NOTES

IN

EEE ELECTRICAL MACHINES III

PREPARED BY

P(7(5<(*21

 6&+22/OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND (/(&7521,&6
ENGINEERING
'('$1KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

1
 ELECTRICAL MACHINES III

THREE PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

Alternating Current machines used for the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical
energy or vice versa are broadly of two types:
a) Synchronous machine
b) Asynchronous machine (induction machine)
Synchronous machine is the one in which the ratio of speed of rotation and frequency of
alternating currents is strictly constant-hence they are “synchronised”

60 f
ns …………………………………. (1)
P
An asynchronous machine (induction machine) is one in which the above speed for a given
frequency depends on load and hence the above relationship is not true therefore

60 f
nz
P
For production of ac power from mechanical energy, mostly synchronous generators (also
known as alternators) are used. Synchronous machines are also used as motors quite widely
but in higher power ratings.
BASIC DESIGN FEATURE:
From the design point of view there are two fundamental types of synchronous machines:
a) Cylindrical-rotor type or non-salient-pole type, that is, the machines in which the poles do
not project.

b) Salient-pole type that is the machines with projecting poles

The type depends upon the speed of rotation.

The time period T of the emf wave in a conductor is the time taken for a relative motion of the
rotor through one pair of poles with respect to the conductor.
If n is the number of rev. per minute (rpm) and p is the number of pairs of poles then

60
T
np
2
The frequency of the induced emf f is

1 pn
f
T 60
Thus for a given frequency f, the smaller the number of poles, the higher the speed.
The machine with small number of poles 2 p d 4 has high speeds when rotor peripheral speed
is high.
For reasons of mechanical strength and better accommodation and reinforcement of the field
winding, the latter such high speed machine has to be distributed over the entire rotor surface,
i.e. the machine should have a cylindrical rotor.
If 2p>4, the rotor peripheral speed decreases and the synchronous machine is usually a salient
pole type as this simplifies manufacture.
Synchronous generators or alternators are usually driven by steam and water turbine. The
former is known as turbo generators while the latter as hydro generator.

EMF EQUATION
The emf induced in a conductor of length l moving in a field of average flux density B and having
a relative velocity V meters per sec. with respect to the field is given by equation

e Blv Volts……………………………………………… (1)

If d is the diameter of the armature core and nS is the relative rotational velocity in rev. per sec.,
then the velocity

V Sdn s
But

flux per pole u number of poles

B ………………….. (2)
cylindrica l area of armature surface
Ip
Or
Sdl
Thus
I˜p
e ˜ lSdn s
Sdl
Or

e ) ˜ P ˜ nS Volts…………………………………………… (3)

But P ˜ n S 2f

Thus

e 2 f) ……………………………………………………… (4)

This is the average emf.

The rms value is the average emf multiplied by the form factor i.e. 1.11.

If the winding consists of N concentrated turns (i.e. 2N Conductors) the rms value of emf is

EC 2 f) u 1.11 u 2 N

3
Or

EC 4.44 f)N ……………………………………. (5)

When the winding is distributed in slots the above expression must be multiplied by a factor Kb
known as distribution factor (or breadth factor).
Since the windings are generally short-pitched, the expression must be multiplied by another
factor KP known as pitch factor.
Thus the emf induced is given by

E 4.44 f) NK b K p ……………………………… (6)

Where

E=rms emf per phase [V]

f=frequency [Hz]
Φ= flux per pole [Wb]
N=no. of turns in series
Kb=Kd =distribution or breadth factor.
Kp =pitch factor.

a) Breadth factor Kb or Kd
When the coils comprising a phase of the winding are distributed in 2 or more slots per pole, the
emfs in the adjacent coils will be out of phase with respect to one another and their resultant will
be less than their algebraic sum

