Endocrine System
Read: Chapter 9 pages 302 – 309 (stop at Growth Hormone),
including figures 9.1, 9.2, 9.3 & 9.4, 310 (start at Thyrotropic
Hormone) – 316 (stop at Glucocorticoids) including figures 9.6, 9.7
& 9.9, 317 – 319 (stop at Gonads) including figure 9.10, figure 9.12
& page 325 *Systems in Sync
⁂ = therefore Δ = difference
w/i = within [ ] = concentration
w/o = without NS = Nervous System
b/c = because NT = neurotransmitter
b/d = break down BV = blood volume
b/w = between BP = blood pressure
HR = heart rate
CV = Cardiovascular system
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2 systems complement each other
Main similarities:
1. Both are involved in preserving
homeostasis;
2. Both use chemicals to communicate b/w
cells: NTs & hormones are chemical
messengers; as well some of the chemicals
Endocrine & are the same (e.g., epinephrine, oxytocin,
Nervous 3.
endorphin, etc.);
Both generally governed by - feedback
Systems mechanisms;
Main Δ : time & distance traveled.
◦ Endocrine system takes minutes, hours or days
to act; NS provides split-second control;
◦ Hormones travel greater distances in the blood while NTs
span very narrow area of synaptic cleft & cause “local”
responses.
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F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE 3
Coordination & control of whole-body activity. E.g. (among many functions):
◦ Control of growth & development;
◦ Regulation of metabolism & energy balance;
◦ Regulation of chemical composition & volume of fluid surrounding tissue &
cells;
◦ Regulation of glandular secretions;
◦ Regulation of reproductive system;
◦ Regulation/impact on contractions of smooth & cardiac muscle;
◦ Influence on immune system activity;
◦ Establishment of circadian rhythms.
General Functions
F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE 4
Endocrine System
Composed of
endocrine glands
Found on the
Primary organs of the dorsal aspect of
endocrine system, the thyroid gland
having ONLY endocrine
functions: pituitary,
pineal, thyroid,
parathyroid, & adrenal
glands.
Secondary organs of the
endocrine system, having
endocrine & other functions;
e.g. hypothalamus, heart,
thymus, stomach, kidneys,
small intestines, adipocytes,
reproductive organs, etc.
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Exocrine &
Endocrine Glands
Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts
that empty either onto the body surface, into the
spaces w/i organs or into a body cavity;
E.g., Oil (sebaceous) glands are exocrine glands that
secrete the oil they produce into ducts that lead to
the body surface.
Endocrine glands lack the ducts
that are present in the exocrine
glands.
Hormones secreted by endocrine
glands move from the cell that
secreted them into the ECF, then
from ECF into blood vessels.
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Hormones
Secreted by endocrine glands &
organs;
Also secreted by neurosecretory Hormones & neurohormones
cells, neurons in hypothalamus, travel in blood from the area of
pineal gland & adrenal medulla synthesis to target cells that
that secrete neurohormones; have specific receptors for
specific hormones.
Chemical signals; ~ 50 hormones
discovered in humans so far. Some hormones have a wide
range of targets (i.e. sex
hormones), others have a narrow
range of target cells (i.e. gastrin in
the stomach).
Distance traveled can be
extensive.
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Hormones: control of release
Mostly – feedback mechanisms,
stimulated by: Feedback loop:
1. Other hormones: most common. ➢ If a regulated physiological
Some hormones have other variable deviates from
endocrine glands as their target homeostatic range it acts as a
cells → tropic hormones or stimulus;
tropins; ➢ Receptors on endocrine organs
2. Humoral: changing body fluid* [ ] detect deviation & act as
of certain ions & nutrients (such as control centers; response? ↑
Ca2+, glucose, etc.); body fluid or ↓ release of particular
levels of most nutrients vary w/i a hormone;
very narrow range; ➢ The hormone then triggers a
3. Neural: neurons stimulate response in its target cell that
hormone release, i.e. preganglionic moves conditions back toward
sympathetic neurons stimulate homeostatic levels.
cells in adrenal medulla to release * Body fluid: blood, bile, etc.
catecholamines; 8
Tropic
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Hormones: importance of receptors
Only affect cells – targets - that have precise receptors, with specific 3D
shape to which the hormone binds even if hormone is in ↓ [ ].
