Critical thinking :

Definition :

Critical thinking is a thoughtful and organized way of thinking that involves taking
information from various sources, like what you observe, your experiences, or what you learn
from others, and then using your brain to make better decisions or come to conclusions. It's
guided by some important principles like being clear, accurate, logical, and fair in your
thinking.
It means carefully processing information, making logical connections, and using universal
values like being clear (making your thoughts understandable), accurate (being correct),
precise (avoiding vague language), consistent (not contradicting yourself), relevant (focusing
on what matters), and fair (treating others' opinions respectfully). It also includes basing your
decisions on good reasons, exploring depth (going beyond surface-level thinking), and
considering the breadth (taking a broad view of the situation)

examples: (outside)

Observation: Imagine you see an unfamiliar animal in your backyard. Critical thinking
would involve observing its behavior, appearance, and context to determine if it's a potential
threat or just a harmless stray pet.

Experience: If you're trying to decide whether to invest in a business, you'd think critically
by considering your past experiences with similar investments, what worked, what didn't, and
what you've learned from those experiences.

Reflection: When reflecting on a heated argument you had with a friend, critical thinking
might mean analyzing why it escalated and what you could have done differently to resolve
the conflict peacefully.

Reasoning: Suppose you're deciding which college to attend. You'd use critical thinking by
weighing the pros and cons of each option, considering factors like location, cost, programs
offered, and potential future opportunities.

Communication: If you're discussing a controversial topic with a group of friends, critical

thinking involves actively listening to different viewpoints, asking questions to better
understand those perspectives, and constructing a well-reasoned response.

Characteristics of critical thinking:

Metacognition: This is like thinking about your own thinking. It means paying attention to
how your brain works when you're doing something, and then using that knowledge to do it
better. For instance, if you realize that you learn better when you take notes while reading,
metacognition would involve recognizing this and consistently using note-taking as a study
strategy.

Argument: Critical thinking means being good at spotting, assessing, and creating
arguments. An argument is like a persuasive statement or discussion where someone tries to
prove a point. For example, when someone says, "We should exercise regularly because it's
good for our health," that's an argument. Critical thinkers would examine whether the reasons
given really make sense and if they agree with them.

Resist manipulation. Recognize when need admiration and respect or vulnerable

Example: You don’t need to spend 400 dollars on a new Ipod that is only slightly better than the
one you have now.

Overcome confusion. Use resources or authority

Example: You don’t know the procedure to request a new roommate. Hear conflicting advice from
friends. Talk to dorm supervisor.
Are intellectually independent. Seek out ideas from others, then make own judgments
Example: Choosing a major, joining a sorority

Reasoning: This is the ability to figure something out based on information or facts. If you
see dark clouds in the sky and remember that dark clouds often mean rain, you're using
reasoning to conclude that it might rain soon.

Point of View: This is about how you see things, and it influences how you understand the
world. Imagine a new movie comes out, and you and your friend have different opinions
about it. Your different points of view are shaping your thoughts and conclusions about the
movie.

Procedures for Applying Criteria: Critical thinkers have specific ways to make decisions or
judgments. For example, when deciding if a news article is reliable, they might ask questions
like, "Who wrote it?" or "Are there sources cited?" These procedures help them make
informed choices or opinions.

Angelo, 1995 :

critical thinking means deliberately using your brain to do some important thinking tasks like
analysing, combining ideas, recognizing problems, solving them, making educated guesses,
and judging things carefully. It's like being a smart thinker on purpose.

According to Wade (1995), critical thinking has eight key features. Let's break them down
with examples:
Asking Questions: Critical thinkers are curious and like to ask questions. For instance, if
you're reading a news article, a critical thinker might ask, "What evidence supports these
claims?" or "Who is the source of this information?"
Defining a Problem: They are good at identifying issues or challenges. If you have a project
at work, a critical thinker will define the specific problems that need to be solved to
successfully complete it.
Examining Evidence: Critical thinkers carefully examine the information available. When
researching a topic, they scrutinize various sources to check the credibility of the information.
Analyzing Assumptions and Biases: They don't take information at face value. They
question assumptions and biases in arguments. For example, in a debate, they might question
why someone holds a particular belief or if their personal bias is affecting their argument.
Avoiding Oversimplification: Critical thinkers recognize that real-world problems are often
complex and cannot be reduced to simple solutions. For instance, they won't oversimplify a
health issue by saying, "Just eat better and exercise more," but consider the nuances involved.
Considering Other Interpretations: They're open to different viewpoints. If discussing a
controversial topic, a critical thinker will consider arguments from various perspectives
before forming their own opinion.
Tolerating Ambiguity: Critical thinkers can handle uncertainty. In a situation with unclear
information, they won't jump to hasty conclusions but acknowledge the uncertainty and seek
more information.

Beyer’s essential aspects of

Dispositions of Critical Thinkers:

Skeptical: Critical thinkers are naturally doubtful and question information. For example, if
someone claims a new miracle weight loss product is 100% effective with no side effects, a
critical thinker would be skeptical and ask for evidence to support this extraordinary claim.

Open-Minded: Critical thinkers are receptive to different viewpoints and are willing to
consider alternative perspectives. For instance, when discussing a controversial topic, a
critical thinker would be open to listening to various arguments, even if they initially disagree
with them.

Value Fair-Mindedness: Critical thinkers strive to be fair and impartial in their thinking. They
avoid favoring one side without good reason and aim for objectivity in their evaluations. In a
debate, a critical thinker would give each side an equal chance to present their case.

Respect Evidence and Reasoning: Critical thinkers base their judgments on evidence and
logical reasoning. If a friend claims that a particular brand of car is the most reliable, a
critical thinker would ask for data or reasons to support this claim.

Respect Clarity and Precision: Critical thinkers appreciate clear and precise communication.
In academic writing, a critical thinker would ensure that their arguments and explanations are
well-structured and expressed in a clear, concise manner.

Look at Different Points of View: Critical thinkers consider various perspectives on an issue.
When analyzing a societal problem, they would take into account the viewpoints of different
stakeholders, such as policymakers, experts, and affected communities.