Fig 1: Calculation of breadth or distribution factor

q=no. of slots per pole per phase

Fig above shows the component emfs of the coils (E1, E2 and E3) and the resultant E due to a
phase group for a winding having 3 slots per pole per phase.
Each component phasor is proportional to the rms value of coil emf. It is displaced from the
component emf of the adjacent slot by the slot angle α electrical degrees.
The distribution factor Kd is defined as

phasor sum of component emfs

Kd ……………………….. (7)
arithmetic sum of component emfs
Using fig 1,

D
2 RSinq
Kd 2 Or
D
q u 2 RSin
2

4
 D
Sinq
Kd 2 ………………………………………………… (8)
D
qSin
2
Where q is the number of slots per pole per phase or the number of slots in a group.
When q is very large, α becomes small and Kd approaches the ratio Cord/arc

§ D·
Sin ¨ q ¸
Kd © 2 ¹ ………………………………………… (9)
D
q
2
qα is also known as the phase spread and is expressed in electrical radians.

b) Pitch factor Kp
In a full pitch coil, the emfs in the coil sides are in phase and therefore the coil emf is twice the
emf of each coil side.
In short pitch coil, the emfs of the two coil sides are not in phase and must be added vectorially
to give the coil emf.
The factor by which the emf per coil is reduced because of the pitch being less than full pitch, is
known as pitch factor (or coil span factor) Kp

phasor sum of coil side emfs

Kp ……………………………. (10)
arithmetic sum of coil side emfs

Fig 2: Calculation of pitch factor

Fig 2 above shows the coil side emfs AB and BC and the resultant coil emf AC when the coil
pitch is short of full pitch by electrical angle β

Phasor sum of coil side emfs = AC= 2ABCos β/2

Or

AC=2ABCos β/2……………………………………….. (11)

Arithmetic sum of coil side emfs = 2AB

2 ABCos E / 2
KP CosE / 2 ……………………………… (12)
2 AB

The pitch factor given by eq (12) is for fundamental component of emf. If the flux density
distribution contains space harmonics, the pitch factor for the nth harmonic is given by
nE
K pn Cos
2
The nth harmonic emf is reduced to zero if the angle β is such that
5
 nE nE
Cos 0 Or 90
2 2
This enables windings to be designed such that specified harmonics will not be generated e.g. if
β=600, there can be no third harmonic generation. Thus fractional pitch windings result in a
voltage wave form which resembles a sinusoid to a better degree than that in a full pitch winding
Example 1:
Calculate the Kd for a machine having 9 slots per pole for the following cases:
a) A 3 phase winding with 1200 phase groups
b) A 3 phase winding with 600 phase groups
Solution:
180
D 20 0
9
a) Since one phase occupies 1200, the no. of slots in one phase group i.e. q= 120/20=6
D 6 u 20
Sinq Sin
Kd 2 2 0.831
D 20
qSin 6 Sin
2 2

b) Since one phase group occupies 600, the no. of slots in one phase group i.e. q=60/20=3
D 3 u 20
Sinq Sin
Kd 2 2 0.960
D 20
qSin 3Sin
2 2

EXAMPLE 2:
A 3-Φ, 16 pole synchronous machine has a star connected winding with 144 slots and 10
conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb. Speed of machine is 375 rpm. Find the
frequency, the phase and line emf. Take Kp =1
SOLUTION:

PN 8 u 375
f 50 Hz
60 60

144
Slots.. per .. pole 9
16
9
q Slots / pole / phase 3
3
180 0 180 0
D slot ..angle 20 0
slots / pole 9
D 3 u 20
Sinq Sin
2 2 Sin 30 0 0 .5
Distributi on.. factor..K d 0.96
D 20 3Sin10 0 0.52
qSin 3Sin
2 3
D 20 0
Pitch.. factor..K p Cos Cos 0.985
2 2

