Lesson 8.

AC Generators or Alternators

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Discuss the operating principle of an ac generator

2. Calculate the rated speed of rotation of the AC generator based on frequency and construction

3. Calculate the line and phase voltage of ac generators

The machine which produces 3-phase power from mechanical power is called an alternator or
synchronous generator.

AC machines are generators that convert mechanical energy to ac electrical energy, and motors that
convert ac electrical energy to mechanical energy.

Alternators

A.C. generators or alternators (as they are usually called) operate on the same fundamental principles of
electromagnetic induction as d.c. generators. They also consist of an armature winding and a magnetic
field.

But there is one important difference between the two. Whereas in d.c. generators, the armature
rotates and the field system is stationary, the arrangement in alternators is just the reverse of it. In their
case, standard construction consists of armature winding mounted on a stationary element called stator
and field windings on a rotating element called rotor.
The stator consists of a cast-iron frame, which supports the armature core, having slots on its inner
periphery for housing the armature conductors. The rotor is like a flywheel having alternate N and S
poles fixed to its outer rim. The magnetic poles are excited (or magnetized) from direct current supplied
by a d.c. source at 125 to 600 volts.

In most cases, necessary exciting (or magnetizing) current is obtained from a small d.c. shunt generator
which is belted or mounted on the shaft of the alternator itself. Because the field magnets are rotating,
this current is supplied through two slip rings. As the exciting voltage is relatively small, the slip-rings
and brush gear are of light construction. Recently, brushless excitation systems have been developed in
which a 3-phase a.c. exciter and a group of rectifiers supply d.c. to the alternator. Hence, brushes, slip-
rings and commutator are eliminated.

When the rotor rotates, the stator conductors (being stationary) are cut by the magnetic flux, hence
they have induced e.m.f. produced in them. Because the magnetic poles are alternately N and S, they
induce an e.m.f. and hence current in armature conductors, which first flows in one direction and then
in the other.
Hence, an alternating e.m.f. is produced in the stator conductors (i) whose frequency depends on the
number of N and S poles moving past a conductor in one second and (ii) whose direction is given by
Fleming's Right-hand rule.

Advantages of having stationary armature (and a rotating field system) are:

1. The output current can be led directly from fixed terminals on the stator (or armature windings) to
the load circuit, without having to pass it through brush-contacts.

2. It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding for high a.c. voltages, which may have as high a
value as 30 kV or more.

3. The sliding contacts i.e. slip-rings are transferred to the low-voltage, low-power d.c. field circuit which
can, therefore, be easily insulated.

4. The armature windings can be more easily braced to prevent any deformation, which could be
produced by the mechanical stresses set up as a result of short-circuit current and the high centrifugal
forces brought into play.

Speed and Frequency

In an alternator, there exists a definite relationship between the rotational speed (N) of the rotor, the
frequency (f) of the generated e.m.f. and the number of poles P.

One cycle of e.m.f. is induced in a conductor when one pair of poles passes over it. In other words, the
e.m.f. in an armature conductor goes through one cycle in angular distance equal to twice the pole-
pitch.

Let P = total number of magnetic poles

N = rotative speed of the rotor in r.p.m.

f = frequency of generated e.m.f. in Hz.

Since one cycle of e.m.f. is produced when a pair of poles passes past a conductor, the number of cycles
of e.m.f. produced in one revolution of the rotor is equal to the number of pair of poles.

∴ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑃/2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑁/60

𝑃 𝑁 𝑃𝑁
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑥 = 𝐻𝑧
2 60 120
N is known as the synchronous speed, because it is the speed at which an alternator must run, in order
to generate an e.m.f. of the required frequency. In fact, for a given frequency and given number of
poles, the speed is fixed. For producing a frequency of 60 Hz, the alternator will have to run at the
following speeds:

No. of Poles 2 4 6 12 24 36
Speed (rpm) 3600 1800 1200 600 300 200

Example. What is the speed of a 100 kW, 230-V, three-phase, four – pole, 60 Hz alternator?

