Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

EE8401 Electrical Machines - II

UNIT I- SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

Fundamental Principles of A.C. Machines:

AC rotating machines can be classified mainly in two categories Synchronous
Machines and Asynchronous Machines.
They are defined as-
•Synchronous Machines:
•Synchronous Generators: A primary source of electrical energy.
•Synchronous Motors: Used as motors as well as power factor compensators (synchronous
condensers).
•Asynchronous (Induction) Machines:
•Induction Motors: Most widely used electrical motors in both domestic and industrial
applications.
•Induction Generators: This generator runs at asynchronous speed and variable frequency voltage
generated. Due to lack of a separate field excitation, these machines are rarely used as
generators.
E.M.F. equation of an elementary alternator single phase
Let us assume that this generator has an armature winding consisting of a total number of full
pitched concentrated coils C, each coil having a given number of turns Nc. Then the total number
of turns in any given phase of a single-phase generator armature is
N p = CNc
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction the average voltage induced in a single
turn of two coil sides is

The voltage induced in one conductor is 2ϕ/(1/n) = 2ϕs, where n=speed of rotation in r.p.s, for a
2 pole generator. Furthermore, when a coil consisting of Nc turns rotates in a uniform magnetic
field, at a uniform speed, the average voltage induced in an armature coil is
where ϕ is the number of lines of flux (in Webers) per pole, Nc is number of turns per coil, n is
the relative speed in revolutions/second (rps) between the coil of Nc turns and the magnetic
field ϕ.
A speed n of 1 rps will produce a frequency f of 1 Hz. Since f is directly proportional and
equivalent to n, (for a 2-pole generator) for all the series turns in any phase,

The effective rms value of a sinusoidal ac voltage is 1.11 times the average value. The effective
ac voltage per phase is

E.M.F. equation of an elementary alternator three phase

Let us assume that this generator has an armature winding consisting of a total number of full
pitched concentrated coils C, each coil having a given number of turns Nc. Then the total number
of turns in any given phase of a 3-phase generator armature is

Voltage equation per phase will be similar in to the single phase alternator

The value of line voltage will be different from phase voltage in case of star connected generator.
The line value of the emf in case of three phase alternator connected in star will be-

The value of line voltage will be same with phase voltage in case of delta connected generator.
The line value of the emf in case of three phase alternator connected in delta will be-
Relation between speed and frequency
One complete revolution will produce one complete positive and negative pulse each cycle
when the number of pole is two. The frequency in cycles per second (Hz) will depend directly on
the speed or number of revolutions per second (rpm/60) of the rotating field.
If the ac synchronous generator has multiple poles (having, say, two, four, six, or eight poles...),
then for a speed of one revolution per second (1 rpm/60), the frequency per revolution will be
one, two, three, or four ..., cycles per revolution, respectively. The frequency per revolution, is
therefore, equal to the number of pairs of poles. Since the frequency depends directly on the
speed (rpm/60) and also on the number of pairs of poles (P/2), then these two may be combined
together into a single equation in which

Where
P is the number of poles
N is the speed in rpm (rev/min)
f is. the frequency in hertz
ωm is the speed in radians per second (rad/s)
ωe is the speed electrical radians per second.

Factors affecting the induced emf (Coil Pitch and Distributed Windings) - Synchronous
Generator
1. Pitch Factor or Coil Pitch 2. Distribution Factor 3. Harmonic Effect 4. Winding Factor
Factors affecting the induced emf (Coil Pitch and Distributed Windings)
The emf equation derived in art 1.2 and art 1.3 is applicable when the alternator is having full
pitch coil and concentrated winding. But when the alternator armature winding is distributed and
short pitched then the per phase emf equation will change and become-
Where Kp is called pitch factor and Kd is called distribution factor.
1. Pitch Factor or Coil Pitch
The ratio of phasor (vector) sum of induced emfs per coil to the arithmetic sum of induced emfs
per coil is known as pitch factor (Kp)or coil span factor (Kc) which is always less than unity.
Let the coil have a pitch short by angle q electrical space degrees from full pitch and induced
emf in each coil side be E,

• If the coil would have been full pitched, then total induced emf in the coil would have been 2E
• when the coil is short pitched by q electrical space degrees the resultant induced emf, ER in
the coil is phasor sum of two voltages,q apart

The pitch factor of the coil at the nth harmonic frequency can be expressed as
Kpn = cos a n where n is the order of harmonic

2. Distribution Factor
The ratio of the phasor sum of the emfs induced in all the coils distributed in a number of slots
under one pole to the arithmetic sum of the emfs induced(or to the resultant of emfs induced in
all coils concentrated in one slot under one pole) is known as breadth factor (Kb) or distribution
factor (Kd)
The distribution factor is always less than unity.
Let no. of slots per pole = Q and no. of slots per pole per phase = q
Induced emf in each coil side = Ec
Angular displacement between the slots, γo
The emf induced in different coils of one phase under one pole are represented by side AC, CD,
DE,
EF Which are equal in magnitude (say each equal Ec) and differ in phase (say by γo) from each
other.