Total no. of conductors = No. of Slots u Conductors/Slot = 144 u 10 = 1440

Total no. of conductors per phase = 1440/3 = 480

6
No. of turns per phase = 480/2 =240

EMF / Phase E ph 4.44 K d K p )fN 4.44 u 0.96 u 0.03 u 50 u 240 1530V

Line Voltage E=√3×1530=2650V

EXAMPLE 3:
A 6 pole, 3-Φ, 50Hz alternator has 12 slots per pole and 4 conductors per slot. The winding is
5/6 pitch, flux per pole is 0.025Wb. Determine open circuit emf per phase
SOLUTION:
Total no. of Conductors = no. of poles × Slots/phase × conductors/slot = 6×12×4=288
No. of Conductors per phase = 288/3=96
No. of turns/phase = 96/2 = 48

The winding is 5/6 pitched

Full pitch = 1800
5/6 pitch = 180 × 5/6 = 1500

β=short pitch angle=180-150=300

Coil span factor=Kp =Cos 30/2=Cos 150=0.966
q= No. of slots/pole/phase=12/3=4
α=slot angle = 180/slots/pole=180/12=150

15 u 4
Sin
Distributi on.. factor...K d 2 0.9578
15
4 Sin
2

EMF .. per.. phase E ph 4.44 K d K p )fN 4.44 u 0.9578 u 0.966 u 0.025 u 50 u 48 246V
EXAMPLE 4:
The following information is given in connection with a synchronous Generator. Slots=96,
poles=4, N=1500 rpm, Turns per coil =16, flux per pole=0.0258Wb, Coil span-slot 1 to 20,
Double layer winding 3 phase. Calculate phase voltage
SOLUTION:
PN 2 u 1500
f 50 Hz
60 60

In double layer winding No. of slots = No. of coils

Total no. of conductors = No. of coils × Turns/coil × 2 = 96×16×2
Total no. of turns = Conductors/2 = 96×16

Turns per phase = (96×16)/3=512

Coil span factor Kp: Coil span-slot 1 to 20. This means coil span is equivalent to 20 slots

Slots/pole=96/4=24
Coil pitch = 20/24 = 5/6 × 180 = 1500 Electrical

β=180-150=30

Pitch factor Kp = Cos β/2 = Cos 150 = 0.966

Distribution factor:
7
 96
q slots .. per .. pole.. per .. phase 8
4u3

180 0 180 0
D slot ..angle .. 7 .5 0
slots / pole 24

D 8 u 7.5
Sinq Sin
2 2 Sin 30 0.5
Kd 0.95
D 7.5 8 u 0.066 8 u 0.066
qSin 8 u Sin
2 2

E ph 4.44 u 0.966 u 0.95 u 0.0258 u 50 u 512 2700V

EXAMPLE 5:
Find the number of armature conductors in series per phase required for the armature of a 3
phase, 10 pole alternator with 90 slots. The winding is star-connected to give line voltage of
11000Volts. The flux per pole is 0.16Wb. Take Kp =1.
SOLUTION:
90
q slots .. per ... pole / phase 3
10 u 3
180 180 180
D slot ..angle 20 0
slots / pole 90 / 10 90
D 20 u 3
Sinq Sin
2 2 Sin 30 0.5
Distributi on.. factor...K d 0.96
D 20 3Sin10 3 u 0.174
qSin 3Sin
2 2

11000
E ph 4.44 u 0.96 u 0.16 u 50 u N
3

11000
Turns/phase N 186
3 u 4.44 u 0.96 u 0.16 u 50

No. of conductors/phase = 2 × 186 = 372

ASSIGN:
1. Give reasons why in a synchronous machine, the field winding is usually on the rotating
part and the winding for carrying load current on the stationary part.
2. Explain the meanings of distribution and pitch factor in an alternator. What is their effect
on the output?

8
 PRINCIPLE OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
Let us examine the mechanism of transfer of power from rotor to stator or vice versa and
establish the theory on which the synchronous machine operates.