Willingness to Change Positions: Critical thinkers are open to changing their opinions when
presented with compelling reasons or new evidence. If they were previously against a
particular policy but encountered strong evidence in favor of it, they would be willing to
reconsider their stance.

Criteria for Critical Thinking:

Relevance: Information or arguments must be directly related to the topic or issue at hand.
Irrelevant information should be excluded. For example, when discussing climate change,
only data and facts directly related to the topic should be considered.

Accuracy: Critical thinkers demand that information is based on accurate and reliable facts.
In a scientific study, data should be collected and reported accurately to ensure the
conclusions drawn are trustworthy.

Credibility: Information should come from credible and trustworthy sources. When
researching a historical event, critical thinkers would rely on reputable historians and primary
sources rather than unreliable or biased accounts.

Precision: Communication should be clear, specific, and accurate. When making a scientific
claim, critical thinkers would use precise language and measurements to convey their
findings.

Unbiased: Critical thinkers avoid personal bias or prejudice when evaluating information.
When conducting a survey, they ensure the questions are impartial and not designed to elicit a
particular response.

Importance of teaching critical thinking :

students should learn how to think really well because it's super useful for their schoolwork,
dealing with tough problems, and making important decisions in a world full of information
and fast-changing technology.

Critical thinking means asking smart questions. So, it's crucial to teach students how to ask
these questions because it's what keeps all subjects and areas of knowledge alive and moving
forward. Every field, like science, history, or art, continues to progress because people ask
good questions and seek answers to them.

Why Critical thinking should be implemented in

teaching

Beyer believes that critical thinking isn't just important for students but for everyone in a
country. It's essential for making good decisions in both personal and civic matters, especially
in a democratic society.

To help students become better critical thinkers, teachers use methods like Classroom
Assessment Techniques. This involves asking students questions like, "What's the most
important thing you learned today?" and "What questions do you still have?" Then, teachers
use these responses to plan the next class and improve the way they teach. This way, students
get better at thinking critically and making informed decisions.

Teaching strategies : …..

Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs): These are strategies employed
by teachers to evaluate and stimulate critical thinking among students within an ongoing
classroom setting.
Example: Imagine a high school biology teacher who wants to check how well their
students are grasping the concepts discussed in a recent class about cell biology.
Teacher's Questions: After the class, the teacher poses a couple of open-ended
questions to the students:
"What was the most important thing you have learned in today's class?"
This question encourages students to reflect on the key takeaways from the lesson. It
requires them to identify and articulate the main concepts they found most valuable. This
engages their critical thinking because they have to assess the significance of the
information presented.
"What question related to this session remains uppermost in your mind?"
This question promotes critical thinking by asking students to identify areas where they may
still have doubts or where they need more clarification. It helps them recognize the gaps in
their understanding and encourages them to formulate questions, which is a crucial part of
the learning process.
Collecting Student Responses: The teacher collects the written responses from
the students. This can be done in various ways, such as having students write on notecards,
submit answers electronically, or use an online platform.
Preparing for the Next Class Meeting: The teacher reviews the students'
responses to these questions and identifies common themes, areas where students
struggled, or topics that generated the most interest. For example, if many students
mentioned that they were confused about a particular aspect of cellular respiration, the
teacher will know to spend extra time explaining that concept in the next class.

Cooperative Learning Strategies: Cooperative learning is an approach where students work

together in groups to learn and solve problems collaboratively. According to Cooper (1995),
this method is highly effective for promoting critical thinking.
Example: Consider a high school history class where the teacher is covering a unit on the
American Civil War. Instead of delivering a lecture and having students take notes
individually, the teacher decides to use cooperative learning strategies.

Case studies/Discussion method:

McDobe (1995) describes this method as teacher
presenting a case (or a story) to the class without a
conclusion. By using prepared questions, the teacher leads
students through a discussion, allowing students to
construct a conclusion for the case.

Reader's Questions: Students read something and write down questions about it. A few of
these questions are used for class discussion, making students think more deeply about the
reading.
Written Dialogues: Students analyze written conversations or debates. They identify
different viewpoints, check for biases, evidence, alternative interpretations, and errors in
reasoning. This helps them think critically about complex topics.
Conference Style Learning: In this teaching approach, the teacher doesn't lecture.
Instead, they act as a facilitator. Here's how it works:
Teacher as Facilitator: The teacher's role is more like a discussion leader than a
lecturer. They guide and facilitate the learning process.
Preparation: Students are required to read all the assigned materials before coming to
class. These readings should be at a level that students can understand but also somewhat
challenging. It's like preparing for a book club.
Engaging Discussions: During class, students don't just sit and listen. Instead, they
ask questions and discuss them with each other. It's like having a group conversation where
everyone is actively participating.
Zone of Proximal Development: The assigned readings are chosen to be in the
"zone of proximal development," which means they are within students' grasp but still offer
room for growth. It's like picking books that are challenging but not too difficult.

Teacher does not remain passive, but rather helps “direct and mold discussions by posting
strategic questions and helping students build on each
others’.(Underwood & Wald,1995,p.18).

Attributes :

Critical thinkers:

Accurately understand evidence, statements, and graphics.

Recognize important arguments and counterarguments.
Analyse and judge different viewpoints.
Come to sensible and non-faulty conclusions.
Explain why they reached their conclusions.
Follow where the evidence and reasons lead, without being biased.

Look for connections between subjects. Cannot compartmentalize concepts and

strategies
Example: Are psychology and chemistry alike?
Are intellectually independent. Seek out ideas from others, then make own judgments
Example: Choosing a major, joining a sorority

Steps for Evaluating Written Material Critically

Understand what the writer is trying to say and their main argument.
Check the evidence the writer uses, like facts, statistics, personal experiences, or expert
opinions.
Assess whether the evidence is relevant and valuable.
Make sure the writer's conclusion makes sense based on the evidence.
Think about the writer's assumptions and whether they are reasonable or not. These
assumptions are often unspoken beliefs that the writer relies on.