If bisectors are drawn on AC, CD, DE, EF they would meet at common point (O). The
point O would be the center of the circle having AC, CD, DE, EF as the chords and representing
the emfs induced in the coils in different slots.
3. Harmonic Effect
• The flux distribution along the air gaps of alternators usually is non- sinusoidal so
that the emf in the individual armature conductor likewise is non-sinusoidal
• The sources of harmonics in the output voltage waveform are the non- sinusoidal
waveform of the field flux.
• Fourier showed that any periodic wave may be expressed as the sum of a d-c
component (zero frequency) and sine (or cosine) waves having fundamental and multiple or
higher frequencies, the higher frequencies being called harmonics.
• All the odd harmonics(third, fifth, seventh, night, etc.) are present in the phase
voltage to some extent and need to be dealt with in the design of ac machines.
• Because the resulting voltage waveform is symmetric about the center of the rotor
flux, no even harmonics are present in the phase voltage.
• In Y- connected, the third-harmonic voltage between any two terminals will be
zero. This result applies not only to third-harmonic components but also to any multiple of a
third-harmonic component (such as the ninth harmonic). Such special harmonic frequencies are
called triplen

Elimination or Suppression of Harmonics

Field flux waveform can be made as much sinusoidal as possible by the following methods:
1. Small air gap at the pole centre and large air gap towards the pole ends
2. Skewing: skew the pole faces if possible
3. Distribution: distribution of the armature winding along the air-gap periphery
4. Chording: with coil-span less than pole pitch
5. Fractional slot winding
6. Alternator connections: star or delta connections of alternators suppress triplen
harmonics from appearing across the lines

4. Winding Factor
Both distribution factor (Kd) and pitch factor Kp together is known as winding factor Kw.
Armature Reaction
When an alternator is running at no-load, there will be no current flowing through the armature
winding. The flux produced in the air-gap will be only due to the rotor ampere turns. When the
alternator is loaded, the three-phase currents will produce a totaling magnetic field in the air-gap.
Consequently, the air-gap flux is changed from the no-load condition.
The effect of armature flux on the flux produced by field ampere turns (i. e., rotor ampere turns)
is called armature reaction.
Two things are worth noting about the armature reaction in an alternator. First, the armature flux
and the flux produced by rotor ampere-turns rotate at the same speed (synchronous speed) in the
same direction and, therefore, the two fluxes are fixed in space relative to each other.
Secondly, the modification of flux in the air-gap due to armature flux depends on the magnitude
of stator current and on the power factor of the load. It is the load power factor which determines
whether the armature flux distorts, opposes or helps the flux produced by rotor ampere-turns.
To illustrate this important point, we shall consider the following three cases:
1. When load p.f. is unity
2. When load p.f. is zero lagging
3. When load p.f. is zero leading

When load p.f. is unity

Above Fig: 1 (c) shows an elementary alternator on no load. Since the armature is on open-
circuit, there is no stator current and the flux due to rotor current is distributed symmetrically in
the air-gap as shown in Fig: 1 (d). Since the direction of the rotor is assumed clockwise, the
generated e.m.f. in phase R1R2 is at its maximum and is towards the paper in the conductor R1
and outwards in conductor R2. No armature flux is produced since no current flows in the
armature winding.

Fig (ii) shows the effect when a resistive load (unity p.f.) is connected across the terminals of the
alternator. According to right-hand rule, the current is "in" in the conductors under N-pole and
"out" in the conductors under S-pole. Therefore, the armature flux is clockwise due to currents in
the top conductors and anti-clockwise due to currents in the bottom conductors. Note that
armature flux is at 90° to the main flux (due to rotor current) and is behind the main flux.

In this case, the flux in the air-gap is distorted but not weakened. Therefore, at unity p.f., the
effect of armature reaction is merely to distort the main field; there is no weakening of the main
field and the average flux practically remains the same. Since the magnetic flux due to stator
currents (i.e., armature flux) rotate; synchronously with the rotor, the flux distortion remains the
same for all positions of the rotor.
When load Power Factor is Zero lagging
When a pure inductive load (zero p.f. lagging) is connected across the terminals of the alternator,
current Fig: 1 (c) shows the condition when the alternator is supplying resistive load. Note that
e.m.f. as well as current in phase R1R2 is maximum in the position shown. When the alternator
is supplying a pure inductive load, the current in phase R1R2 will not reach its maximum value
until N-pole advanced 90° electrical as shown in Fig: 1 (d). Now the armature flux is from right
to left and field flux is from left to right All the flux produced by armature current (i.e., armature
flux) opposes be field flux and, therefore, weakens it. In other words, armature reaction is
directly demagnetizing. Hence at zero p.f. lagging, the armature reaction weakens the main flux.
This causes a reduction in the generated e.m.f.
When load Power Factor is Zero leading
When a pure capacitive load (zero p.f. leading) is connected across the terminals of the
alternator, the current in armature windings will lead the induced e.m.f. by 90°.