Consider a device which consists of two permanent magnets having the configuration shown
above. From this our synchronous machine will evolve.
The outer structure is permanently fixed and the inner magnet is left free to rotate about its axis.
Now if this magnet (inner) is left, it will seek a position of stable equilibrium, by aligning its axis
with that of outer magnet.
If an attempt is made to turn the bar magnet to an angle δ, a torque will be developed due to the
force of attraction of the two magnets, opposing such an attempt.
This torque increases with increase of angle δ, but soon a situation is developed when the
torque has reached its maximum value.
If the angle δ is further increased, no longer any torque is developed urging to bring the bar
magnet to its original position. This is called ‘PULL OUT’ torque.
The exact shape of curve showing relation of angle δ and the torque depends on the shape of
poles of magnet.
It is known that, the torque is zero when δ=0, and also for δ=π where the bar magnet is at
unstable equilibrium. Slightest disturbance here would bring the bar magnet into δ=0 position

a) SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
From the model considered above, imagine that the outer magnet as well as the inner magnet
both are free to rotate about the same axis. Consider the outer is rotated starting from rest
position to a constant angular velocity ω. Under these conditions since no restraints are placed
upon the inner magnet assuming no friction of any sort, the bar will rotate at the same speed ω
and the angle δ=0.
If the bar magnet has to overcome any load torque on its shaft which maybe friction of bearing
or windage, it would do so by developing a ‘torque δ’.
Due to which the inner magnet will lag behind the outer magnet slightly, their axis having an
angle δ between them.
If the load torque on inner magnet is not more than pull out torque, it will rotate in step with outer
magnet, in other words the inner magnet is in synchronise with the outer magnet.
But when the load exceeds the pull out torque, the inner magnet will loose its step with the outer
magnet and would come to standstill.
The above is the principle of operation of synchronous motor. The stator of synchronous motor
has polyphase winding and when polyphase current is applied to them a rotating field system is
setup.
This corresponds to the outer magnet frame of our model rotating at fixed speed ω called
synchronous speed.
The rotor in practical machine is an electromagnet excited by a DC supply.

9
In the model, mechanical energy is the input to the outer mechanical rotating magnet frame and
the output is the energy developed by inner bar magnet which helps it to overcome any load
torque. Thus energy is transferred from outer magnet to the inner magnet through magnetic
field.
Similar is the case of synchronous motor, energy is drawn by the stator winding from the supply
mains, to be transferred to the rotor so that the rotor can run instep with the rotating magnetic
field against the load torque, upto a certain limit which is pull out torque.
Thus the rotor of synchronous motor can rotate only at a fixed speed called synchronous speed.
This is also the speed at which field system of stator rotates and is given by
f
n rev / sec
p

b) SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
In construction the synchronous generator is identical to synchronous motor. The rotor has a
D.C. field winding and it is fed by a dc supply through slip rings.
The Stator carries armature winding which is polyphase wound for the same number of poles as
rotor.
The rotor is rotated by external mechanical means (any prime mover at a constant speed). The
rotating field of rotor induces polyphase Emfs in stator winding and if the external terminals of
the polyphase winding are closed through load impedance, polyphase currents will circulate in
the stator circuit.
These polyphase currents in polyphase windings produce a rotating magnetic field which is
locked to the rotating field of the rotor.
Due to interaction of two fields an electromagnetic torque is developed which is opposite in
direction to the applied torque of prime mover.
The prime mover has to overcome this electromagnetic torque so that the electrical power may
flow through the terminal of stator winding to the load.
Thus we come to conclusion that there are two field systems in synchronous machine which are
locked to each other and are stationary with respect to each other. They are:
a) Rotor magnetic field system:
It is generated by electromagnets fixed on the rotor excited by direct current. The
magnetomotive force of this field depends on the direct current in the winding of the poles and
number of turns of field coils.
Thus mmf (Ft) of rotor is proportional to dc exciting current.
b) Stator magnetic field system:
When polyphase current circulate in a polyphase winding, a rotating magnetic field system is
produced. This is known as armature magnetomotive force and is proportional to and in phase
with armature current.

Armature..mmf ( Fa ) v I a (armature..current ) and in phase with it.