1. Receptors can all be the same OR slightly Δ depending on the target cell
& function required ⁂ Δ kinds of cells (can) respond Δ to the same
hormone;
2. Controlling the effects of hormones can be done at the level of the
receptors. E.g.
a) Receptors can be constantly recycled: synthesized then b/d;
b) Receptors can be:
Downregulated: if a hormone is found in excess, a cell
will “hide” a certain amount of receptors for this
hormone so that cell is not overly
“sensitized” (homeostatic mechanism!); E.g. type II
diabetes – insulin receptors are “hidden”;
Upregulated? the contrary!
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2 general signalling methods used by
hormones depending on if they are
small &/or hydrophobic OR
hydrophilic:
1. cell surface receptor-mediated
signalling. Used for hydrophilic
Hormones: hormones;
Signaling 2. intracellular receptor-mediated
Methods signalling. Used for hydrophobic
& very small hormones (such as
thyroid hormone).
F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE 11
Hormones: Signalling Methods
F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE 12
Hormones: General effects
Effects of all hormones include:
1. Stimulating secretion by an endocrine or exocrine cell;
2. Activating/inhibiting an enzyme;
3. Stimulating/inhibiting cell replication;
4. Opening/closing ion channels & altering a cell’s membrane
potential;
5. Activating/inhibiting protein synthesis.
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Hormones: Modulation of Effects
The effect of a hormone on its target cell depends on:
1. The [ ] of hormone;
2. The presence & # of receptors on the target cell;
3. The influence of other hormones, such as:
➢Permissive effect: the response of the target cell to one hormone
requires the presence or recent exposure to another hormone;
➢Synergistic/Additive effect: the effect of both hormones acting
together is ↑er than when each acts alone;
➢Antagonistic effect: the action(s) of one hormone opposes the
action(s) of another.
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[Hormone] in plasma depends on: In general, small hydrophilic
A. Rate of secretion; hormones are removed very
rapidly. Protein hormones
B. Rate of removal;
(larger), thyroid hormone &
Removal of hormone molecules occurs by: steroid hormones are
1. Excretion; metabolized & excreted much
2. Metabolic transformation/processing; > slowly (hours to days).
The liver & the kidneys are the 2 major organs involved in transforming &/or
excreting hormones;
3. Cells also metabolize hormones: endocytosis of hormone/receptor complexes
allows cells to remove the hormone rapidly from their surface & catabolize them
w/i the cell. The receptors are subsequently recycled to the cell surface.
Control of Hormone Concentration in
Blood: Metabolism & Removal
F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE 15
Hypothalamus → neural tissue which
acts as (among other very important
roles) ~master control center of the
endocrine system;
The Integrates NS function with endocrine
Hypothalamus system function;
& the
Its main endocrine target: the pituitary
Pituitary gland;
Gland
The pituitary gland then influences
numerous body functions through the
release of many tropic & non-tropic
hormones.
F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE 16
The Hypothalamus & the Pituitary Gland
Sphenoid
Nervous tissue; Glandular tissue;
Stores & secretes Makes own hormones
hormones made by under tight control of
hypothalamus hypothalamus
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F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE
A set of neurosecretory cells extends from
the hypothalamus into the posterior pituitary.
The regulatory hormones from the
hypothalamus are carried to the anterior
pituitary through the hypophyseal portal
system, a DIRECT transport of blood through
veins & capillaries, w/o going through the
heart.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ap2/chapter/the-pituitary-gland-and-hypothalamus/
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Posterior Pituitary
These hypothalamic neurosecretory cells synthesize oxytocin & anti-
diuretic hormone (ADH), both neurohormones.
ADH controls blood osmolarity*
Read about Diabetes insipidus in
Homeostatic Imbalance 9.1 page 308 Oxytocin also acts as a CNS NT: involved in
sexual behavior, affection & promoting
bonding & nurturing.
*Will be covered in > detail in the CV & Urinary Systems
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Anterior Pituitary
2 types of hormones secreted by the hypothalamus affect the
anterior pituitary:
1. Releasing hormones (RH) activate the anterior pituitary & cause
it to secrete hormones directly into the blood;
2. Inhibiting hormones (IH) inhibit the anterior pituitary;
Many of the hormones synthesized by the anterior pituitary itself are
tropic hormones.