Obviously, the effect of armature reaction will be the reverse that for pure inductive load. Thus
armature flux now aids the main flux and the generated e.m.f. is increased. Fig: 1 (c) shows the
condition when alternator is supplying resistive load.
Note that e.m.f. as well as current in phase R1R2 is maximum in the position shown. When the
alternator is supplying a pure capacitive load, the maximum current in R1R2 will occur 90°
electrical before the occurrence of maximum induced e.m.f. Therefore, maximum current in
phase R1R2 will occur if the
position of the rotor remains 90° behind as compared to its position under resistive load. This is
illustrated in Fig: 1 (d). It is clear that armature flux is now in the same direction as the field flux
and, therefore, strengthens it. This causes an increase in the generated voltage. Hence at zero p.f.
leading, the armature reaction strengthens the main flux.
 For intermediate values of p.f, the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting and partly
weakening for inductive loads. For capacitive loads, the effect of armature reaction is partly
distorting and partly strengthening. Note that in practice, loads are generally inductive.

Synchronous Generators
Synchronous machines are principally used as alternating current (AC) generators.
- They supply the electric power used by all sectors of modern societies: industrial,
commercial, agricultural, and domestic. They
- usually operate together (or in parallel), forming a large power system supplying
electrical energy to the loads or consumers.
- are built in large units, their rating ranging from tens to hundreds of megawatts.
- converts mechanical power to ac electric power. The source of mechanical power, the
prime mover, may be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, a water turbine, or any similar device.

For high-speed machines, the prime movers are usually steam turbines employing fossil or
nuclear energy resources.
Low-speed machines are often driven by hydro-turbines that employ water power for
generation.
Smaller synchronous machines are sometimes used for private generation and as standby units,
with diesel engines or gas turbines as prime movers.

1. Various Types of Synchronous Machine & Construction

According to the arrangement of the field and armature windings, synchronous machines may
be classified as rotating-armature type or rotating-field type.
2. Rotating-Armature Type:
The armature winding is on the rotor and the field system is on the stator.
3. Rotating-Field Type:
The armature winding is on the stator and the field system is on the rotor.
According to the shape of the field, synchronous machines may be classified as cylindrical-
rotor (non-salient pole) machines andsalient-pole machines
AC winding design
The windings used in rotating electrical machines can be classified as
Concentrated Windings
• All the winding turns are wound together in series to form one multi-turn coil
• All the turns have the same magnetic axis
• Examples of concentrated winding are
- field windings for salient-pole synchronous machines
- D.C. machines
- Primary and secondary windings of a transformer
Distributed Windings
• All the winding turns are arranged in several full-pitch or fractional-pitch coils
• These coils are then housed in the slots spread around the air-gap periphery to
form phase or commutator winding
• Examples of distributed winding are
- Stator and rotor of induction machines
- The armatures of both synchronous and D.C. machines

Some of the terms common to armature windings are described below:

Conductor. A length of wire which takes active part in the energy- conversion process is
a called a conductor.
Turn. One turn consists of two conductors.
Coil. One coil may consist of any number of turns.
Coil -side. One coil with any number of turns has two coil-sides.
The number of conductors (C) in any coil-side is equal to the number of turns (N) in that coil.

Pole - pitch:- A pole pitch is defined as the peripheral distance between identical points on
two adjacent poles. Pole pitch is always equal to 180o electrical.
Coil-span or coil-pitch:- The distance between the two coil-sides of a coil is called coil-span or
coil-pitch. It is usually measured in terms of teeth, slots or electrical degrees.
Chorded-coil
- If the coil-span (or coil-pitch) is equal to the pole-pitch, then the coil
is termed a full-pitch coil.
- in case the coil-pitch is less than pole-pitch, then it is
called chorded, short-pitch or fractional-pitch coil
Fractional-pitch coil

In AC armature windings, the separate coils may be connected in several different manners, but
the two most common methods arelap and wave.
Cylindrical Rotor Theory
Similar to the case of DC generator, the behavior of a Synchronous generator connected to an
external load is different than that at no-load. In order to understand the performance of the
Synchronous generator when it is loaded, consider the flux distributions in the machine when the
armature also carries a current. Unlike in the DC machine in alternators the emf peak and the
current peak will not occur in the same coil due to the effect of the power factor of the load. The
current and the induced emf will be at their peaks in the same coil only for upf loads. For zero
power factor lagging loads, the current reaches its peak in a coil which falls behind that coil
wherein the induced emf is at its peak by 90 electrical degrees or half a pole-pitch. Likewise for
zero power factor leading loads, the current reaches its peak in a coil which is ahead of that coil
wherein the induced emf is at its peak by 90 electrical degrees or half a pole-pitch. For
simplicity, assume the resistance and leakage reactance of the stator windings to be negligible.
Also assume the magnetic circuit to be linear i.e. the flux in the magnetic circuit is deemed to be
proportional to the resultant ampere-turns - in other words the machine is operating in the linear
portion of the magnetization characteristics. Thus the emf induced is the same as the terminal
voltage, and the phase-angle between current and emf is determined only by the power factor
(pf) of the external load connected to the synchronous generator.
For synchronous generator the terminal voltage Vt can be written as