Both the above fields Ft and Fa induce voltage in stator winding and the final voltage available
on the terminals of the machine is vector resultant of these voltages.
Thus,
Et is induced voltage by Ft lagging behind Ft by 900
Ea is induced voltage by Fa lagging behind Fa by 900

E E t  E a (Net induced voltage)

OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

The discussion of the operation of SM will be based on the following assumptions:

10
 1. Saturation of magnetic circuit is neglected i.e. the machine operates at low or negligible
saturation. The result of this assumption is that all parts of magnetic circuit have
constant permeability. Thus the field flux and armature flux can be treated separately as
proportional to their respective currents.
2. Air gap is uniform so that armature flux is not affected by its position relative to the poles.
This is true with cylindrical type rotor
3. The flux is sinusoidally distributed in the air gap.
4. The armature winding is uniformly distributed and carries balanced sinusoidal currents.
The harmonics are neglected so that armature flux is directly proportional to the
fundamental component of armature reaction.

In practice synchronous machine usually operates in two different modes namely:

1. Operating individually supplying power to its own load.
2. In parallel with a large number of machines in a network where a number of power
plants are interconnected. Here the machine can operate as a generator as well as a
motor. In such an operation the machine is said to be connected to infinite bus bar.

There are the two modes of operation of synchronous machine:

a) First mode of operation: Synchronous machine working individually.
b) Second mode of operation: Synchronous machine working on an infinite bus bar

I FIRST MODE OF OPERATION:

(Synchronous machine working individually):
Under this mode of operation, the machine is working individually connected to the load. Here it
works as a generator supplying power to electrical load. In this case we are interested in
studying the variation in terminal voltage of synchronous generator for various values of load
and power factor.

VOLTAGE REGULATION
The voltage regulation of a S.M. is the voltage rise at the terminals, when a given load is thrown
off, the excitation and speed remaining constant.
If Et =open circuit voltage of generator which is induced voltage by main flux only (that is No
load voltage)
V= Terminal voltage at given voltage.
When load is zero, on open circuit, Et appears at the terminals.

Et  V
Regulation expressed as fraction = per unit
V

Et  V
Regulation expressed as % = ×100
V

CAUSES OF VOLTAGE DROP:

There are three causes of voltage drop occurring in an alternator namely:
a) Armature resistance
b) Leakage reactance
c) Armature reaction

a) Armature resistance
The voltage drop occurs as a product of current and resistance of the windings of synchronous
generator. The effective resistance is greater than the conductor resistance measured by direct
current.

11
This is because additional energy over the purely I2R value is spent because of unequal
distribution of current in the conductor itself-SKIN EFFECT.
The effective value varies between 1.25 to 1.75 times D.C. resistances.
Extreme accuracy is not necessary as the change of voltage due to resistance is small
compared to the changes produced by leakage reactance and armature reactance.
b) Armature Leakage Reactance:
All flux produced by load currents flowing in armature winding does not cross the air gap and
link with the main flux.
A part of armature flux completes its path locally.
This local flux surrounding the armature winding generates a counter emf.
This effect gives the armature a reactance which is equal to 2πfL.
Here L is leakage inductance. This armature reactance is called Leakage reactance XL, since
the flux which causes it is around the armature turns only and does not affects the field flux
directly.
This leakage flux is proportional to the armature current since the magnetic path it covers is
not normally saturated.
If Ia is armature current per phase, XL is armature leakage reactance.
Voltage drop due to leakage reactance = IaXL
This voltage drop leads current Ia by 900
F Armature Reaction
There are two fields in synchronous machine, one main field established by mmf of rotor poles
and the second by mmf of armature current.
Armature Reaction is the effect of armature mmf on the main mmf.
Let’s consider a case of 3-Φ two pole single layer winding.
(For the purpose of simplicity assume that the winding of each phase is concentrated)
Further a 3-Φ balanced load of unity power factor is connected to the terminal of armature
winding.

