flux recovery units are frequently used to maximize flux utilization and minimize manual clean-
up. Flux recovery units may do any combination of the following:

a) Remove unfused flux and fused slag behind the weld head.
b) Screen out fused slag and other oversized material
c) Remove magnetic particles
d) Remove fines
e) Recirculate flux back to a hopper for reuse.
f) Heat flux in a hopper to keep it dry.

Pneumatic flux feeding is commonly used in semiautomatic SAW and frequently in automatic
SAW.

6.4.9 Materials

Submerged arc welding is used to fabricate most materials in use today, from “plain” carbon
steels to exotic nickel-base alloys. Most steels and alloys are readily weldable with commercially
available wires and fluxes. However, some metals require special heats of electrode wire
manufactured to precise chemistries, and special fluxes designed to obtain specific weld joint
properties.

Fluxes

Fluxes shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere by covering the metal with molten slag
(fused flux). Fluxes clean the molten weld pool, modify the chemical composition of the weld
metal, and influence the shape of the weld bead and its mechanical properties. Fluxes are granular
mineral compounds mixed according to various formulations. Based on the choice of several
manufacturing methods, the different types of fluxes are fused, bonded (also known as
agglomerated), and mechanically mixed.

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6.4.10 Operating Variables

Control of the operating variables in submerged arc welding is essential if high production rates
and welds of good quality are to be obtained. These variables, in their approximate order of
importance, are the following:

a) Welding amperage
b) Type of flux and particle distribution
c) Welding voltage
d) Welding speed
e) Electrode size
f) Electrode extension
g) Type of electrode
h) Width and depth of the layer of flux

a) Welding Amperage

Welding current is the most influential variable because it controls the rate at which the electrode
is melted and therefore the deposition rate, the depth of penetration and the amount of base metal
melted. If the current is too high at a given travel speed, the depth of fusion or penetration will be
too great. The resulting weld may tend to melt through the metal being joined. High current also
leads to waste of electrodes in the form of excessive reinforcement.

If the current is too low, inadequate penetration or incomplete fusion may result.

b) Welding Voltage

Welding voltage adjustment varies the length of the arc between the electrode and the molten
weld metal. If the overall voltage is increased, the arc length increases; if the voltage decreased,
the arc length decreases.

Voltage has little effect on the electrode deposition rate, which is determined by welding current.
The voltage principally determines the shape of the weld bead cross section and its external
appearance.

1. Excessively high-arc voltage will:

2. Product a wide bead shape that is subject to cracking.
3. Make slag removal difficult in groove welds.
4. Produce a concave shaped weld that may be subject to cracking.
5. Increase undercut along the edge(s) of fillet welds.

c) Travel Speed

With any combination of welding current and voltage, the effects of changing the travel speed
conform to a general pattern. If the travel speed is increased,

1. Power or heat input per unit length of weld is decreased, and

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 2. Less filler metal is applied per unit length of weld, resulting in less weld
reinforcement.

Weld penetration is affected more by travel speed than by any variable other than current. Within
limits, travel speed can be adjusted to control weld size and penetration. In these respects, it is
related to current and the type of flux. Excessively high travel speeds promotes undercut, arc
blow, porosity, and uneven bead shape. Relatively slow travel speeds provide time for gases to
escape from the molten metal thus reducing porosity.

d) Electrode Size

Electrode size affects the weld bead shape and the depth of penetration at a fixed current.
Electrode size also influences the deposition rate. Larger diameter electrode can carry more
current than a smaller electrode and produce a higher deposition rate at higher amperage.