Where Eg is the generator induced emf,

Ia is the armature current,

Ra is the armature resistance,

Xal is the leakage reactance,

Xar is the armature reaction reactance,

Xs is the synchronous reactance

Zs is the synchronous impedance

Phasor Diagrams

The complete phasor diagram of an alternator at different load conditions are shown below.
1. For Inductive Load
The alternator is connected with a R-L load then the current lags terminal voltage by an angle q.
The phasor diagram is shown below in Fig: 1.4.

2. For Resistive Load

The alternator is connected with a resistive load then the current remains in same phase with the
terminal voltage. The phasor diagram is shown below in Fig: 1.5.
3. For Capacitive Load
When the terminals of the armature of alternator is connected with a R-C load then the current
Ia leads the terminal voltage Vt by an angle . The complete phasor diagram for leading power
factor load is shown below in Fig: 1. 6.

Open circuit characteristic (OCC) and Short Circuit Characteristics (SCC) of a Synchronous
generator-With the armature terminals open, Ia=0, so Eg = Vt It is thus possible to construct a
plot of Eg or Vt vs If graph.
Open-circuit characteristic (OCC) of a generator
With the armature terminals open, Ia=0, so Eg = Vt It is thus possible to construct a plot of
Eg or Vt vs If graph. This plot is called open-circuit characteristic (OCC) of a generator. With
this characteristic, it is possible to find the internal generated voltage of the generator for any
given field current.
Initially OCC follows a straight-line relation with the field current as long as the magnetic circuit
of the synchronous generator does not saturate. This straight line is appropriately called the air-
gap line. Practically due to saturation induced emf bend from the straight line.

Short Circuit Characteristics (SCC)

For getting SCC generator is rotated at rated speed with armature terminals short circuited. The
field current is adjusted to 0. The armature current is measured as the field current is increased.
Armature Reaction Reactance
Armature reaction refers to the influence of the armature flux on the field flux in the air gap
when the stator windings are connected across a load.
If Ff is the field mmf in the generator under no load, then the generated voltage E g must lag Ff by
90o. Per phase armature current Ia produces armature mmf Fa which is in phase with Ia . The
effective mmf is Fr.

The armature mmf Fa will induced an emf Ear in the armature winding. Ear is called the armature
reaction emf. This emf will lag its mmf by 90 o. Hence the resultant armature voltage is the vector
sum of the no-load voltage Eg and armature reaction emf Ear .
From the observations of the phasor diagrams for lagging and leading power factors, that the
resultant mmf Fr is smaller or larger depending on the power factor. As a result the terminal
voltage Vt is larger or smaller than the no-load induced emf when the power factor is leading or
lagging.
Since the armature reaction emf Ear lags the armature mmf Fa or Ia by 90o, so it can be expressed
as

Where Xar is called armature reaction reactance.

Synchronous reactance
Both the armature reaction reactance and the leakage reactance are present at the same time. The
two raeactances are combined together and the sum is called the Synchronous reactance (Xs).
Xs = Xal + Xar

The combined result of the Synchronous reactance and armature resistance is

called Synchronous Impedance (Zs).
Zs = Ra + jXs

Short Circuit Ratio (SCR)

Ratio of the field current required for the rated voltage at open circuit to the field current
required for rated armature current at short circuit.

Load Characteristics
Consider a synchronous generator driven at constant speed and with constant excitation. On
open circuit the terminal voltage Vt is the same as the open circuit e.m.f. Eg. Suppose a unity-
power-factor load be connected to the machine. The flow of load current produces a voltage drop
IaZs in the synchronous impedance, and terminal voltage Vt is reduced. Fig. 1.12 shows the
phasor diagram for three types of load. It will be seen that the angle s between Eg and
Vt increases with load, indicating a shift of the flux across the pole faces due to cross-
magnetization. The terminal voltage is obtained from the complex summation
so that the V/I curve, Fig. 1.13, is nearly an ellipse with semi-axes Eg and I sc. The current Isc is
that which flows when the load resistance is reduced to zero. The voltage V t falls to zero also and
the machine is on short-circuit with Vt = 0 and
Ia =Isc =Eg /Zs
~ Eg /Xs

For a lagging load of zero power-factor, diagram is given in Fig. 1.13. The voltage is given as
before and since the resistance in normal machines is small compared with the synchronous
reactance, the voltage is given approximately by
which is the straight line marked for cosϕ = 0 lagging in Fig.1.14. A leading load of zero power
factor Fig. 1.14 will have the voltage

another straight line for which, by reason of the direct magnetizing effect of leading currents, the
voltage increases with load.
Intermediate load power factors produce voltage/current characteristics resembling those in Fig:
1.13 The voltage-drop with load (i.e. the regulation) is clearly dependent upon the power factor
of the load. The short-circuit current Isc at which the load terminal voltage falls to zero may be
about 150 per cent (1.5 per unit) of normal current in large modern machines.