12
Let N be the number of turns per phase.
Ia, Ib and Ic are current in 3 respective phases of equal magnitude but displaced from each other
by 1200

Ia =Ib =Ic =I
Eaa’, Ebb’, and Ecc’ are respective voltages.
Thus NIa, NIb and NIc are mmf’s of 3 phases A, B and C of armature winding.
Since mmf is proportional to and in phase with the current generating it, therefore NIa, NIb and
NIc are equal in magnitude but displaced from each other by 1200

NIa= NIb = NIc = NI (in magnitude)

The armature mmf is the resultant of mmf of its each phase winding.
Consider situation t1, poles are vertical their mmf downward, out of N-pole.

Consider situation t1, poles are vertical and mmf downwards out of N-pole.
At this instance induced voltage in coil A is maximum and current is also maximum because of
unit p.f.
Thus current in phase A is Imax at t1. Current in phase B and phase C are half their maximum
values but opposite in sign, negative.
The resultant of Ia ,Ib and Ic at that instant is 1.5Im and the resultant mmf is equal to 1.5NIm.

13
 UNIT POWER FACTOR
It may be observed at this stage that armature mmf is 900 (electrical) behind main mmf. Thus
armature mmf lags field flux by 900 in all condition.

When load is unit pf, armature current Ia is in phase with armature emf Ea and armature field Φa.
c) LAGGING POWER FACTOR
Let’s consider the case where the p.f. of load is 900 lagging.

Lagging pf means the current Ia lags the induced voltage by 900 compared to unit pf case where
the armature mmf will delay by 900 in time.
Thus with respect to the rotor mmf, the angle of lag for the armature mmf will be 900+900=1800
lagging. In other words armature mmf is now in opposite direction to the rotor mmf as shown in
the fig. above.
d) LEADING POWER FACTOR

Consider the case when pf of the load is 900 leading. Now the armature currents are ahead of
their induced voltage by 900.
In this case the armature mmf would also be advanced by 900 in time comparing with the
situation of unit p.f. In this situation, the armature mmf will be in phase with rotor mmf as shown
above.

From all the above observation, the effect of the armature mmf on the main or rotor mmf can be
concluded as follows:
1. The total magnitude of armature mmf is 1.5ImN
2. The armature mmf rotates as the main mmf does.

14
 3. At unit pf, the armature mmf lags behind the main mmf by 900. The resultant mmf can be
found by vector sum of the two. The resultant mmf would be shifted behind the main
mmf by an angle α. The two fluxes generated by armature mmf as well as the rotor mmf
would interact with each other and conversion of energy will occur.
4. At zero pf lagging the armature mmf is opposite in direction to the main mmf and thus
the resultant is the difference of the two. Thus at lagging pf by 900, the armature mmf is
demagnetising the main mmf
5. At zero pf leading, the armature mmf is in phase with the main mmf and the resultant
mmf is the sum of the two. Thus at leading pf by 900, the armature mmf is magnetising
the main mmf.

EFFECT OF ARMATURE REATION ON EMF

Let Et= emf induced by main flux
Ea= emf induced by the armature flux
E= Net induced voltage, resultant of Et and Ea
E Et  Ea

I NO LOAD CONDITION

At no load condition, there are no currents in armature windings thus armature flux is zero and
therefore Ea=0. Φm is flux vector which denotes main flux. EMF of Φm is Et lagging behind Φm by
900.
Since Ea does not exist Et =E
II LOAD CURRENT OF ZERO POWER FACTOR LAGGING

It had been explained earlier that when power factor is zero lagging, armature flux is 1800
opposite to main flux. Thus Et is emf induced by Φm and Ea is emf induced by Φa.
Net emf is found by subtracting the two.

