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INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING II

This section shall introduce methods or ways of looking at truth and what will be considered as
mere “Opinions.” Philosophizing is to think or express oneself in a philosophical manner. It considers or
discuss a (matter) from a philosophical standpoint.
A. Phenomenology: On Consciousness
Edmund Husserl founded phenomenology, which is essentially a philosophical method
- This focuses on careful inspection and description of phenomena or appearance
- Phenomena: defined as any object of conscious experience, that is, that which we are
conscious (Johnson 2006).
The word “phenomenon” comes directly from the Greek word: phenomenon meaning
“appearance”
Immanuel Kant, German philosopher, had used the same word to refer to the world of
experience. Husserl intends a similar meaning except for the crucial fact that for him, it
does not imply a contrast between the appearance and some underlying reality, between
the phenomenon and a “noumenon” or “thing-in-itself.”
That according to Hussserl, is when trouble starts, when one supposes that what one
experiences is not or might not be the truth (Solomon & Higgins 2010).
B. Existentialism: On Freedom
One’s search for truth might be based on one’s attitude or outlook. Take for instance,
existentialism. Unlike phenomenology, existentialism is not primarily a philosophical method but
more of an outlook or attitude supported by diverse doctrines centered on certain common themes.

These themes include:

- the human condition of the individual to the world
- the human response to that condition;
- being, especially the difference between the being of the person (which is “existence”)
and the being of other kind of things;
- human freedom
- the significance (and unavoidability) of choice and decision in the absence of certainty
and;
- the concreteness and subjectivity of life as lived, against abstractions and false
objectifications.
As the first existentialist, Kerkegaard insisted that the authentic self was the personality
chosen self, as opposed to public or “herd” identity. Nieztche took this view of opposition of
the genuine individual versus the public “herd” identity.
C. Postmodernism: On Cultures
“Postmodernism” has come into vogue as the name for rather diffuse family of ideas and trends
that in significant respect rejects, challenges, or aims to supersede “modernity”; convictions,
aspirations and pretensions of modern Western Thought and Culture.
- Postmodernists believe that humanity should come at truth beyond the rational to non-
rational elements of human nature, including the spiritual. Postmodernists consider that
to arrive at truth, humanity should realize the limits of reason and objectivism.
Moreover, postmodernists value our existence in the world and in relation to it.
D. Analytic Tradition
“Can language objectively describe truth?” For the philosophers of this tradition, language cannot
objectively describe truth. Lutwig Wittgenstein, language is socially conditioned. We understand
the world solely in terms of our language games- that is, our linguistic, social constructs, Truth, as
we perceive it, is itself socially construct.
E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning
Logic: centered in the analysis and construction of arguments. Logic and critical thinking serve as
paths for freedom from half-truths and deceptions. Critical thinking is distinguishing facts and
opinions or personal feelings. In making rational choices, first, we suspend beliefs and judgments
until all facts have been gathered and considered.

2 Basic types of Reasoning:

1. Inductive reasoning: based from observations in order to make generalizations. This
reasoning is often applied in prediction, forecasting or behavior.
2. Deductive reasoning: draws conclusion from usually one broad judgment or definition and
one more specific assertion, often an inference. Take for instance:
All philosophers are wise (Major premise)
 Confucius is a philosopher (Minor premise)
Therefore, Confucius is wise (Conclusion)

6. FALLACIES
A fallacy is deceptive argument. To detect fallacies, it is required to examine the argument’s
content. Here are some of the
usually committed errors in reasoning and thus, coming up with false conclusion and worse,
distorting the truth.
a. Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad misericordiam)
-A specific kind of appeal to emotion in which someone tries to win support for an argument or idea
by exploiting
his/her opponent’s feelings of pity or guilt.
Example. A student who does not try his best to pass but who cries before the teacher for the
latter to give him or her a passing grade.
b. Appeal to Ignorance ( Argumentum ad ignorantiam)
-Whatever has not been proved false must be true, and vice versa.
Example. Because we cannot prove that God exists. He, therefore, not does exist.
c. Equivocation
-The logical chain of reasoning of a term or word several times, but giving the particular word a
different meaning each time.
Example: All stars are heavenly bodies
Angel Locsin is a Star
Therefore, Angel Locsin is a heavenly body
d. Composition
-This infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of the
whole. The reverse of this fallacy is division.
Example: Because the senior high school team has the best point guard, best enter, best forward,
and the best coach, it is therefore the best team in the school intramurals.
e. Division
-One reasons logically that something true of a thing must also be true of all or some of the parts.
Example: Sing the senior high school is the champion in the cheering competition, this means that
it has the best cheerers, best dancers, and best singers.
f. Against the person ( Argmentum ad hominem)
-This is an argument that does not deal with the point at issue, but instead makes an attack against
the person advancing or defending said issue.
Example: That person could not possibly telling the truth beacause he is an ex-convict, an un-
educated man and a drug addict
g.Appeal to force (Argumentum ad baculum)
-An argument where force, coercion, or the threat of force, is given as a justification for a
conclusion.
Example: A teacher who warns a student by saying, “Listen or I will throw out of the window.”
h. Appeal to the people(Argumentum ad populum)
-An argument that appeals or exploits people’s vanities, desire for esteem, and anchoring on
popularity.
Example: A politician who, insisted of proving his qualifications for a position in the government,
tries to get the votes of the destitute by emphasizing on his being identified with them, the he, like
them, is poverty-stricken.
i. False cause (Post hoc)
-Since that event followed this one, that event must have been caused by this one.
Example: Rey: “Tumaas nanaman ang presyo ng mga bilihin
Bong: “Siguro, kaya konti lang ang nakakain.”
Rey: “Dahil sa presyo?”
Bong: “Hindi, dahil mataas ang CHOLESTEROL.”
j.Hasty generalization
-One commits errors if one reaches an inductive generalization based on insufficient evidence.
Example: All NBA players are tall. Benjie Paras is tall. Therefore, Benjie Paras is a NBA player.
k.Begging the question (petition principii)
-This type of fallacy in which the proposition to be proven is assumed implicitly or explicitly in the
premise
a.The vicious circle
Example: Q: Why didn’t you pass?
A: Because I failed?
Q: Why did you fail?
A: Because I did not pass?
b.Both premise and conclusion argument
Example: The room is tidy because there is no dirt in it.
Reference:
Placido, Dennis, (2016). Introduction to the Philosophy of theHuman Person. Baguio City,
Philippines: Wise Ideas
Publishing co.
Ramos, Christine, (2016). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. Quezon City, Rex
Bookstore.

Prepared by: Prima Donna L. Garcia