MODULE 5: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

You have learned in Module 1 that in response to changes or fluctuations in internal or external
environment, our body is capable of maintaining a relatively constant environment or
homeostasis. Although human body is consisted of trillions of cells, it is designed with the ability
to coordinate its functions. This is achieved in the body through chemical messengers, which
allows cells to communication with each other to coordinate their activities. One group of
chemical messengers is secreted by the endocrine system. Endocrine organs secrete these,
called hormone, directly on the bloodstream and affect cells that are distant from their source.
In this module, you will learn the different hormones, their regulation and effect on their target
tissues.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the module, you will be able to:

1. Identify the location of each endocrine glands in the body;

2. Describe the relationship among chemical signals, receptor molecules and receptor sites;
3. Illustrate regulation of secretion of hormones; and
4. Describe the response of target tissue to hormone, effects of hormone over and under
secretion.

MODULE 5 - LESSON 1: OVERVIEW OF THE ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
As mentioned in the introduction, endocrine organs located in different parts of the body
secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Hormones travel through systemic circulation
and reach their target tissues, also called effectors. Target tissue are particular body
tissue where hormone produce a certain response.
Functions of Endocrine System
1. Metabolism and tissue maturation 5. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
2. Ion regulation 6. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
3. Water Balance 7. Control of reproductive function
4. Immune system regulation 8. Uterine contractions and milk release

Overview of the Endocrine System

 The body’s second great controlling system which influences metabolic
activities of cells by means of hormones, which are produced by endocrine
glands
 Endocrine glands: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, and thymus
 The pancreas and gonads produce both hormones and exocrine products
 The hypothalamus has both neural functions and releases hormones
 Other tissues and organs that produce hormones: adipose cells, pockets of
cells in the walls of the small intestine, stomach, kidneys, and heart
 Both the endocrine system and the nervous system regulate the activities of
structures in the body, but they do so in different ways
1. The endocrine system is amplitude-modulated (a), whereas the nervous
system is frequency-modulated (b)
2. The response of target tissues to hormones is usually slower and of longer
duration than that of neurons
 Both the endocrine system and the nervous system regulate the activities of
structures in the body, but they do so in different ways
  Endocrine system secretes hormones into the blood by specialized cells,
travels some distance to target tissue; results in coordinated regulation of cell
function
 Nervous system produces neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitters travel short distances and influences postsynaptic cells
Hormones
 Chemical substances secreted by cells into the interstitial fluid and diffuse
into the blood
 Act on specific tissues, called target  Tend to have prolonged effects
tissues
 Have lag times ranging from seconds
to hours
 Are chemically categorized as belonging to the
 Protein group
o Proteins, glycoproteins, polypeptides, and amino acid derivatives
 Lipid group
o Steroids and fatty acid derivatives
Control of Secretion Rate
 Negative-feedback mechanisms, which maintain homeostasis, control the
secretion of most hormones
 Hormone secretion from an endocrine tissue is regulated by one or more of
these three mechanisms:
1. Changes in the extracellular concentration of a non-hormone substances
2. Stimulation by the nervous system
3. Stimulation by a hormone from another endocrine tissue
 Hormone’s secretion is inhibited by the hormone itself once the blood levels
have reached a certain point and there is adequate hormone to activate the
target cells.
 The hormone may inhibit the action of other, stimulatory hormone to
prevent secretion of hormone in question (self-limiting system)
Hormone Receptors
 Hormones exert their action by binding to proteins called receptors
 A hormone can stimulate only cells that have the receptor for that hormone
 The portion of each receptor molecule where the hormone binds is the receptor
site.
o The shape and chemical characteristics of each receptor allow only a
specific type of hormone to bind to it.
o Specificity is the tendency for each type of hormone to bind to one type of
receptor and not to others
o Target tissues have receptor molecules that are specific for a particular
hormone
o Only cells with a receptor for a hormone respond to the hormone
Hormone Transport and Excretion
 Hormones are dissolved in plasma or bind to plasma proteins
  Water-soluble hormones
 Proteins, epinephrine, and norepinephrine
 Do not bind to plasma proteins or readily diffuse out of the blood
 They are quickly broken down by enzymes or are taken up by tissues
 These hormones regulate activities that have a rapid onset and a short
duration
 Lipid-soluble hormones and thyroid hormones
 Not quickly removed from the blood Produce a prolonged effect
 Hormones leave the blood to reach target tissues or are excreted by the
kidneys or liver
Other Endocrine Organs
 Gastrointestinal tract
 Produces gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin, which regulate digestive
functions