1. Understand the writer’s purpose and the main idea or argument.

2. Determine the types of support or evidence that the author presents.
Facts, statistics, observations, personal experience, expert opinion,
scientific research
3. Determine whether the support is relevant and is of value.
Fact is known with certainty and can be proven- Supported or expert opinion is valuable - e.g. theory
Opinion is an unsubstantiated belief
4. Did the conclusion follow logically from the evidence?
5. Determine the writer’s assumptions and their validity. Usually not written
but accepted as true with no
Proof

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

Problem Solving Steps :

1. Identify the problem.

2. Explore different solutions to the problem. Brainstorm. Do not reject any ideas at this time.
3. Write down pros and cons for each solution.
4. What are the important things to keep in mind when choosing a solution?
5. Choose a solution to the problem.
6. What are limitations of your solution?
7. What will be the first step in implementing your solution?

Example: Buying a New Car

Identify the problem: Your current car is frequently breaking down, and it's becoming costly
to repair. You need to decide on buying a new car.

Explore different solutions: You brainstorm various options, including buying a brand-new
car, purchasing a used car, or leasing a vehicle. During this stage, you consider a wide range
of possibilities.

Write down pros and cons for each solution: For buying a new car, the pros could include
the latest features and warranty, while the cons might be a higher price and rapid
depreciation. For a used car, the pros might be lower cost and slower depreciation, but the
cons could be potentially higher maintenance and uncertainty about its history. For leasing,
the pros might be lower monthly payments and access to new models, while the cons could
be mileage restrictions and no ownership.

What are the important things to keep in mind when choosing a solution?: You consider
factors like your budget, your driving habits, the value you place on vehicle ownership, and
long-term financial goals.

Choose a solution to the problem: After weighing the pros and cons, you decide to buy a
used car, as it fits your budget and offers a balance between cost and ownership.
What are the limitations of your solution?: You acknowledge that a used car might require
more maintenance than a new one, and there's uncertainty about its history. You also won't
benefit from the latest features available in new vehicles.

What will be the first step in implementing your solution?: Your first step could be
researching and visiting dealerships or private sellers to find a well-maintained used car that
suits your needs and budget.

Problem A: Increasing Student Parking at the University of Houston

Identify the problem: The University of Houston needs to find a solution to increase the
number of student parking spots.

Explore different solutions: Brainstorm options like building a new parking structure,
implementing a shuttle service, encouraging carpooling, and using satellite parking lots.

Write down pros and cons for each solution: For building a new parking structure, the pros
might include convenience, while the cons could be the cost and environmental impact. For
a shuttle service, the pros might be reduced traffic, but the cons could include the cost and
scheduling challenges. Evaluate each option thoroughly.

What are the important things to keep in mind when choosing a solution?: Consider factors
like cost, impact on the environment, convenience for students, and the feasibility of
implementation.

Choose a solution to the problem: Based on your analysis, you decide that building a new
parking structure seems like the best solution, even though it comes with some drawbacks.

What are the limitations of your solution?: You recognize that constructing a new parking
structure will be expensive and may take time. There might also be concerns about its
environmental impact.

What will be the first step in implementing your solution?: The first step is likely to secure
the funding and necessary approvals for the construction of the new parking structure.

Problem B: Spending $100,000 on Drug Education in HISD

Identify the problem: You have $100,000 to spend on a drug education program in the
Houston Independent School District (HISD), and you need to determine the best way to
allocate the funds.

Explore different solutions: Brainstorm various approaches, such as creating educational

materials, organizing workshops, hiring speakers, or funding after-school programs.
Write down pros and cons for each solution: For creating educational materials, the pros
could include scalability and long-term use, but the cons could be limited interaction. For
hiring speakers, the pros might be direct engagement with students, while the cons could be
the cost and scheduling challenges.

What are the important things to keep in mind when choosing a solution?: Consider factors
like the target audience, the effectiveness of the approach, and the sustainability of the
program.

Choose a solution to the problem: After weighing the pros and cons, you decide that
organizing workshops in HISD schools would be the best way to spend the $100,000.

What are the limitations of your solution?: You acknowledge that organizing workshops may
require coordination with schools and availability of suitable facilities. There might also be
challenges in ensuring long-term impact.

What will be the first step in implementing your solution?: The first step is likely to be
identifying schools willing to participate and securing venues for the workshops.

Reasoning :

Reasoning is like using your brain to think logically when you need to make a decision or
solve a problem. It helps you figure out what's the best thing to do.
Reasoning is thinking logically to make choices. It helps you decide what's a good idea and
what's not, based on what you know. You use reasoning when you pick games, solve
problems, and make decisions in life. It's like having different tools (types of reasoning) for
different jobs. Understanding these tools helps you make better choices.

Types of reasoning:

Deductive Reasoning: ( theory , evidence , conclusion )

Definition: Deductive reasoning uses logic and observations to prove or disprove a theory or
hypothesis. It starts with an assumption and then uses evidence or rational thinking to
confirm or refute that assumption.
Example: A detective notices that every time there's a full moon, the number of crimes in the
city increases. The detective assumes that the full moon causes an increase in criminal
activity, based on these observations.

Inductive Reasoning: ( observation , evidence , conclusion )

Definition: Inductive reasoning uses observations to derive general rules or conclusions. It

goes from specific cases to a broader, more general understanding.
Example: You see that every time you drop a ball, it falls to the ground. From these
observations, you conclude that all objects fall to the ground when dropped.

Analogical Reasoning:
Definition: Analogical reasoning finds similarities between two things and uses those
similarities to identify other common qualities. It's based on recognizing patterns and
associations.
Example: If a new restaurant is trying to succeed, the owner may look at the success of a
popular fast-food chain. They notice that both offer quick service, a simple menu, and a focus
on customer convenience. The owner concludes that these qualities contribute to success.

Abductive Reasoning:

Definition: Abductive reasoning uses observations to arrive at logical conclusions, often in

situations with uncertainty. It allows for making the best guesses to reach simpler
conclusions.
Example: You find a wet umbrella in your hallway. You don't know how it got there because
you were out all day. You use abductive reasoning to guess that it might have rained while
you were away, leading someone to leave the umbrella there.