Solution.
𝑃𝑁
𝑓=
120
To calculate the speed,
120𝑓 120(60)
𝑁= = = 1800 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑃 4
Note: If no frequency is given, assume 60 Hz

Equation of Induced E.M.F.

Let 𝑍 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝑍 = 2𝑇, 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 (𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠)
𝑃 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑧

𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
∅= 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑘𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑘𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑝 = 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑘𝑓 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1.11 − 𝑖𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙

If one revolution of the rotor (i.e. in 60/N second) each stator conductor is cut by a flux of ∅𝑃 𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑑∅ = ∅𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑡 = 60/𝑁 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑑∅ ∅𝑃 ∅𝑃𝑁
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = =
𝑑𝑡 60/𝑁 60
𝑃𝑁 120𝑓
Now we know that 𝑓 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 =
120 𝑃

Substituting this value of N above, we get

∅𝑃𝑁 ∅𝑃 120𝑓
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 𝑥 = 2𝑓∅ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
60 60 𝑃

If there are Z conductors in series/phase, then average emf/phase = 2𝑓∅𝑍 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 4𝑓∅ 𝑇 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡

RMS value of emf per phase = 1.11 𝑥 4𝑓∅ 𝑇 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 4.44𝑓∅ 𝑇 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡

This would have been the actual value of the induced voltage if all the coils in a phase were (i) full-
pitched and (ii) concentrated or bunched in one slot (instead of being distributed in several slots under
poles). But this not being so, the actually available voltage is reduced in the ratio of these two factors.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
∴ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 4.44 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑 𝑓∅ 𝑇 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 4 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑 𝑓∅ 𝑇 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
If the alternator is star-connected (as is usually the case) then the line voltage is 3 times the phase
voltage (as found from the above formula).

Illustrative Examples:

Example 1: A 3-phase, 16-pole alternator has a star-connected (wye-connected) winding with 144 slots
and 10 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb, Sinusoidally distributed and the speed is 375
r.p.m. Find the frequency rpm and the phase and line e.m.f. Assume full-pitched coil and unity for the
distribution factor.

Solution.

Calculating the frequency,

𝑃𝑁 (16)(375)
𝑓= = = 50 𝐻𝑧
120 120
For the generated emf, only one of the three-phases is considered since it is assumed that the system is
balanced.

𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 4.44 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑 𝑓∅ 𝑇

For the total number of turns,

10 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 1 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
𝑇 = 144 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑥 𝑥 = 720 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
1 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
For turns per phase,
 720
𝑇𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 240 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
3
For the phase voltage,

𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 4.44 (1)(1)(50)(0.03)(240) = 1598.4 𝑉

The line voltage is larger than the phase voltage by a factor of √3,

𝐸𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = (√3)(𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 ) = (√3)(1598.4) = 2769.203 𝑉

Note: Line voltage refers to a delta – connected source voltage while phase voltage refers to a wye-
connected voltage source.

Example 2: Find the phase and line voltage supply of a star-connected 3-phase, 6-pole alternator which
runs at 1200 rpm, having flux per pole of 0.1 Wb sinusoidally distributed. Its stator has 300 conductors.
Consider a distribution factor of 0.966 and a pitch factor of 0.96.

Solution.

𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 4.44 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑 𝑓∅ 𝑇
𝑃𝑁
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 4.44 (0.96) (0.966) ( )∅𝑇
120
(6)(1200) 1 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 4.44 (0.96)(0.966) ( ) (0.1) (300 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑥 )
120 2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 3705.731 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

For the line voltage,

𝐸𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = (√3)(𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 ) = (√3)(3705.731) = 6418.514 𝑉

Note: Another term for line voltage is terminal voltage since most voltage supplies available are line-to-
line voltage. If the voltage required or given in a problem is not specified as line or phase, always assume
it is a line voltage.