Chapter 2 – Digital Components

Section 2.1 – Integrated Circuits

• An integrated circuit (IC) is a small silicon semiconductor crystal, called a chip,

containing the electronic components for the digital gates
• The various gates are interconnected inside the chip to form the required circuit
• The chip is mounted in a ceramic or plastic container, and connections are welded
by thin gold wires to external pins to form the IC
• The number of pins range from 14 to 100
• Each IC has a numeric designation
• Small-scale integration (SSI) – several independent gates in a single package
(usually < 10)
• Medium-scale integration (MSI) – approximately 10 to 200 gates – decoders,
adders, or registers
• Large-scale integration (LSI) – between 200 and a few thousand gates – memory
chips, processors, or programmable modules
• Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) – thousands of gates – large memory arrays
or complex microcomputer chips
• Digital integrated circuits are classified not only by their logic operations, but
also by their digital logic family
o TTL Transistor-transistor logic (standard)
o ECL Emitter-coupled logic
o MOS Metal-oxide semiconductor
o CMOS Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor

Section 2.2 – Decoders

• A binary code of n bits is capable of representing up to 2n distinct elements of the

coded information
• A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from the n
coded inputs to a maximum of 2n unique outputs
• A decoder has n inputs and m outputs, where m ≤ 2n, and are called n-to-m-line
decoders
• Each output represents one of the combinations of the input variables
• An enable input controls operation of the decoder
• Some decoders use NAND gates rather than AND gates causing the outputs to be
in their complemented form
• The circuit would then be enabled when E = 0
• It is possible to combine two or more decoders with enable inputs to form a larger
decoder
• The enable inputs are a convenient feature for decoder expansion

• An encoder is a digital circuit that performs the inverse of a decoder

• An encoder has 2n (or less) input lines and n output lines
 • The output lines generate the binary code corresponding to the input value

• An encoder can be implemented with OR gates

A0 = D1 + D3 + D5 + D7
A1 = D2 + D3 + D6 + D7
A2 = D4 + D5 + D6 + D7

Section 2.3 – Multiplexers

• A multiplexer (MUX) is a combinational circuit with 2n input data lines, n input

select lines, and one output line
• The input selection lines determine which input data line is selected for the output
• Rather than using a truth table of 2^(2n + n) rows to describe the circuit, a function
table with 2n rows is used
• One row for each combination of the selection inputs
• The MUX is also called a data selector
 • A 2n-to-1 line MUX is constructed from an n-to-2n decoder by adding to it 2n
input lines, one from each data input
• May also have an enable input
• The selection and enable inputs are usually common to all MUX’s that are
enclosed within a single package

Section 2.4 – Registers

• A register is a group of flip-flops with each flip-flop capable of storing one bit of
information
• An n-bit register has a group of n flip-flops
• A register may also have combinational gates that perform certain data-processing
tasks
• The flip-flops hold the data and the gates control when and how new data is
transferred into the register
• The flip-flops have a common clock input
• A common clear input is available to reset all the flip-flops asynchronously
• The transfer of new data into a register is called loading the register
• If all bits are loaded simultaneously with a common clock pulse transition, then
the loading is done in parallel
• The load input determines the action to be taken with each clock pulse
• If the load input is 1, then the data in the four inputs are transferred at the next
positive clock transition
• If the load input is 0, the data inputs are inhibited and the output is fed back to
simulate a no change condition
Section 2.5 – Shift Registers

• A shift register is capable of shifting its binary information in one or both

directions
• The logical configuration is a chain of flip-flops, with the output of one connected
to the input of the next
• The serial input determines what goes into the leftmost position during the shift
• The serial output is taken from the output of the rightmost flip-flop