Cause-and-Effect Reasoning:

Definition: Cause-and-effect reasoning shows the relationship between events, explaining

what may happen when certain actions occur or why specific outcomes result from certain
conditions.
Example: A chef notices that every time they add a particular spice to a dish, it becomes
more popular among customers. They conclude that using this spice is the cause of increased
customer satisfaction and dish popularity.Decompositional Reasoning:

Definition: Decompositional reasoning involves breaking things down into their parts to
understand how each component functions and contributes to the overall operation.
Example: When building a computer, you examine the individual components like the
processor, memory, and hard drive to understand how each part works and contributes to the
computer's overall performance.

Chp1 : notes

Point 1 - Identifying Others' Positions and Conclusions:

Explanation: Critical thinkers are skilled at recognizing what others believe and the
conclusions they have reached on a particular topic.

Example: In a classroom discussion about climate change, a critical thinker identifies that one
student believes that climate change is primarily caused by human activities, while another
student's conclusion is that natural climate cycles are the main factor.

Point 2 - Evaluating Evidence:

Explanation: Critical thinkers excel at evaluating the evidence that supports different
viewpoints or arguments.

Example: When researching a controversial medical treatment, a critical thinker examines

scientific studies, medical research, and patient testimonials to assess the quality and
reliability of the evidence supporting the treatment's effectiveness.
Point 3 - Considering Alternative Points of View:
Explanation: Critical thinkers actively consider and examine alternative perspectives on a
subject, even if they initially disagree with them.

Example: During a heated debate on immigration policy, a critical thinker takes the time to
understand and explore the viewpoints of people with differing opinions, seeking to gain a
more comprehensive understanding of the issue.

Point 4 - Fairly Assessing Opposing Arguments:

Explanation: Critical thinkers approach arguments and evidence from different sides of a
debate with objectivity, striving to make a fair assessment.

Example: In a political debate, a critical thinker objectively evaluates the arguments and
evidence presented by candidates from different parties, without letting their personal biases
cloud their judgment.

Point 5 - Seeing Beyond Surfaces:

Explanation: Critical thinkers have the ability to look beyond the obvious and identify false
or unfair assumptions, delving deeper to uncover the underlying complexities.

Example: When analyzing a news report on a complex international conflict, a critical thinker
questions potential biases, underlying motives, and the historical context, recognizing that the
surface story may not tell the whole truth.

Point 6 - Recognizing Persuasive Techniques:

Explanation: Critical thinkers can spot tactics and methods used to make one perspective
seem more appealing than others, such as faulty logic or persuasive devices.

Example: When watching a political advertisement, a critical thinker identifies the use of
emotional manipulation and misleading statistics to persuade voters, prompting them to
research the claims made in the ad.

Point 7 - Reflecting in a Structured Way:

Explanation: Critical thinkers approach issues systematically, using logic and insight to
analyze and understand complex problems.

Example: In a business meeting, a critical thinker employs a structured approach to evaluate

the risks and benefits of a new marketing strategy, considering various scenarios and
potential outcomes.

Point 8 - Drawing Valid Conclusions:

Explanation: Critical thinkers make well-founded judgments about whether arguments are
logically sound and justifiable based on reliable evidence and reasonable assumptions.

Example: A critical thinker, when considering an investment opportunity, thoroughly reviews

financial reports and market research to determine if the investment is justified by the
available data.

Point 9 - Presenting Their Viewpoint:

Explanation: Critical thinkers can effectively communicate their perspective in a well-
reasoned and convincing manner, using data and logical arguments to support their stance.

Example: During a community meeting regarding local development, a critical thinker

articulates their vision for the neighborhood's future, presenting a compelling argument
supported by data and community feedback.

Critical thinking equips you with the tools to apply skepticism and doubt in a constructive
manner, allowing you to analyze the information in front of you. It helps you make more
informed decisions about whether something is likely to be true, effective, or productive. In
the end, to navigate the world, we must acknowledge that at least some things are as they
appear, which involves an element of trust. By clearly analyzing the basis of what we accept
as true, we become better at determining when it's reasonable to trust and when it's useful to
be skeptical.

Method rather than personality trait

Critical thinking is a method rather than a personality trait. Some individuals may naturally
be more skeptical, while others may find it easier to be trusting. These differences can be due
to past experiences or inherent personality traits. However, critical thinking isn't about one's
natural tendencies or personality; it's about a specific set of methods designed to explore
evidence in a particular way. Even skeptical individuals can benefit from structured
approaches that help them trust in the probability of an outcome, just as those who are
naturally more trusting can use these methods to apply doubt constructively. It's a systematic
approach to analyzing information and making well-founded judgments.

Scepticism vs trust : in critical thinking is about having a healthy dose of doubt and not
accepting everything you hear or see without question. It doesn't mean you should never
believe anything, but it means being open to the idea that what you know might not be the
whole story.

Example: Imagine someone tells you a new diet plan guarantees rapid weight loss without
exercise or changing your eating habits. A critical thinker would approach this with
scepticism, considering that such claims might not be entirely accurate and could be missing
important information. They might research the diet plan, look for scientific evidence, and
consult with experts before fully believing in its effectiveness. This sceptical approach helps
them make more informed decisions about their health.

In critical thinking, the central point of focus is often called the 'argument.' An argument can
be thought of as the message being conveyed, whether it's through speech, writing,
performance, or any other form of communication. Critical thinking allows you to identify
both the apparent and hidden messages more accurately and to comprehend how an argument
is put together.

Example: Let's say you're watching a political debate on TV. Each candidate is making
statements and trying to persuade the audience. Critical thinking helps you analyze the
arguments presented by the candidates. It enables you to see not only the obvious points they
are making but also the underlying messages and tactics they use to construct their
arguments. You can then evaluate the strength of their arguments based on evidence and
logic, helping you make informed decisions about your support for a particular candidate.

Having Reasons for Beliefs and Actions:

It means having valid reasons for why we believe certain things and why we take specific
actions.
We should be aware of these reasons.
Example: If you believe that studying is essential for good grades, your reason is that it helps
you understand the material better.