The release of these tropic hormones is affected by – feedback
mechanisms initiated by their target cells.
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22
Thyroid hormone is secreted as 2 hormones
that use intracellular receptor-mediated
signaling:
1. Thyroxine or T4 (4 iodine ions);
2. Triiodothyronine or T3 (3 iodine ions);
◦ T4 is converted to T3 at many target
Anterior Pituitary tissues.
& Thyroid Gland: ◦ Together: thyroid hormone;
Thyroid Hormone ◦ Contains the AA tyrosine + iodine;
◦ Release of thyroid hormone controlled by
hypothalamus & anterior pituitary through
TRH & TSH.
F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE 23
Functions of Thyroid Hormone
Affects all tissues;
1. In fetus & children plays crucial roles in development &
growth (e.g., bone & nerve formation).
Pathology: cretinism → inherited thyroid deficiency resulting
in stunted skeletal growth & intellectual disability;
2. During adulthood, helps maintain homeostasis by
maintaining/regulating basal metabolic rate (BMR):
Intellectual disability,
1. Controls use of glucose & FAs for conversion of these to short,
ATP with release of heat (⁂ involved in disproportionately
thermoregulation & calorie use); sized body & thick
2. Stimulates protein synthesis, so affects muscle tongue & neck
synthesis, enzyme & antibody production, for e.g.;
3. Acts synergistically with sympathetic NS ⁂ affects BP &
HR;
4. Affects neuron function, digestion & reproductive
functions.
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Thyroid Hormone: adult pathologies
T3/T4 levels too ↑ in adult: T3/T4 levels are too ↓ in adult:
hyperthyroidism; hypothyroidism or myxedema;
↑BMR ⁂ ↑ BP, ↑ body t°, ↑ & ↓BMR ⁂ weight gain,
irregular HR, profuse sweating, constipation, intolerance to
weight loss; b/c of effects on NS get cold, thick & dry skin; b/c of
nervousness/irritability; effects on NS get memory loss,
◦Causes: Grave’s disease as an depression/lethargy;
underlying cause of ◦ Causes: Hashimoto’s disease
hyperthyroidism; also tumors. as an underlying cause of
hypothyroidism (hereditary
auto-immune disease that is
more prevalent in women).
exophthalmos
25
Read Homeostatic Imbalance 9.4 page 311-312
Thyroxine regulation
Goiter → enlargement of the thyroid
gland due to insufficient iodine in the
diet.
Before iodized salt became
available goiters were very
common in areas that have iodine-
poor soils &/or no access to iodine-
rich seafood – endemic goiters still
occur in many areas.
Under normal circumstances
release of thyroid hormone is
under the control of TRH from
hypothalamus & TSH from
anterior pituitary using a -
feedback loop.
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Thyroid Blood Tests: Hypo &
Hyperthyroidism
•TSH Test. A thyroid-stimulating hormone or
TSH blood test measures the amount of T4
that the thyroid is being signaled to make.
Abnormally high level of TSH, could indicate
hypothyroidism. Abnormally low level of
TSH, could indicate hyperthyroidism
•T4 (thyroxine) Test. The free T4 & the free T4
index are blood tests that, in combination with
a TSH test, can detect thyroid function. Low
levels of T4 can indicate hypothyroidism, while
high levels of T4 can indicate hyperthyroidism.
•Other tests involve imaging the thyroid using
radioactive iodine.
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Calcium Homeostasis: Antagonistic Roles
of the Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands
Some roles of Ca2+:
1. Nervous system function;
2. Muscle function;
3. Blood clotting mechanisms;
4. Signal transduction.
Parathyroid & thyroid glands work together
as antagonists to regulate, through (-)
feedback loops, Ca2+ homeostasis:
■ PTH also regulates levels of
➢Parafollicular cells of the thyroid secrete magnesium & phosphate in the
calcitonin; blood.
➢Chief cells of the parathyroid glands
secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH).
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Calcium Homeostasis: PTH, Calcitonin & Calcitriol
PTH ↑ the secretion of Effects of
the hormone calcitriol, calcitonin
the active form of on bone
vitamin D (a decrease
cholesterol derivative) with age
synthesized &
released by the
kidneys. Calcitriol
binds to intracellular
receptors & results in
the synthesis of Ca2+
receptors. Calcitriol
works with PTH,
through integrative
effects (& inhibits
release of calcitonin).