Potier Reactance
For obtaining potier reactance Zero Power Factor test is conducted by connecting the alternator
to ZPF load and exciting the alternator in such way that the alternator supplies the rated current
at rated voltage running at rated speed. To plot ZPF characteristics only two points are required.
One point is corresponding to the zero voltage and rated current that can be obtained from scc
and the other at rated voltage and rated current under zpf load. This zero power factor curve
appears like OCC but shifted by a factor IaXL vertically and horizontally by armature reaction
mmf as shown below in Fig: 1.15. Following are the steps to draw ZPF characteristics.

By suitable tests plot OCC and SCC. Draw air gap line. Conduct ZPF test at full load for rated
voltage and fix the point B. Draw the line BH with length equal to field current required to
produce full load current on short circuit. Draw HD parallel to the air gap line so as to cut the
OCC. Draw DE perpendicular to HB or parallel to voltage axis. Now, DE represents voltage
drop IXL and BE represents the field current required to overcome the effect of armature
reaction.
Triangle BDE is called Potier triangle and XL is the Potier reactance.
Voltage Regulation
When an alternator is subjected to a varying load, the voltage at the armature terminals varies to
a certain extent, and the amount of this variation determines the regulation of the machine. When
the alternator is loaded the terminal voltage decreases as the drops in the machine stars
increasing and hence it will always be different than the induced emf.
Voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in terminal voltage from no load to
full load expressed as a percentage of rated voltage when the load at a given power factor is
removed without change in speed and excitation. Or the numerical value of the regulation is
defined as the percentage rise in voltage when full load at the specified power-factor is switched
off with speed and field current remaining unchanged expressed as a percentage of rated voltage.
Hence regulation can be expressed as
% Regulation =(E-V)/V*100
where E0 = No-load induced emf /phase, Vt = Rated terminal voltage/phase at load

Methods of finding Voltage Regulation:

The voltage regulation of an alternator can be determined by different methods. In case of small
generators it can be determined by direct loading whereas in case of large generators it cannot
determined by direct loading but will be usually predetermined by different methods. Following
are the different methods used for predetermination of regulation of alternators.
1. Direct loading method
2. EMF method or Synchronous impedance method
3. MMF method or Ampere turns method
4. ASA modified MMF method
5. ZPF method or Potier triangle method

All the above methods other than direct loading are valid for non-salient pole machines only. As
the alternators are manufactured in large capacity direct loading of alternators is not employed
for determination of regulation. Other methods can be employed for predetermination of
regulation. Hence the other methods of determination of regulations will be discussed in the
following sections.
Leg
1. EMF method:
This method is also known as synchronous impedance method. Here the magnetic circuit is
assumed to be unsaturated. In this method the MMFs (fluxes) produced by rotor and stator are
replaced by their equivalent emf, and hence called emf method.
 To predetermine the regulation by this method the following informations are to be determined.
Armature resistance /phase of the alternator, open circuit and short circuit characteristics of the
alternator.
Determination of synchronous impedance Zs

As the terminals of the stator are short circuited in SC test, the short circuit current is circulated
against the impedance of the stator called the synchronous impedance. This impedance can be
estimated form the oc and sc characteristics.
The ratio of open circuit voltage to the short circuit current at a particular field current, or at a
field current responsible for circulating the rated current is called the synchronous impedance.

Synchronous impedance Zs = (open circuit voltage per phase)/(short circuit current per phase)
for same If
Hence Zs = (Voc) / (Isc) for same If
From Fig: 1.16 synchronous impedance Zs = V/Isc
Armature resistance Ra of the stator can be measured using Voltmeter - Ammeter method. Using
synchronous impedance and armature resistance synchronous reactance and hence regulation can
be calculated as follows using emf method.
where Vt = phase voltage per phase = Vph , Ia = load current per phase

In the above expression in second term + sign is for lagging power factor and - sign is for leading
power factor.
% Regulation = [ Eg – Vt ] / Vt
where
Eg = no-load induced emf /phase,
Vt = rated terminal voltage/phase
Synchronous impedance method is easy but it gives approximate results. This method gives the
value of regulation which is greater (poor) than the actual value and hence this method is called
pessimistic method. The complete phasor diagram for the emf method is shown in Fig 1.18.