Critically Evaluating Our Beliefs and Actions:

This step involves looking at our own beliefs and actions with a critical eye.
We question whether our beliefs and actions are well-founded and reasonable.
Example: You might critically evaluate your belief that a particular diet plan will help you
lose weight by considering scientific evidence and expert opinions.

Presenting Reasons to Others:

Critical thinkers can explain to others why they hold certain beliefs or take specific actions.
They can provide sound reasons to support their viewpoints.
Example: If you want to convince someone to support a charity, you'd present reasons like
the organization's track record, the positive impact they've had, and the importance of their
mission.

Sometimes, it's not as easy as it seems because our beliefs can be influenced by various
factors, and critical thinking helps us examine the basis of our beliefs and actions. It enables
us to have a clearer understanding of why we think or act a certain way, and from there, we
can engage in thoughtful analysis and discussion.

Grasping the Overall Argument:

Understanding the main message or point that someone is trying to convey in their argument.
Recognizing the central theme or idea being presented.
Example: When reading an article about climate change, grasping the overall argument
means understanding that the author is discussing the impact of human activities on the
environment.

Analyzing and Evaluating in Detail:

Going beyond the surface and examining the argument more deeply.
Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the argument by considering the evidence, logic,
and assumptions presented.
Example: In the climate change article, you would analyze the data, studies, and reasoning
the author uses to support their claims. You might evaluate the credibility of their sources and
question any unsupported assumptions.
Critical analysis of other people’s reasons can involve:

1. Identifying Their Reasons and Conclusions: This means figuring out what someone is
trying to say and why they're saying it. For example, if a friend tells you that studying for 30
minutes a day will help you get better grades (that's their point or conclusion), you need to
understand the reasons behind it.

2. Analyzing How They Construct Their Line of Reasoning: This is about looking at how
they put their reasons together to make their point. In the example, your friend's reasons
might be that it helps you remember things better and that it reduces stress. They are building
their argument based on these two reasons.

3. Evaluating the Support for Conclusions: This means checking if their reasons really back
up their point. You might question if remembering things and reducing stress are enough to
guarantee better grades. Do these reasons make sense together? This step helps you decide if
their argument is strong or weak.

4. Evaluating the Foundation of Their Reasons: Here, you're considering if their reasons are
based on solid information. For instance, are there scientific studies that show studying for 30
minutes a day improves memory and reduces stress? Or are they just guessing?

5. Identifying Flaws in Their Reasoning: In this part, you're looking for any mistakes in how
they're thinking. For instance, they might assume that studying for 30 minutes directly leads
to better grades, but there could be other factors at play, like the quality of study or the
difficulty of the subject.

Constructing and presenting reasons:

Constructing and presenting reasons is all about explaining your thought process and
evidence clearly to support your conclusions. Let's break it down with an example:

Example:
Imagine you're trying to convince your friend that it's a cold day outside. Your friend
disagrees and asks why you believe that. In this situation, you're using reasoning and
evidence to support your point.

Here's how it breaks down:

Selecting and Structuring Reasons: You need to choose and organize your evidence
effectively. In this case, you might select two reasons: the temperature is low, and there is ice
on the ground. These reasons help explain why you believe it's cold.

Presenting in a Consistent Way: When explaining your point, it's important to be consistent.
You would start by saying something like, "I believe it's cold today because..." and then go
on to explain your reasons. This consistency helps your argument make sense.

Using Logical Order: You want to present your reasons in a logical order. You might begin
with the temperature being low and then follow up with the ice on the ground. This order
helps your friend follow your thought process.
Using Language Effectively: The way you explain your reasoning matters. Instead of saying,
"It's just cold," you elaborate with clear language. For instance, "The temperature outside is
only 35 degrees Fahrenheit, which is quite low, and I've also noticed ice on the ground, which
usually happens on chilly days." Using clear and descriptive language strengthens your
argument.

Why develop critical thinking skills?

Good critical thinking skills offer several advantages in everyday life. Let's break down the
benefits with a simple example:

Example: Reading a Newspaper Article

Imagine you're reading a newspaper article about a new technology product. Here's how good
critical thinking skills can benefit you:

Improved Attention and Observation: Instead of skimming the article, you pay close attention
to the details. You notice the product's features, its benefits, and any potential drawbacks.

Focused Reading: You don't get distracted by unrelated information or flashy advertisements
within the article. You stay focused on the main content about the product.

Identifying Key Points: With your critical thinking skills, you quickly identify the essential
information, like the product's price, its release date, and how it compares to similar products.
You don't waste time on less important details.

Responding Appropriately: If someone asks you about the product later, you can provide a
clear and concise summary of its key features and why it's noteworthy.

Getting Your Point Across: Suppose you want to discuss the product with a friend. Your
critical thinking skills help you explain why you find it interesting and why they should
consider it.

Analytical Skills: You've also developed the ability to analyze products or information
critically. This skill can be applied in various situations, not just in reading articles. For
instance, you might use it to make informed purchasing decisions or evaluate other
technology options.

Benefits in Professional and Everyday Life

Precision in Thinking and Work: Critical thinking hones your ability to think and work with
precision. It helps you become more accurate in distinguishing what's relevant from what's
not.

Example: Imagine you're working on a project at your job. Instead of getting overwhelmed
by a large amount of data, your critical thinking skills enable you to pinpoint the essential
information and focus on it, making your work more efficient.
Enhanced Problem-Solving: Critical thinking boosts your problem-solving abilities. It
enables you to tackle complex tasks and projects with greater precision and accuracy.

Example: Suppose you need to solve a technical issue with your computer. Critical thinking
helps you analyze the problem systematically, identify its root cause, and apply a well-
thought-out solution.

Time Savings: While critical thinking may seem meticulous, it actually saves you time in the
long run. You quickly and accurately identify the most relevant information, helping you
work more efficiently.

Example: When researching a topic for a report, critical thinking allows you to sift through
various sources and identify the most credible ones without wasting time on irrelevant or less
trustworthy information. Ancillary Skills in Critical Thinking

Ancillary skills are the additional abilities that come with critical thinking. These skills
support and complement your capacity to think critically and are crucial in various aspects of
life.