e) Electrode Extension

At current densities above (125 A/mm 2), electrode extension becomes an important variable. At
high-current densities, resistance heating of the electrode between the contact tube and the arc
increases the electrode-melting rate. The longer the extension, the greater is the amount of heating
and the higher the melting rate. This resistance heating is commonly referred to as I 2R heating. In
developing la procedure, and electrode extension of approximately eight times the electrode
diameter is a good starting point.
When the electrode extension is increased to take advantage of the higher melting rate, the voltage
setting on the machine should be increased to maintain proper arc length.
Deposition rates can be increased from 25 percent to 50 percent by using long electrode
extensions with no changer in welding amperage.
An increase in deposition rate is accompanied by a decrease in penetration, therefore changing to
a long electrode extension is not recommended when deep penetration is needed.
f) Width and Depth of Flux
The width and depth of the layer of granular flux influence the appearance and soundness of the
finished weld as well as the welding action. If the granular layer is too deep, the arc is too
confined and a rough ropelike appearing weld will result. The gases generated during welding
cannot readily escape, and the surface of the molten weld metal becomes irregularly distorted. If
the granular layer is too shallow, the arc will not be entirely submerged in flux. Flashing and
spattering will occur. The weld will have a poor appearance, and it may be porous. Figure shows
the effects on weld bead surface appearance of proper and shallow depths of flux.
An optimum depth of flux exists for any set of welding conditions. This depth can be established
by slowly increasing the flow of flux until the welding arc is submerged and flashing no longer
occurs. The gases will then puff up quietly around the electrode, sometimes igniting.

During welding, the unfused granular flux can be removed a short distance behind the welding
zone after the fused flux has solidified. However, it may be best not to disturb the flux until the
heat from welding has been evenly distributed throughout the section thickness.

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6.5 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING PROCESS

6.5.1 Fundamentals of the Process

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is an arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous
filler metal electrode and the weld pool. The process is used with shielding from a flux contained
within the tubular electrode, with or without additional shielding from an externally supplied gas,
and without the application of pressure.

The flux-cored electrode is a composite tubular filler metal electrode consisting of a metal sheath
and a core of various powdered materials. During welding an extensive slag cover is produced on
the face of a weld bead. The feature that distinguishes the FCAW process from other arc welding
processes is the enclosure of fluxing ingredients within a continuously fed electrode. The
remarkable operating characteristics of the process and the resulting weld properties are attributed
to this electrode development.

FCAW offers two major process variations that differ in their method of shielding the arc and
weld pool from atmospheric contamination (oxygen and nitrogen). One type, self-shielded
FCAW, protects the molten metal through the decomposition and vaporization of the flux core by
the heat of the arc. The other type, gas shielded FCAW, makes use of a protective gas flow in
addition to the flux core action. With both methods, the electrode core material provides a
substantial slag covering to protect the solidifying weld metal.

6.5.2 Principal Features

The benefits of FCAW are achieved by combining three general features:

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 1. The productivity of continuous wire welding
2. The metallurgical benefits that can be derived from a flux
3. A slag that supports and shapes the weld bead.

FCAW combines characteristics of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas metal arc welding
(GMAW), and submerged arc welding (SAW).

In the gas shielded method, shown in figure, the shielding gas (usually carbon dioxide or a
mixture of argon and carbon dioxide) protects the molten metal from the oxygen and nitrogen of
the air by forming an envelope around the arc and over the weld pool. However, some oxygen
may be generated from dissociation of CO 2 to form carbon monoxide and oxygen. The
compositions of the electrodes are formulated to provide deoxidizers to combine with small
amounts of oxygen in the gas shield.

In the self-shielded method shielding is obtained from vaporized flux ingredients which displace
the air, and by slag compositions that cover the molten metal droplets, to protect the molten weld
pool during welding. Production of CO2 and introduction of deoxidizing and denitriding agents
from flux ingredients right at the surface of the weld pool explain why self shielded electrodes can
tolerate stronger air currents than gas shielded electrodes. Thus self-shielded FCAW is the usual
choice for fieldwork.

Gas shielded method is suited to the production of narrow, deeply penetrating welds. Short
electrode extensions and high welding currents are used or all wire diameters.

6.5.3 Principal Applications

The process is used to weld carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, and cast irons. It is also
used for arc spot welding of lap joints in sheet and plate, as well as for cladding and hard facing.