F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE 29
Hypo & Hyperparathyroidism
Hypoparathyroidism: most often occurs following trauma to the gland or
removal during thyroid surgery &/or extended dietary deficiency in Mg2+
intake which is required for PTH secretion;
➢Results in hypocalcemia (↓ blood Ca2+) which causes neuron
hyperexcitability; symptoms: tingling sensations, tetany & convulsions. If
untreated it’s fatal;
Hyperparathyroidism: rare & usually due to gland tumor;
➢Results: excessive loss of Ca2+ from bone (osteitis fibrosa cystica: bones
full of small holes & fracture spontaneously); this leads to hypercalcemia
(↑ blood Ca2+) which:
1. depresses NS (weak muscles & abnormal reflexes);
2. causes kidney stones (calcium crystals (precipitates) form in kidneys);
3. can cause metastatic calcification: calcium deposits in soft tissue
throughout body & severely impair organ function.
30
Metastatic calcification as a
result of hyperparathyroidism
http://rad.washington.edu/about-us/academic-
sections/musculoskeletal-radiology/teaching-
materials/online-musculoskeletal-radiology-book/
soft-tissue-calcifications-2/
http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMicm1202544#t=article
https://radiopaedia.org/images/381768
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Osteoporosis
↓ in mineral density in bone.
Causes: ↓ calcium uptake, ↓ vitamin D production, age, sex (↑ risk in ♀),
lack of exercise, ↓ estrogen in postmenopausal ♀, genetic factors, diseases of
kidneys, digestive system or skin.
Pathology: weak bones, significant ↑ of risk of bone fractures;
Treatments:
a. Diet;
b. Weight-bearing exercise;
c. HRT, specifically estrogen replacement;
d. Nasal spray that delivers ↑ amounts of calcitonin.
Result of treatment: ↑ in bone mass by slowing bone b/d.
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Clinical tests that
measure PTH levels
• Blood tests. If a blood test shows ↑ blood calcium levels, the test will likely be
repeated to confirm that the results were not due to temporary high intake of
calcium in the diet .
• If abnormal levels of calcium are still detected, & b/c many conditions can
raise calcium levels, a definite diagnosis is achieved though blood tests that
measure levels of parathyroid hormone - the intact PTH test or parathormone.
• Urine test. A 24-hour collection of urine can provide information on how well
the kidneys are working & how much calcium is excreted in urine. This test
may help in judging the severity of hyperparathyroidism or diagnosing a kidney
disorder causing hyperparathyroidism. If a very ↓ calcium level is found in the
urine, this may mean it's a condition that doesn't need treatment.
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Adrenal
Glands
One adrenal gland on top of each
kidney;
Composed of 3 parts:
1. Covering called the capsule
(protection – no hormone
production);
2. Outer adrenal cortex;
3. Inner adrenal medulla (85%
of the gland).
F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE 34
Adrenal Cortex
Adrenal cortex produces mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids & some androgens &
estrogens (sex steroids); all these are corticosteroids derived from cholesterol.
Release controlled by hypothalamus & anterior pituitary through release of CRH &
ACTH.
Mineralocorticoids & glucocorticoids are essential for homeostasis.
Mineralocorticoids:
Regulate [certain minerals] such as Na+ & K+;
Main mineralocorticoid: aldosterone; effects:
1. Maintains Na+ & K+ [ ] w/i normal ranges by targeting specific kidney cells –
causes Na+ reabsorption into blood & K+ secretion into urine to maintain
homeostatic [ ] of each;
2. Regulates body fluid volume ⁂ BP through osmosis – water is reabsorbed due to
movement of ions, specifically Na+ & Cl-;
3. Regulates pH in blood by targeting specific kidney cells & their transport of H+
into urine.