Observation: This skill involves keenly perceiving and gathering information from your
surroundings. It helps you notice details and facts that might be significant.

Example: Imagine you're a detective investigating a crime scene. Your observation skills
allow you to spot subtle clues like footprints, fingerprints, and unusual marks, which can lead
you to valuable evidence.

Analysis: Analysis means breaking down complex information into smaller parts to
understand it better. It allows you to examine details and patterns within data.

Example: If you're a financial analyst, you use analysis to dissect a company's financial
reports, examining income statements, balance sheets, and cash flow statements to assess its
overall financial health.

Reasoning: Reasoning is the ability to think logically and make connections between ideas,
which is essential for drawing conclusions and solving problems.

Example: In a debate, you employ reasoning to form coherent arguments based on evidence,
making it more likely for your viewpoint to persuade others.

Judgment: Judgment is the skill of making well-founded decisions by weighing evidence,

facts, and ethical considerations.

Example: When hiring a new employee, a manager uses judgment to assess each candidate's
qualifications, experience, and character before selecting the best fit for the company.

Decision-Making: Decision-making involves choosing the best course of action from

available alternatives based on your judgment and reasoning.
Example: If you're a project manager, you use decision-making to determine the most
efficient approach to complete a project on time and within the budget.

Persuasion: Persuasion is the ability to influence others through well-reasoned arguments and
effective communication.

Example: A salesperson uses persuasion to convince customers that a product or service is

the right solution for their needs, addressing their concerns and objections.

Developing Critical Thinking Skills

You probably already have some of these skills to help you with everyday life, work, or past
studies. However, as you tackle more advanced education or professional tasks, you'll need to
sharpen and refine these skills further. The better you are at these skills, the more confidently
you can handle complex problems and projects, increasing your chances of success.

Example: Think of it like playing a sport. When you start, you might have basic skills like
dribbling a basketball. As you progress to more competitive levels, you work on refining
those skills, so you can confidently handle the ball during intense games, make accurate
shots, and contribute to your team's success.

Overestimating Our Skills

It's common for people to overestimate how good they are at critical thinking. We tend to
believe our viewpoints are well-founded, that we always make logical and reasonable
decisions. However, what we think about ourselves might not align with how others see us. If
you lack self-awareness and have weak reasoning skills, it can lead to less favorable job
evaluations or lower grades in academic work. Many students receive feedback from their
teachers that their work doesn't show strong evidence of careful critical thinking.

Example: Imagine you're in a group project at work. You believe your ideas are the best, and
you don't pay much attention to your colleagues' suggestions. When the project results in only
moderate success and your supervisor provides feedback, you realize that your
overconfidence in your ideas might have prevented a more comprehensive and successful
outcome.

Critical thinking means being careful and precise to find the right answers. This involves:

Paying Attention to Details: It's like looking closely at a jigsaw puzzle to find the tiniest
pieces. By doing this, you can understand the bigger picture better.

Spotting Trends and Patterns: It's like connecting the dots in a picture. When you see how
things relate or repeat, it helps you understand the situation.

Checking and Rechecking: Imagine reviewing your homework multiple times to make sure
you didn't miss anything important.

Seeing Different Sides: Think of it as looking at a situation from various angles, like how
people look at an object in a museum exhibit from different sides.
Being Fair and Objective: Put your personal opinions aside. It's like being a referee in a
game; you want to make sure the rules are followed fairly.

Thinking About the Long-Term Effects: Consider what might happen in the future. For
instance, if you want to eat a lot of candy, you should also think about how it could affect
your health over time.

Example: Suppose you're a detective trying to solve a case. To be a good detective, you must
pay attention to tiny clues, like footprints, fingerprints, or small pieces of evidence. You also
need to connect these clues to find patterns, like a suspect's behavior or where they might go.
To avoid missing anything, you check your findings over and over. You talk to witnesses, the
victim, and even the suspect to understand the situation from different viewpoints. Your goal
is to be fair and objective, not letting your personal opinions affect your investigation. Lastly,
you think about the long-term consequences of your actions. If you arrest the wrong person, it
could have serious consequences, so you want to make sure you're as accurate as possible in
your investigation.

Critical thinking doesn't happen in isolation. To engage in higher-level critical thinking, you
need a set of skills and attitudes, such as:

Underlying Thinking Skills: These include skills like sorting things into categories, making
choices, distinguishing between different ideas, and comparing and contrasting concepts.
These abilities are crucial for critical thinking.

Knowledge and Research: While you can spot a weak argument even without deep
knowledge, it's often beneficial to do some research on a topic. Knowing more about a
subject helps you make better judgments about the quality of the argument.

Emotional Self-Management: Critical thinking can sometimes stir up emotions. It's normal
when you're weighing competing viewpoints. If evidence contradicts your beliefs, it might
make you feel angry or anxious. Managing your emotions is essential. If you can stay calm
and present your reasons logically, you'll be more persuasive in presenting your point of
view.

Example: Let's say you're discussing climate change with a group of people. You might have
a strong belief that humans are causing climate change. However, someone presents evidence
suggesting that natural factors play a more significant role. This unexpected viewpoint could
make you feel frustrated or even angry. In such a situation, critical thinkers know how to
manage their emotions. They stay composed and respond with logical arguments rather than
reacting emotionally. This approach helps them have a constructive, fact-based discussion
instead of a heated argument.

This lecturer's approach to critical thinking involves the following steps:

Quick Initial Reading: They start with a quick first reading to understand the overall picture
and to check their initial response. They want to know if it aligns with their existing beliefs or
contradicts them.
Comparison: They compare what they're reading with their existing knowledge on the topic
and their personal experiences.

Summarization: As they read, they summarize the content and keep the overall argument in
mind to make sense of what comes next.

Author's Position: They look for the author's position or point of view, questioning what the
author is trying to convey to them.

Clarity Check: They read each section carefully and ensure they understand it. If it's unclear,
they may read it again, with the expectation that the rest of the passage may provide clarity.