 Kidneys
 Produce erythropoietin, which stimulates red blood cell production
 Released when there is low oxygen supply to the kidneys
 Placenta
 Secretes human chronic gonadotropin, which is essential for the maintenance
of pregnancy
Hormonelike Substances
 Autocrine agents
 Chemical signals that locally affect cells of the same type as the cell producing
the autocrine agent
 Prostaglandins, thromboxane, prostacyclin, and leukotrienes
 Paracrine agents
 Chemical signals that locally affect cells of a different type than the cell
producing the paracrine agent
 Growth factors, clotting factors, and histamine
 Autocrine and paracrine chemical signals differ from hormones in that
 They are not secreted from discrete endocrine glands
 They have local effects rather than systemic effects
 They have functions that are not understood in all cases

MODULE 5 - LESSON 2: HORMONES

Among the endocrine glands in the body are the:
1. Pituitary gland  Testes  Parathyroid gland  Adrenal gland
2. Pancreas  Thyroid gland  Thymus  Pineal gland
3. Hypothalamus  Ovaries 

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

 The pituitary gland secretes at least nine hormones that regulate numerous
body functions and other endocrine glands
 The hypothalamus regulates pituitary gland activity through hormones and
action potentials
Pituitary Gland
 Posterior pituitary
 Neurohypophysis
 Develops from the floor of the brain and connects to the hypothalamus by the
infundibulum
 Anterior pituitary
 Adenohypophysis  Develops from the roof of the mouth
Hormones of the Pituitary Gland
 Posterior Pituitary
 Stores and secretes two polypeptide hormones
o Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
a. Promotes water retention by the kidneys
o Oxytocin
a. Promotes uterine contractions during delivery
b. Causes milk ejection in lactating women

 Anterior Pituitary
 Major hormones, their target tissues, and their effects on target tissues are
listed in Table 15.2
o Growth Hormone (GH) o Melanocyte-stimulating o Follicle-stimulating
o Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) hormone (MSH) hormone (FSH)
o Adrenocorticotropic hormone o Luteinizing hormone (LH) o Prolactin
(ACTH)
Growth Hormone (GH)
 GH stimulates growth in most tissues and is a regulator of metabolism
 GH stimulates
o The uptake of amino acids and their conversion into proteins
o The breakdown of fats and the synthesis of glucose
o The production of somatomedins (with GH they promote bone and cartilage
growth)
 GH secretion increases in response to low blood glucose, stress, and an increase in
certain amino acids
 GH is regulated by two hypothalamic hormones
o Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) o Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)

Thyroid Gland
 The largest endocrine gland
 Located in the anterior neck and consists of two lateral lobes connected by
a median tissue mass called the isthmus
 Composed of follicles that produce the glycoprotein thyroglobulin
 Other endocrine cells, the parafollicular cells, produce the hormone
calcitonin
 Consist of two related iodine-containing compounds
 Triiodothyronine (T3): has two tyrosines with three bound iodine atoms (90%)
  Tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine or T4): has two tyrosine molecules plus four
bound iodine atoms (10%)
Effects of Thyroid Hormones
 T3 and T4
 Increase the rate of glucose, fat, and protein metabolism in many tissues
 Increase body temperature
 T3 and T4 play a role in
 Maintaining blood pressure  Developing skeletal and nervous systems
 Regulating tissue growth  Maturation and reproductive capabilities

Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) regulate T3 and T4 secretion
 TRH from the hypothalamus increases TSH secretion
o Increases as a result of chronic exposure to cold
o Decreases as a result of food deprivation, injury, and infection
 Increased TSH from the anterior pituitary increases T3 and T4 secretion
 T3 and T4 inhibit TSH and TRH secretion (negative feedback)

Calcitonin
 Parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin
 Directly regulated by blood Ca2+ levels
o Blood Ca2+ levels drop = calcitonin levels drop
o Blood Ca2+ levels rise = calcitonin levels rise
 Calcitonin targets the skeleton to
 Inhibit osteoclast activity and the release of calcium from the bone matrix
 Stimulate calcium uptake and incorporation into the bone matrix
Parathyroid Glands
 Tiny glands embedded in the posterior aspect of the thyroid
 Secrete a polypeptide hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 PTH is essential in regulating calcium balance in the blood (much more
important than calcitonin)
 PTH increases the release of Ca2+ from bones into blood by increasing the
number of osteoclasts
 PTH also
 Promotes Ca2+ reabsorption by the kidneys and the formation of active
vitamin D by the kidneys
 Active vitamin D increases calcium absorption by the intestine
 A decrease in blood Ca2+ levels stimulates PTH secretion
Adrenal Glands
 Paired, pyramid-shaped organs that sit on top of the kidneys
 Divided into two parts
o Adrenal medulla (inner area)
 a. Arises from the same cells that give rise to postganglionic sympathetic
neurons
 Adrenal cortex (outer area)
o Glandular tissue derived from embryonic mesoderm
o Composed of three layers
a. Zona glomerulosa
b. Zona fasciculata
c. Zona reticularis
 Structurally and functionally, they are four glands in one
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
 Approximately 80% of the hormones released is epinephrine (adrenaline)
and 20% is norepinephrine
 Secretion of these hormones prepares the body for physical activity by:
 Increasing blood glucose levels
 Increasing the use of glycogen and glucose by skeletal muscle
 Increasing heart rate and force of contraction
 Causes vasoconstriction in the skin and viscera
 Causes vasodilation in skeletal and cardiac muscle
 Released by the sympathetic division of the ANS in response to
 Emotions  Injury  Stress  Exercise  Low blood Glucose levels

Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

 Synthesizes and releases steroid hormones called corticosteroids
 Different corticosteroids are produced in each of the three layers
 Zona glomerulosa: mineralocorticoids
(chiefly aldosterone)
 Zona fasciculata: glucocorticoids
(chiefly cortisol)
 Zona reticularis: gonadocorticoids
(chiefly androgens)
Zona Glomerulosa
 Mineralocorticoids
 Regulate electrolytes in extracellular fluids
 Aldosterone: most important mineralocorticoid
o Maintains Na+ balance by reducing excretion of sodium from the body
o Stimulates reabsorption of Na+ by the kidneys
o Decreases K+ and H+ levels in the blood
 Aldosterone secretion is stimulated by:
o Rising blood levels of K+
o Low blood Na+
o Decreasing blood volume or pressure
Zona Fasciculata
  Glucocorticoids (especially cortisol)
 Help the body resist stress by
o Keeping blood sugar levels relatively constant
o Maintaining blood volume and preventing water shift into tissue
 Cortisol provokes
o Gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from non-carbohydrates)
o Rises in blood glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
 Excessive levels of glucocorticoids
o Depress cartilage and bone formation
o Inhibit inflammation
o Depress the immune system
o Promote changes in cardiovascular, neural, and gastrointestinal function
Zona Reticularis
 Gonadocorticoids (Sex Hormones)
 Most gonadocorticoids secreted are androgens (male sex hormones), and the
most important one is testosterone
 Androgens contribute to:
o The onset of puberty
o The appearance of secondary sex characteristics
o Sex drive in females
 Androgens can be converted into estrogens after menopause
Pancreas
 A triangular gland, which has both exocrine and endocrine cells, located
behind the stomach
 Acinar cells produce an enzyme-rich juice used for digestion (exocrine
product)
 Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) produce hormones (endocrine
products)
 The islets contain two major cell types:
 Alpha () cells that produce glucagon
 Beta () cells that produce insulin
Insulin
 Target tissues
 Liver
 Adipose tissue
 Muscle
 Satiety center in the hypothalamus
 Nervous system relies on blood glucose levels maintained by insulin
 Increases the uptake of glucose and amino acids by cells
 Glucose
o Is used for energy
o Stored as glycogen
o Converted into fats
 Amino acids are used to synthesize proteins
 Low levels of insulin promote the formation of ketone bodies by the liver
Glucagon
 Target tissue is mainly the liver
 Causes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
 Stimulates the synthesis of glucose from amino acids
 Liver releases glucose into the blood
Regulation of Pancreatic Hormone Secretion
 Insulin
 Increases because
o Elevated blood glucose levels
o Increase in some amino acids
o Parasympathetic stimulation
o Gastrointestinal hormones
 Sympathetic stimulation decreases insulin secretion
 Glucagon
 Secretion is stimulated by
o Low blood glucose levels
o Certain amino acids
o Sympathetic stimulation
 Somatostatin inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion

Hormonal Regulation of Nutrients

 After a meal, the following events take place
 High glucose levels stimulate insulin secretion but inhibit glucagon, cortisol,
GH, and epinephrine secretion
 Insulin increases the uptake of glucose, amino acids, and fats, which are used
for energy or are stored
 Sometime after the meal, blood glucose levels drop
o Insulin levels decrease and glucagon, GH, cortisol, and epinephrine levels
increase
o Glucose is released from tissues
 The liver releases glucose into the blood, and the use of glucose by most
tissues, other than nervous tissue, decreases
 Adipose tissue releases fatty acids and ketones, which most tissues use for
energy
 During exercise, the following events occur
 Sympathetic activity increases epinephrine and glucagon secretion, causing a
release of glucose from the liver into the blood
 Low blood sugar levels, caused by the uptake of glucose by skeletal muscles,
stimulate epinephrine, glucagon, GH, and cortisol secretion
o Causes an increase in fatty acids and ketones in the blood, all of which are
used for energy
Testes
 Secrete testosterone
o Initiates maturation of male reproductive organs
 o Causes appearance of secondary sexual characteristics and sex drive
o Is necessary for sperm production
o Maintains sex organs in their functional state
Ovaries
 Secrete estrogens and progesterone
o Maturation of the reproductive organs
o Appearance of secondary sexual characteristics
o Breast development and cyclic changes in the uterine mucosa
Pineal Body
Small, pinecone-shaped structure located superior and posterior to the

thalamus
 Secretory product is melatonin
 Melatonin
o Can inhibit reproductive maturation
o May regulate sleep-wake cycles

Thymus
 Lobulated gland located deep to the sternum
 Major hormonal products are thymopoietin and thymosin
 These hormones are essential for the development of the T lymphocytes (T
cells) of the immune system

Other Endocrine Organs

 Gastrointestinal tract
o Produces gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin, which regulate digestive
functions
 Kidneys
o Produce erythropoietin, which stimulates red blood cell production
o Released when there is low oxygen supply to the kidneys
 Placenta
o Secretes human chronic gonadotropin, which is essential for the maintenance
of pregnancy
Hormonelike Substances
 Autocrine agents
o Chemical signals that locally affect cells of the same type as the cell producing
the autocrine agent
o Prostaglandins, thromboxanes, prostacyclins, and leukotrienes
 Paracrine agents
o Chemical signals that locally affect cells of a different type than the cell
producing the paracrine agent
o Growth factors, clotting factors, and histamine
 Autocrine and paracrine chemical signals differ from hormones in that
o They are not secreted from discrete endocrine glands
o They have local effects rather than systemic effects
 o They have functions that are not understood in all cases
Effects of Aging on the Endocrine System
 There is a gradual decrease in the secretion rate of most, but not all,
hormones
 Some decreases are secondary to gradual decreases in physical activity