• A bi-directional shift register can shift in both directions

• The most general shift register has all the following capabilities:
o An input for clock pulses to synchronize all operations
o A shift-right operation and a serial input line associated with the shift-right
o A shift-left operation and a serial input line associated with the shift-left
o A parallel load operation and n input lines associated with the parallel
transfer
o n parallel output lines
o A control state that leaves the information in the register unchanged even
though clock pulses are applied continuously
• Shift registers are often used to interface digital systems situated remotely
• Rather than using n lines to transmit in parallel, transmit serially
• The receiver converts the incoming serial data to parallel
Section 2.6 – Binary Counters

• A register that goes through a predetermined sequence of states upon the

application of input pulses is called a counter
• The input pulses may be a clock or an external input
• The input may occur at uniform intervals of time or randomly
• Used to count the number of occurrences of an event and for generating timing
signals to control the sequence of operations
• A counter that follows the binary number sequence is a binary counter
• An n-bit binary counter is a register of n flip-flops and gates that follow a
sequence of states

• Consider the sequence 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 1000, …

• The lsb is complemented each count
• Every other bit is complemented iff all its lower-order bits are equal to 1
• Natural to use either T or JK flip-flops since they both have a complement state
• The counter has an enable input
• Synchronous counters have a regular pattern with a common clock
• The chain of AND gates generate the logic for the flip-flop inputs
• Counters often require a parallel load capability to transfer an initial count value
• These would then need a clear input to reset the initial value
• An input load control disables the count and allows a transfer of data
• If the clear and load inputs are both 0, and the count input is 1, then the count
proceeds
• Counters with parallel load are referred to as registers with load and increment
operations
Section 2.7 – Memory Unit

• A memory unit is a collection of storage cells together with associated circuits to

transfer information in and out of storage
• The memory stores binary data in groups of bits called words
• A word can represent an instruction code or alphanumeric characters
• Each word in memory is assigned an address from 0 to 2k –1, where k is the
number of address lines
• A decoder inside the memory accepts an address opens the paths needed to select
the bits of the specified word
• The memory capacity is stated as the total number of bytes that can be stored
• Refer to the number of bytes using one of the following
o K (kilo) = 210
o M (mega) = 220
o G (giga) = 230
• 64K = 210, 2M = 221, and 4G = 232

• In random-access memory (RAM) the memory cells can be accessed for

information from any desired random location
• The process of locating a word in memory is the same and requires an equal
amount of time no matter where the cells are located physically in memory
• Communication between memory and its environment is achieved via data input
and output lines, address selections lines, and control lines
• The n data input lines provide the information to be stored in memory
• The n data output lines supply the information coming out of memory
• The k address lines provide a binary number of k bits that specify a specific word
or location
• The two control lines specify the direction of transfer – either read or write
• Steps to write to memory:
o Apply the binary address of the desired word into the address lines
o Apply the data bits that are to be stored in memory on the data lines
o Activate the write input
• Steps to read from memory:
o Apply the binary address of the desired word into the address lines
o Activate the read input

• A read-only memory (ROM) is a memory unit that performs the read operation
only – there is no write capability
• The binary information stored in a ROM is permanent during the hardware
production
• RAM is a general-purpose device whose contents can be altered
• The information in ROM forms the required interconnection pattern
• ROMs come with special internal electronic fuses that can be programmed for a
specific configuration
• An m x n ROM is an array of binary cells organized into m words of n bits each
• A ROM has k address lines to select one of m words in memory and n output
lines, one for each bit of the word
• May have one or more enable inputs for expansion
• The outputs are a function of only the present input (the address), so it is a
combinational circuit constructed of decoders and OR gates
• When used as a memory unit, it stores fixed programs that are not to be altered
and for tables of constants that will not change
• When used in the design of control units for digital computers, it stores coded
information that represents the sequence of internal control variables to enable the
various operations
• A control unit that utilizes a ROM is called a microprogrammed control unit
• The required paths may be programmed in three different ways
• Mask programming is done by the semiconductor company based upon a truth
table provided by the manufacturer
• Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is more economical. PROM units
contain all fuses intact and are blown by users
• Erasable PROM (EPROM) can be altered using a special ultraviolet light
• Electrical erasable PROM (EEPROM) can be erased with electrical signals