Reasons Evaluation: They pay attention to the reasons presented by the writer and evaluate if
they are persuaded by them.

Why Persuasion or Not: If they are persuaded, they consider why. Is it due to the use of
experts or convincing research evidence? If not persuaded, they explore their reasons.

Create Own Position: Finally, they create their own position on the matter and check if it is
convincing and defensible.

Example: Imagine they're reading an article about climate change. In their quick initial
reading, they notice the article presents a strong argument for the urgency of addressing
climate change. They then compare this with their prior knowledge and experiences, which
include awareness of the scientific consensus on climate change.

As they read the article more carefully, they evaluate the evidence and reasons presented.
They notice that the author cites a broad range of experts and uses thorough research to
support their claims. This convinces them of the article's validity. Lecturer 2 - Exploring the
Heart of the Issue:

This lecturer's approach to critical thinking centers around identifying the core of an issue
and understanding why it's being discussed. They emphasize looking beyond the words on
the page and seeking answers in the broader context and history of a topic. They also
recognize the influence of popular debates and trends on what a passage truly conveys.

Example: Suppose they are reading a news article about a controversial government policy.
While reading, they are not just focusing on the words but also considering the wider context.
They are aware that the policy has sparked heated debates in the country, and political
interests play a significant role in the discussion.

By examining the heart of the issue, they aim to understand the underlying motivations of the
policymakers and the broader political landscape. This allows them to critically think about
the article and see it as part of a larger narrative driven by political agendas and public
opinion.

Lecturer 3 - Seeing the Relevance in the Information:

This lecturer's approach emphasizes the ability to distinguish relevant information from less
relevant data. They stress that it's not sufficient to merely understand information; one must
continuously evaluate its accuracy, importance, and fairness.

Example: If they're reading a research paper, they wouldn't get lost in the details but rather
focus on the key findings and their significance. They would assess whether the presented
data is accurate and truly addresses the heart of the research question. They would also
question whether the paper is a fair representation of the research findings.

In this way, they ensure that their critical thinking process involves a careful selection of the
most relevant and meaningful aspects of the information.

Development of Understanding:

To foster critical thinking skills, students are encouraged to delve deeper into the subjects
they are studying and engage in critical discussions about the main theories and arguments.
This often occurs through participation in seminars, giving presentations, or producing
written work for assessments.

A profound way to achieve a deeper understanding of a subject is by replicating the

underlying research ourselves. However, due to time constraints, especially for undergraduate
students, it's not always feasible to conduct research on everything they encounter. Therefore,
the depth of understanding gained through direct experience, practice, and experimentation
must be supplemented by critical analysis of the work of others.

Students need to develop the ability to critically evaluate the work of other researchers. Some
students tend to accept or apply others' research findings without sufficient analysis to verify
if the evidence and reasoning genuinely support the main arguments.

For instance, chemistry students might memorize chemical calculations without truly
comprehending the underlying principles. To address this, Bodner suggests that students
should ask questions like "How do we know...?" and "Why do we believe...?" instead of
solely focusing on memorization.

This issue is not unique to chemistry but is applicable across various subjects. Many students
and people, in general, sometimes unquestionably rely on research based on small sample
sizes, faulty reasoning, or outdated information. They treat evidence from isolated projects as
indisputable proof of a general principle and repeatedly reference it as if it were an absolute
truth.

Chapter 8 will provide further insight into how to critically examine and evaluate evidence.

Example:
Suppose a psychology student is working on a research project. They come across a research
paper that claims to prove a significant psychological phenomenon based on a small study
involving only ten participants. The paper's conclusion asserts this phenomenon as an
absolute truth.
In this case, the student should critically evaluate the research's methodology, considering the
sample size and potential biases. They might question the validity of drawing broad
conclusions from such a small sample. This critical thinking process ensures that they don't
unquestioningly accept research findings and instead engage with a more rigorous evaluation
of the evidence and its implications.

The Idea or the Action, Not the Person:

When engaging in critical thinking and analysis, it's essential to distinguish between the idea,
work, theory, or behavior being assessed and the person associated with it. This distinction
holds true when evaluating the work of other students as well. While you may critique the
work itself, it's important to avoid making it a personal attack on the individual.

However, it's crucial to acknowledge that individuals often have a strong connection to their
work, and they may take criticism personally. Therefore, it's important to exercise tact and
approach criticism constructively. Delivering challenging feedback in a way that others can
accept is a key aspect of effective critical evaluation.

Example:
Imagine a group project in a business course. One team member might present an idea for a
marketing strategy, and it's your role to critically evaluate it. Instead of saying, "Your idea is
poorly thought out," you could provide more constructive feedback, like, "I believe the
marketing strategy might benefit from additional research and a clearer implementation
plan." This way, you focus on the idea itself rather than making it a personal critique of your
team member's capabilities. This approach fosters a more positive and productive learning
environment.

Dealing with Ambiguity and Doubt:

In the age of the internet, we're accustomed to getting quick answers to our questions.
However, in the academic world, particularly in new and complex areas, questions may
remain unanswered for a long time, perhaps even a lifetime. This can be unsettling if you're
used to instant answers.

Nonetheless, it's crucial to understand that while immediate answers may not be available,
vague responses aren't acceptable either. Academic research, including that for business and
industry, demands precision and evidence-based arguments. Students and researchers are
expected to develop skills in using evidence to support detailed lines of reasoning, even when
drawing from other people's research.

It's essential to realize that in academic work, researchers often need to pursue inquiries with
the understanding that:

Clear answers may not emerge.

It might take decades to obtain answers.
Their contributions may only represent a small part of a larger picture.
Example:
Imagine a medical researcher investigating a rare disease. Despite extensive efforts, a
definitive cure or complete understanding of the disease might not be achieved during their
career. They may spend years collecting data, studying the condition, and contributing small
but valuable insights to the field. It's a long-term commitment to the pursuit of knowledge
despite the uncertainty and ambiguity of the outcome. This approach is typical in academic
and professional research, where patience and dedication are essential.

When you're a student, critical thinking means:

Seeking the Best Evidence: You look for the most reliable information related to your topic.
Weighing the Strength of Evidence: You assess how convincing the evidence is for different
viewpoints or arguments.
Drawing Initial Conclusions: Based on the available evidence, you make a preliminary
judgment about where it seems to lead.
Building a Logical Argument: You create a clear and logical sequence of ideas that guides
your audience through the evidence and towards your conclusion.
Choosing Strong Examples: You select the most effective and relevant examples to support
your argument.
Providing Proof: You use evidence and examples to illustrate and back up your points.
Example:
Imagine you're a student writing a research paper about the impact of technology on
education. To apply critical thinking, you'd begin by finding high-quality studies, surveys,
and expert opinions on the topic (best evidence). Then, you'd evaluate how strong and
reliable each piece of evidence is. Afterward, you might reach an initial conclusion, such as
"Technology has both positive and negative effects on education." To build your argument,
you'd create a structured essay that presents the evidence for both sides, highlighting key
examples to support your claims. This approach demonstrates your ability to think critically
about a complex issue and present a well-reasoned argument.

Non-Dualistic Thinking:

In our everyday thinking, we often tend to see things as either right or wrong, black or white,
with no in-between. However, in the academic world, answers can fall along a spectrum of
possibilities. Higher-level thinking involves dealing with complex and sophisticated
questions that don't have straightforward or binary responses. As you gain more knowledge
about a subject, you'll realize that it becomes harder to provide simple answers.

Example:

Imagine you're asked whether a scientific experiment was a success or a failure. In dualistic
thinking, you might say it's one or the other. But in a non-dualistic approach, you might
consider various aspects: the experiment's goals, what was learned from it, potential
improvements, and the context in which it was conducted. Your answer would acknowledge
the complexity of the situation rather than reducing it to a simple "success" or "failure." This
reflects the kind of non-dualistic thinking that's encouraged in academia.

Barriers to critical thinking

Misunderstanding of What Is Meant by Criticism:

This is when some people think "criticism" is all about making negative comments. They
believe it's about pointing out flaws or problems. This can lead them to focus only on the bad
aspects when analyzing something. However, this is not what criticism really means. Critical
evaluation should consider both the positive and negative aspects of a subject. It's about
identifying what works as well as what doesn't.

Example: Imagine you're a teacher grading a student's paper. If you only point out the
mistakes and never acknowledge the good parts or potential for improvement, that's a
misunderstanding of criticism.

Overestimating Our Own Reasoning Abilities:

This is when people tend to think they are always rational and their belief systems are
flawless. They believe they have good reasons for what they do and think. While it's true for
some of the time, it's not always the case. Most of the time, our thinking happens
automatically, which makes our daily lives more efficient. But when we fall into poor
thinking habits, it can lead to a mistaken belief that our reasoning is strong just because
nobody has pointed out its flaws.

Example: Consider a person who firmly believes in a conspiracy theory without substantial
evidence. They may think they have excellent reasoning abilities just because they can argue
passionately for their point of view, even though their argument is based on unreliable
information. This illustrates overestimating one's reasoning abilities. Lack of Methods,
Strategies, or Practice:

This occurs when some people want to be more critical but don't know how to develop their
critical thinking skills. They might not be aware that the study methods and strategies they
used in school or daily life are not sufficient for higher-level academic or professional
thinking. With practice, most individuals can enhance their critical thinking abilities.

Example: Let's say you're studying for an important exam, and you realize that your usual
study methods aren't helping you understand the complex material. You want to think
critically about it, but you don't know where to start. This illustrates a lack of methods and
strategies for effective critical thinking.

Reluctance to Critique Experts:

This is when people feel uneasy about critically analyzing the work of individuals they
deeply respect or consider experts. Students, especially those with limited knowledge in a
subject, might find it strange to provide criticism of works by more experienced practitioners.
They may avoid doing so, thinking it's rude or illogical to challenge those they see as more
knowledgeable.

Example: Imagine you're in a science class, and you're asked to provide a critical analysis of
a renowned scientist's research paper. You might hesitate to point out potential flaws or
question their findings because you admire the scientist. This reluctance to critique experts is
a common barrier in academia.

Affective Reasons:
Affective reasons refer to emotions and feelings that influence critical thinking. When
individuals are learning about topics that challenge their long-held beliefs or deeply held
assumptions, it can be difficult to accept alternative perspectives, especially when those
perspectives are presented by intelligent individuals or supported by academic research.

Example: If you strongly believe in a certain political ideology and you're confronted with
academic research that questions the effectiveness of that ideology, it can be emotionally
distressing. Your emotional response may make it difficult for you to think objectively and
critically about the new information. This emotional response can both add power to an
argument and hinder clear, rational thinking, making it challenging to critically assess
alternative viewpoints.Mistaking Information for Understanding:

This occurs when students seek facts and straightforward answers rather than focusing on the
development of critical thinking skills and a deeper understanding of a subject. They may
resist learning the methods and skills required to make informed judgments and instead prefer
to rely on experts for clear-cut answers.

Example: Imagine you're in a science class, and the teacher introduces a complex scientific
theory. Some students might say, "Just tell us the right answer." They want the teacher to
provide a simple, straightforward answer to the theory, rather than engaging in critical
thinking, asking questions, and developing their understanding of the theory. This illustrates
the tendency to mistake information (the answer) for understanding (grasping the theory's
principles).

Insufficient Focus and Attention to Detail:

Critical thinking requires careful attention to detail and precision. When individuals don't pay
enough attention to specific details and instead make judgments based on a superficial
understanding, their critical analysis may suffer. They may get sidetracked by unrelated
information or tangents, leading to poor criticism.

Example: Let's say you're working on a research project, and you become interested in a side
topic that is somewhat related but not directly relevant to your main research question.
Instead of staying focused on your primary task, you spend a significant amount of time
exploring this tangential topic. As a result, your work lacks precision and detail because you
didn't concentrate on the exact task at hand, illustrating the importance of maintaining focus
and attention to detail in critical thinking activities.