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Adrenal medulla
Composed of neurosecretory cells; produce catecholamines E & NE, both NTs &
hormones;
Release controlled by hypothalamus & sympathetic NS in coordination of endocrine
& NS regulation of short-term stress;
Effects of NE & E in response to stressor:
1. ↑ HR & force of heart contraction to supply O2 & glucose > rapidly to all tissues;
2. Dilate blood vessels supplying brain, heart, lungs & skeletal muscles to supply O2
& glucose > rapidly to these specific tissues;
3. Dilate bronchioles in lungs (↑ O2 intake for ATP production);
4. Constrict blood vessels supplying skin, digestive tract & kidneys to ↓ digestive &
urinary functions (non-essential in times of stress) & ↑ BP;
5. Dilate pupils.
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F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE
Pancreas
Has both endocrine & exocrine functions;
Endocrine function carried out pancreatic islets;
◦ Alpha islet cells secrete glucagon;
◦ Beta islet cells secrete insulin;
◦ Other hormones also produced.
RULE:
Energy needs first;
Glycogen formation second;
Excess glucose is then
converted to fat.
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Glucagon & Insulin: antagonistic effects
A. Glucagon is secreted when glucose levels fall below normal →
hypoglycemia;
•Glucagon targets liver cells & promotes:
1. B/d of glycogen into glucose in liver & muscle cells;
2. B/d of fat to FAs in adipose tissue;
3. Formation of glucose from lactic acid, FAs & certain AAs in liver;
4. Other energy transformation reactions.
➢Results: Release of glucose into the blood & ↑ of blood glucose
levels back w/i normal range.
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Glucagon & Insulin: antagonistic effects
B. Insulin helps move glucose from blood through plasma membrane into
cells esp. in skeletal muscle & adipose tissues when [glucose] in blood is
too ↑→ hyperglycemia.
•Insulin has multiple effects, including promoting:
1. Tissue development, growth & repair;
2. Increased neuronal development, feeding behavior, learning & memory in
the brain;
3. Glucose utilization for ATP synthesis;
4. Formation & storage of glycogen from glucose & inhibition of glycogen b/
d;
5. The uptake of AAs for synthesis of protein;
6. Uptake of FAs for synthesis & storage of triglycerides;
7. Satiety.
40
channels
Facilitated
Signal
travels in diffusion
cytosol
F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE 41
Antagonistic effects of
glucagon & insulin to
regulate blood [glucose]
F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE
Parasympathetic NS
stimulates secretion of insulin
during digestion & absorption;
insulin release also influenced
by glucagon, GH, thyroxine &
glucocorticoids;
sympathetic division
stimulates the release of
glucagon, to provide glucose
as fuel during exercise
42
Diabetes mellitus
Name means “honey leaving the body”.
W/o insulin, cells do not uptake glucose (except for brain, kidney &
liver cells); blood [glucose] remain ↑ but glucose is not used;
Fats & proteins are b/d for use as fuel ↓ in body weight, ↓ in
immune system response (why? ↓ proteins) & ↓ blood pH (acidosis)
b/c of ↑ ketones (by-products of incomplete fat b/d) in blood
(ketosis);
Signs?
◦ Polyuria: presence of glucose in urine as body attempts to lower
the ↑ [glucose] & ↑ [ketone] in blood causes ↑ water volume in
urine & excessive urination;
◦ Polydipsia: excessive thirst b/c of polyuria;
◦ Polyphagia: excessive hunger b/c of lack of glucose to make ATP.
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NIDDM – Non-insulin
dependent diabetes
mellitus: insulin present
but target cells are less
sensitive to insulin b/c of
down-regulation of
IDDM – Insulin- insulin receptors – due
dependent to excessive glucose in
diabetes blood.
mellitus: no > common than IDDM;
insulin present. clinical symptoms mild
Person’s immune at first. Diet & exercise =
system destroys weight loss = ↑er
pancreatic ß sensitivity of insulin
cells; onset receptors = ↓er in blood
sudden & 3 glucose levels =
“polys” obvious elimination of
symptoms.
44 Read Homeostatic Imbalance 9.8 page 319
F.M.T. BIOMED 915 F22 ENDOCRINE
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Homework: after doing the readings
in the textbook & reviewing the PPT
Answer the following questions:
# 1 & 2 page 305, # 4 page 306, # 5 page 307, # 6 & 7 page 309, # 8
page 310, # 9 page 312, # 11, 12 & 13 page 314, # 15 page 316, # 17
& 18 page 319;
The question that goes with figure 9.1 page 304;
The question that goes with figure 9.5 page 308;
The question that goes with figure 9.7 page 313;
The question that goes with figure 9.12 page 320;
# 11, 13, 16 & 18 page 330.
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