2. MMF method

This method is also known as amp - turns method. In this method the all the emfs produced by
rotor and stator are replaced by their equivalent MMFs (fluxes), and hence called mmf method.
In this method also it is assumed that the magnetic circuit is unsaturated. In this method both the
reactance drops are replaced by their equivalent mmfs. Fig: 1.19 shows the complete phasor
diagram for the mmf method. Similar to emf method OC and SC characteristics are used for the
determination of regulation by mmf method. The details are shown in Fig: 1.19. Using the details
it is possible determine the regulation at different power factors.

From the phasor diagram it can be seen that the mmf required to produce the emf E1= (V + IRa)
is FR1.In large machines resistance drop may neglected. The mmf required to overcome the
reactance drops is (Fa+Fal) as shown in phasor diagram. The mmf (Fa+Fal) can be found from
SC characteristic as under SC condition both reactance drops will be present.
Following procedure can be used for determination of regulation by mmf method.

Because of the assumption of unsaturated magnetic circuit the regulation computed by this
method will be less than the actual and hence this method of regulation is called optimistic
method.

3. ASA Modified MMF Method:

ASA or modified mmf method consider saturation effect for calculation of regulation. In the
mmf method the total mmf F computed is based on the assumption of unsaturated magnetic
circuit which is unrealistic. In order to account for the partial saturation of the magnetic circuit it
must be increased by a certain amount FF2 which can be computed from occ, scc and air gap
lines as explained below referring to Fig: 1.20 (i) and (ii).

If1 is the field current required to induce the rated voltage on open circuit. Draw If2 with length
equal to field current required to circulate rated current during short circuit condition at an angle
(90+ ) from If1. The resultant of If1 and If2 gives If (OF2 in figure). Extend OF2 upto F so that
F2F accounts for the additional field current required for accounting the effect of partial
saturation of magnetic circuit. F2F is found for voltage E (refer to phasor diagram of mmf
method) as shown in Fig: 1.20. Project total field current OF to the field current axis and find
corresponding voltage E0 using OCC. Hence regulation can found by ASA method which is
more realistic.
4. Zero Power Factor (ZPF) method or Potier Triangle Method:
During the operation of the alternator, resistance voltage drop IaRa and armature leakage
reactance drop IaXL are actually emf quantities and the armature reaction reactance is a mmf
quantity. To determine the regulation of the alternator by this method OCC, SCC and ZPF test
details and characteristics are required. AS explained earlier oc and sc tests are conducted and
OCC and SCC are drawn. ZPF test is conducted by connecting the alternator to ZPF load and
exciting the alternator in such way that the alternator supplies the rated current at rated voltage
running at rated speed. To plot ZPF characteristics only two points are required. One point is
corresponding to the zero voltage and rated current that can be obtained from scc and the other at
rated voltage and rated current under zpf load. This zero power factor curve appears
like OCC but shifted by a factor IaXL vertically and horizontally by armature reaction mmf as
shown below in Fig: 1.21. Following are the steps to draw ZPF characteristics.

By suitable tests plot OCC and SCC. Draw air gap line. Conduct ZPF test at full load for rated
voltage and fix the point B. Draw the line BH with length equal to field current required to
produce full load current on short circuit. Draw HD parallel to the air gap line so as to cut the
OCC. Draw DE perpendicular to HB or parallel to voltage axis. Now, DE represents voltage
drop IXL and BE represents the field current required to overcome the effect of armature
reaction.

The resultant field current is given by OG. Mark this length on field current axis. From OCC find
the corresponding E0. Find the regulation.
Power angle characteristics

When the synchronous generator feeding power to the infinite bus-bar at constant terminal
voltage Vt as shown in single line diagram in Fig: 1.22 the phasor diagram for lagging power
factor is shown if Fig: 1.23. For large size of generator armature resistance ra is negligible.
The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by

Substitution of value of Ia cosqin power equation

The variation of power as derived above with respect to power-angle is plotted in Fig; 1.24. The
power versus load angle characteristic curve has a sinusoidal shape and is usually called power-
angle characteristic of the cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine. The power P, for generator is
taken as positive and therefore, for motor as negative.