The type of FCAW used depends on the type of electrode available, he mechanical property
requirements of the welded joints, and he joint designs are fit-up. Generally, the self-shielded
method can often be used for applications that are normally done by shielded metal arc welding.
The gas-shielded method can be used for some applications that are welded by the gas metal arc
welding process.

Higher productivity, compared to shielded metal arc welding, is the chief appeal of flux cored arc
welding for many applications. This generally translates into lower overall costs per pound of
metal deposited in joints that permit continuous welding and easy FCAW gun and equipment

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accessibility. The advantages are high deposition rates, higher operating factors, and higher
deposition efficiency (no stub loss).

FCAW has found wide application in shop fabrication, maintenance, and field erection work. It
has been used to produce weldments conforming to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Stainless steel, self-shielded, and gas shielded flux cored electrodes have been used in general
fabrication, surfacing, joining dissimilar metals, and maintenance and repair. The major
disadvantages, compared to the SMAW process, are the higher cost of the equipment in setup and
control, and the restriction on operating distance from the electrode wire feeder. FCAW may
generate large volumes of welding fumes, which, except in field work, require suitable exhaust
equipment. Compared to the slag-free GMAW process, the need for removing slag between
passes is an added labor cost.

6.5.4 Equipment

The basic equipment for self-shielded and gas shielded flux cored arc welding is similar. The
major difference is the provision for supplying and metering gas to the arc of the gas shielded
electrode. The recommended power source is the dc constant-voltage type, similar to sources used
for gas metal arc welding. The power supply should be capable of operating at the maximum
current required for the specific application. Most semiautomatic applications use less than 500 A.
The voltage control should be capable of adjustments in increments of one volt or less.

The purpose of the wire feed control is to supply the continuous electrode to the welding arc at a
constant preset rate. The rate at which the electrode is fed into the arc determines the welding
amperage that a constant voltage power source will supply. If the electrode feed rate is changed,
the welding machine automatically adjusts to maintain the preset arc voltage. Electrode feed rate
may be controlled by mechanical or electronic means.

This process requires the use of drive rolls that will not flatten or otherwise distort the tubular
electrode. Various grooved and knurled feed roll surfaces are used to advance the electrode. Some
wire feeders have a single pair of dive rolls, while others have two pairs with at least one roll of
each pair being driven. When all rolls are driven, the wire can be advanced with less pressure on
the rolls.

Welding guns may be either air-cooled or water-cooled. Air-cooled guns are favored because
there is no requirement to deliver water. Water-cooled guns generally have higher current ratings.
Capacity ratings range up to 600 A, continuous duty. Guns may have either straight or curved
nozzles.

6.5.5 Advantages of FCAW

1. high quality weld metal deposit

2. excellent weld appearance-smooth, uniform welds
3. excellent contour of horizontal fillet welds
4. many steel weldable over a wide thickness range
5. high operating factor-easily mechanized
6. high deposition rates-high current density
7. relatively high electrode deposit efficiency

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8. economical engineering joint designs
9. visible arc-easy to use
10. less precleaning required than GMAW
11. reduced distortion over SMAW
12. up to 4 times greater deposition rates than SMAW
13. use of self-shielded electrodes eliminates need for flux handling or gas apparatus, and is
more tolerant to windy conditions present in outdoor construction
14. higher tolerance for contaminants that may cause weld cracking
15. resistant to underbead cracking

6.5.6 Limitations of FCAW

1. FCAW is presently limited to welding ferrous metals and nickel base alloys.
2. The process produces a slag covering which must be removed.
3. FCAW electrode wire is more expensive on a weight basis than solid electrode wires,
except for some high alloy steels.
4. The equipment is more expensive and complex than that required for SMAW; however,
increased productivity usually compensates for this.
5. The wire feeder and power source must be fairly close to the point of welding.
6. For the gas shielded version, the external shield may be adversely affected by breezes and
drafts. Except in very high winds this is not a problem with self-shielded electrodes
because the shield is generated at the end of the electrode, which is exactly where it is
required.
7. Equipment is more complex than that for SMAW, so more maintenance is required.
8. More smoke and fumes are generated (compared to GMAW and SAW).

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