15
III WHEN THE POWER FACTOR IS ZERO LEADING

The armature flux Φa is in phase with main flux Φm. The emf of Φm and Φa are both additives.
Thus Ea is always in phase quadrature with the load current I and proportional to it. In this case,
Ea resembles an emf induced in an inductive reactance, and the effect of armature reaction is
Ea
exactly as if the stator winding has a reactance x a , where xa is termed as armature
I
reactance.
NB: Armature reactance is actually an ampere turn balance between armature current and part
of field current. Since its behaviour in the circuit is the same as inductance hence it has been
named armature reactance to simplify our further conception of operation of synchronous
machine.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
An equivalent circuit of synchronous machine can now be constructed. The armature resistance
r, leakage reactance xl and reactance xa for the armature are separated from the ‘ideal’
machine, in which the emf Et is induced by the flux produced by rotor field winding

Referring fig1 (a) above, in xa a voltage drop Ea=Ixa occurs to account for armature reaction.
The resultant net emf is E. Further voltage drop occurs in xl and r equals to Ixl and Ir
respectively.
The terminal voltage becomes

16
 V Et  Ix a  Ix l  Ir

Often xl and xa being of same nature are combined and total reactance is known as
SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE XS.

XS=xl + xa

And total impedance of the circuit is termed as SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE ZS

ZS= r + jxs

PHASOR DIAGRAM
A phasor diagram on the basis of equivalent circuit can now be constructed. The following steps
are followed in completing the diagram.

1. Terminal voltage V is reference vector and I is load current making an angle θ with which
is p.f. angle of load. Armature flux Φa is in phase with Ia.
2. At the end of vector V, draw vectors Ir, representing the voltage drop in the armature
resistance of the winding parallel to Ia since it is in phase with Ia
3. Vector Ixs is leading I by 900. This is added to V and Ir, drawn at the end of vector Ir.
4. Vector Et is closing side of polygon formed by V, Ir and Ixs. This represents vector sum
of these three quantities. Et is induced emf by main field Φm.
5. Vector Φm is drawn leading Et by 900. IZS is the vector drawn showing the sum of Ir and
Ixs.

SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE
Synchronous impedance is the total effect of armature resistance, leakage reactance and
armature reaction reactance.

ZS r  j ( xl  x a )
If armature resistance being small is neglected during calculations of synchronous impedance

ZS j ( xl  x a )
Or

ZS j( xS )

17
To find synchronous impedance of alternator, use of open circuit and short circuit test is made.
I OPEN CIRCUIT TEST (O.C)
For performing O.C. test, the isolated generator is run by the prime mover at correct speed.
Field excitation current is increased from zero and the induced voltage is recorded by
connecting a voltmeter in the output terminal of the generator.

II SHORT CIRCUIT TEST (S.C.)

For performing S.C. test, the terminals of armature are shorted. The rotor is rotated by prime
mover at constant speed and excitation current in field circuit is increased from zero. An
ammeter in the armature circuit indicates the short circuit current. Whole of induced voltage is
counter balanced by synchronous impedance on short circuit. Thus

Et I SC Z S

O.C. and SC Characteristics for Unsaturated Machine:

Short Circuit and Open Circuit characteristics are drawn in the figures below based on per unit
value where one unit is equivalent to the full load rated quantity.

It may be observed here that when saturation of iron parts of machine is not taken into account,
O.C.C. is straight line passing from origin. But if saturation is considered, which does take place
in practice the OCC is drawn in dotted line deviated from firm line.
18
The value of ZS also does not stay constant under saturated condition but follows the curve
shown dotted.
Now if ISC is S.C. Current equal to full load Current obtained at an excitation current If and Et is
emf on O.C. at same level of excitation If
Then
Et
ZS Synchronous impedance on full load
I SC
VOLTAGE REGULATION FROM TESTS
To obtain regulation first of all synchronous impedance is calculated with the help of open circuit
and short circuit tests. The resistance of armature measured using d.c. measurements and
effective resistance calculated by using suitable factor to account for skin effect.
We choose V as reference vector.
If Φ is power factor at which regulation is determined and I is load Current, then

XS Z S2  r 2 | Z S (r can be neglected at this stage for finding XS)