Salient pole alternators and Blondel's Two Reaction Theory

The details of synchronous generators developed so far is applicable to only round rotor or non-
salient pole alternators. In such machines the air gap is uniform throughout and hence the effect
of mmf will be same whether it acts along the pole axis or the inter polar axis. Hence reactance
of the stator is same throughout and hence it is called synchronous reactance. But in case salient
pole machines the air gap is non uniform and it is smaller along pole axis and is larger along the
inter polar axis. These axes are called direct axis or d-axis and quadrature axis or q-axis. Hence
the effect of mmf when acting along direct axis will be different than that when it is acting along
quadrature axis. Hence the reactance of the stator cannot be same when the mmf is acting along d
- axis and q- axis. As the length of the air gap is small along direct axis reluctance of the
magnetic circuit is less and the air gap along the q - axis is larger and hence the along the
quadrature axis will be comparatively higher. Hence along d-axis more flux is produced than q-
axis. Therefore the reactance due to armature
reaction will be different along d-axis and q-axis. These reactances are,
Xad = direct axis reactance; Xaq = quadrature axis reactance
Hence the effect of armature reaction in the case of a salient pole synchronous machine can be
taken as two components - one acting along the direct axis (coinciding with the main field pole
axis) and the other acting along the quadrature axis (inter-polar region or magnetic neutral axis)
and as such the mmf components of armature-reaction in a salient-pole machine cannot be
considered as acting on the same magnetic circuit. Hence the effect of the armature reaction
cannot be taken into account by considering only the synchronous reactance, in the case of a
salient pole synchronous machine.
In fact, the direct-axis component Fad acts over a magnetic circuit identical with that of the main
field system and produces a comparable effect while the quadrature-axis component Faq acts
along the interpolar axis, resulting in an altogether smaller effect and, in addition, a flux
distribution totally different from that of Fad or the main field m.m.f. This explains why the
application of cylindrical-rotor theory to salient-pole machines for predicting the performance
gives results not conforming to the performance obtained from an actual test.
Direct-axis and Quadrature-axis Synchronous Reactances
Blondel's two-reaction theory considers the effects of the quadrature and direct-axis components
of the armature reaction separately. Neglecting saturation, their different effects are considered
by assigning to each an appropriate value of armature-reaction "reactance,"
respectively xad and xaq . The effects of armature resistance and true leakage reactance (XL)
may be treated separately, or may be added to the armature reaction coefficients on the
assumption that they are the same, for either the direct-axis or quadrature-axis components of the
armature current (which is almost true). Thus the combined reactance values can be expressed as,
Xsd = xad + x, and Xsq = xaq + x, for the direct- and cross-reaction axes respectively.
In a salient-pole machine, xaq, the quadrature-axis reactance is smaller than xad, the direct-axis
reactance, since the flux produced by a given current component in that axis is smaller as the
reluctance of the magnetic path consists mostly of the interpolar spaces. It is essential to clearly
note the difference between the quadrature and direct-axis components Iaq, and Iad of the
armature current Ia, and the reactive and active components Iaa and Iar. Although both pairs are
represented by phasors in phase quadrature, the former are related to the induced emf Et while
the latter are referred to the terminal voltage V. These phasors are clearly indicated with
reference to the phasor diagram of a (salient pole) synchronous generator supplying a lagging
power factor (pf) load, shown in Fig
Parallel Operation of Alternators

The operation of connecting an alternator in parallel with another alternator or with common
bus-bars is known as synchronizing. Generally, alternators are used in a power system where
they are in parallel with many other alternators. It means that the alternator is connected to a live
system of constant voltage and constant frequency. Often the electrical system, to which the
alternator is connected, has already so many alternators and loads connected to it that no matter
what power is delivered by the incoming alternator, the voltage and frequency of the system
remain the same. In that case, the alternator is said to be connected to infinite bus-bars.

For proper synchronization of alternators, the following four conditions must be satisfied

1. The terminal voltage (effective) of the incoming alternator must be the same as
bus-bar voltage.

2. The speed of the incoming machine must be such that its frequency (= PN/60)
equals bus-bar frequency.

3. The phase of the alternator voltage must be identical with the phase of the bus-
bar voltage. 4. The phase angle between identical phases must be zero.

It means that the switch must be closed at (or very near) the instant the two voltages have correct
phase relationship.

Condition (1) is indicated by a voltmeter, conditions (2), (3) and (4) are indicated by
synchronizing lamps or a synchronoscope.

The synchronizing lamp method is consists of 3 lamps connected between the phases of the
running 3-ph generator and the incoming generator as shown in Fig:
In three phase alternators, it is necessary to synchronize one phase only, the other two phases be
will then synchronized automatically. However, first it is necessary that the incoming alternator
is correctly 'phased out' i.e. the phases are connected in the proper order of R,Y &B not R, B,
Y etc.

Lamp L1 is connected between R and R′, L2 between Y and B′ (not Y and Y′) and L3
between B and Y′ (and not B and B′) as shown in Fig:

Two set of star vectors will rotate at unequal speeds if the frequencies of the two are different. If
the incoming alternator is running faster, then voltage star R′ Y′ B′ appear to rotate anticlockwise
with respect to the bus-bar voltage star RYB at a speed corresponding to the difference between
their frequencies. With reference to Fig: 2.6, it is seen that voltage across L1 is RR′ to be
increasing from zero, and that across L2 is YB′ which is decreasing, having just passed through
its maximum, and that across L3 BY′ which is increasing and approaching its maximum. Hence
the lamps will light up one after the other in the order 2, 3, 1,2,3,1 or 1, 2, 3. If the incoming
alternator is running slower, then the sequence of light up will be 1, 3, 2. Synchronization is done
at the moment the uncrossed lamp L1 is in the middle of the dark period and other two lamps are
equally bright. Hence this method of synchronization is known as two bright one dark lamp
method.