­ ve... for..leading .. p. f .½
Et V  I (r  jX S ) CosI r jSin I ® ¾
¯ ve.. for..lagging .. p. f . ¿
Et  V
Re gulation
V
Et  V
Percentage .. Re gulation .. u 100
V
If the complex quantities are to be avoided, use of trigonometry also leads to same results

Consider the triangle OBD

OD2=OB2+BD2
OD2= (OA+AB)2 + (BC+CD)2

VCosI  Ir  VSin I  Ix S
2 2
Et

Et  V
Re gulation % u100
V

It would again be stressed at the end that regulation determined would be true only on
neglecting saturation. Since with saturation, value of ZS are lower, thus regulation determined by
the above method would be higher than actual value. That is also the reason due to which

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synchronous impedance method of finding regulation is sometimes called a PESSIMISTIC
METHOD.

GENERATOR OUTPUT POWER

Consider a generator supplying a load current I at a p.f. Cos I .
XS is synchronous reactance. Assume resistance is negligible.
Phasor diagram for both lagging as well as leading p.f. are shown below

AB is terminal voltage per phase (V)

BC is voltage drop in synchronous reactance per phase (IX)
AC is vector sum of AB and BC (E)
θ is angle between E and V
Consider triangle ABC:

V 2  E 2  2VECosT
2
IX S

BC 2 AB 2  AC 2  2 AB ˜ ACCosT

Also
IX S E E ­ ve for leading p. f .
……………. (1) ®
Sin T Sin 90 r I r CosI ¯ ve for lagging p. f .

ESin T ESin T
From eq. 1Æ CosI
IX S V 2  E 2  2VECosT
As

V 2  E 2  2VECosT
I
XS
Power input per phase = Power output (neglecting all losses)

V 2  E 2  2VECosT ESin T
Power = VICos I = V u u
X V 2  E 2  2VECosT

VE
Power Sin T
X

a) If power factor is zero, angle between E & V is zero

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 VE
Power Sin T =0
X

b) If power factor is unity

VE
Power Sin T
X
But ESinθ=IX (as Cos I =1)

VIX
Power VI [Watts]
X

c) For maximum power, value of Sinθ=1 when θ=900

VE
Maximum.. power Watts
X

EXAMPLES
1. The effective resistance of a 2200V, 50Hz, 440KVA Single phase generator is 0.5Ω. On
short circuit a field current of 40A gives a full load current of 200A. The electromotive

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 force on open circuit with the same field excitation is 1160V. Calculate the synchronous
impedance
Solution:
Emf on OC = 1160V
SC current with same field current = 200A
Synchronous Impedance = 1160:200 = 5.8Ω
Resistance per phase = 0.5Ω
2 2
Synchronous Reactance = 5.8  0.5 5.77:
As Z 2
S R X2 2
S
NB:
1. Under short circuit conditions, the terminal voltage V is zero. The emf generated E is
consumed in over coming the voltage drop due to synchronous impedance. Therefore

Open Circuit Voltage for a certain excitation

ZS
Short Circuit Current for the same excitation

Since only one value of ZS can be used in calculating regulation, it is logical to select a
value corresponding as nearly as possible to the average excitation under load
condition. This means the selection of that value of synchronous impedance which is
determined by the largest short circuit current which can be made to follow in the
armature winding without serious overheating of the armature winding.
2. The Short Circuit ratio of a generator is defined as

excitation for rated open circuit voltage

SCR
excitation for rated armature current on short circuit

The SCR has an important role to play in determining the current flowing through the
armature under power system fault conditions. Modern generators are built with SCR
between 0.5 and 1.5 p.u.
3. The 3 phase power output of a synchronous generator is given by

P 3VICos I Or
Using the phasor diagram also

3VE
P Sin T
XS

Thus the power output varies as Sin T . The angle θ is known as power angle or load angle.
The machine develops maximum power when θ=900. The dotted portion of the Curve refers to
the unstable operation. Usually the alternators are operated at power angle around 400.
Per Unit emf generated (as determined by substituting V=1) = 1.6027 Ans

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