It should be noted that synchronization by lamps is not quite accurate, because to a large extent,
it depends on the sense of correct judgment of the operator. Hence, to eliminate the element of
personal judgment in routine operation of alternators, the machines are synchronized by a more
accurate device called a synchronoscope as shown in Fig: It consists of 3 stationary coils and a
rotating iron vane which is attached to a pointer. Out of three coils, a pair is connected to one
phase of the line and the other to the corresponding machine terminals, potential transformer
being usually used. The pointer moves to one side or the other from its vertical position
depending on whether the incoming machine is too fast or too slow. For correct speed, the
pointer points vertically up.

Effect of Change of Excitation:

A change in the excitation of an alternator running in parallel with other affects only its KVA
output; it does not affect the KW output. A change in the excitation, thus, affects only the power
factor of its output. Let two similar alternators of the same rating be operating in parallel,
receiving equal power inputs from their prime movers. Neglecting losses, their kW outputs are
therefore equal. If their excitations are the same, they induce the same emf, and since they are in
parallel their terminal voltages are also the same. When delivering a total load of I amperes at a
power-factor of cos Ф, each alternator delivers half the total current and I1 = I2 = I/2.
Since their induced emfs are the same, there is no resultant emf acting around the local circuit
formed by their two armature windings, so that the synchronizing current, Is, is zero. Since the
armature resistance is neglected, the vector difference between E 1 = E2 and V is equal
to, I1Xs1 I2Xs2 , this vector leading the current I by 90 0, where XS1 and XS2 are the
synchronous reactances of the two alternators respectively.

Now consider the effect of reducing the excitation of the second alternator. E2 is therefore
reduced as shown in Figure. This reduces the terminal voltage slightly, so let the excitation of the
first alternator be increased so as to bring the terminal voltage back to its original value. Since
the two alternator inputs are unchanged and losses are neglected, the two kW outputs are the
same as before. The current I2 is changed due to the change in E2, but the active components of
both I1 and I2 remain unaltered. It can be observed that there is a small change in the load angles
of the two alternators, this angle being slightly increased in the case of the weakly excited
alternator and slightly decreased in the case of the strongly excited alternator. It can also be
observed that I1 + I2 = I, the total load current.
Load Sharing
When several alternators are required to run in parallel, it probably happens that their rated
outputs differ. In such cases it is usual to divide the total load between them in such a way that
each alternator takes the load in the same proportion of its rated load in total rated outputs. The
total load is not divided equally. Alternatively, it may be desired to run one large alternator
permanently on full load, the fluctuations in load being borne by one or more of the others. If the
alternators are sharing the load equally the power triangles are as shown in Fig
Sharing of load when two alternators are in parallel

Consider two alternators with identical speed load characteristics connected in parallel as shown
in Fig:

Let E1, E2 be the induced emf per phase,

Z1, Z2 be the impedances per phase,
I1, I2 be the current supplied by each machine per phase

Z be the load impedance per phase,

V be the terminal voltage per phase

From the circuit we have V = E1 - I1Z1 = E2 - I2Z2 and hence, I1 = E1 - V/Z1 and I2 = E2 -
V/Z2

and also V = (I1 + I2 ) Z = IZ solving above equations

I1 = [(E1- E2) Z + E1 Z2]/ [ Z( Z1 + Z2) + Z1Z2]

I2 = [(E2- E1) Z + E2 Z1]/ [ Z( Z1 + Z2) + Z1Z2]

The total current I = I1 + I2 = [E1Z2 + E2Z1] / [ Z( Z1 + Z2) + Z1Z2]

And the circulating current or synchronizing current Is = (E1 - E2) / (Z1 + Z2)

Prime-mover Governor Characteristic

The transfer of active power between alternators in parallel is accomplished by adjustment of
the no-load speed setting of the respective prime-mover governors, and the transfer of reactive
power is accomplished by adjustment of the respective field rheostats or voltage regulators. A
typical prime-mover governor characteristic, shown in Fig: , is a plot of prime-mover speed (or
generator frequency) vs. active power. Although usually drawn as a straight line, the actual
characteristic has a slight curve. The drooping characteristic shown in the figure provides
inherent stability of operation when paralleled with other machines. Machines with zero droop,
called isochronous machines, are inherently unstable when operated in parallel; they are subject
to unexpected load swings, unless electrically controlled with solid-state regulators.
The no-load speed setting (and hence the no-load frequency setting) of a synchronous generator
can be changed by remote control from the generator panel by using a remote-control switch.
The switch actuates a servomotor that repositions the no-load speed setting of the governor,
raising or lowering the characteristic without changing its slope. Curves for different no-load
speed settings are shown with broken lines in Figure
Governor Speed Regulation
Governor speed regulation (GSR) is defined as: