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Set Theory

Set theory for cs. B.tech

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15 views50 pages

Set Theory

Set theory for cs. B.tech

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anoop
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© © All Rights Reserved
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CHAPTER) Set Theory and Algebra 3.1 Introduction Cbiects: Objects constituting a set are called its elements Of aset , symbolically as ae S. (Pronounced as a belongs to $), Since “object” is very generalin scope, an elementot2 Setmay be letters, numbers or any symibo's Ordered pairs, or even a set itself ‘and we express the fact that ais an elemey (@) There are no particular order in B= (2,3, 1) are both the same (©) Repetition ofelementis meaningless in a Set, since an elementis and B = (1, 2, 3} are both the same sets, 3.2. Sets Finite and Infinite Sets Sets which have a finite n Clements are called infinite sets. | Called as cardinal number of § or Examples of finite set: (Set of days in a week (ii) Set of dates in a month (ii) Set of chairs in a classroom umber of elements are called finite 'fSisa set, then n(S) or cardinality of s, Sets and those having infinite nurberd ISI denotes the number of ‘elements in. n(S)sé® Examples of infinite sot: (0 Setofnatural number (if) Set of points on a plane (ii) Set of lines passing through one point Equivalent Sets ‘Two finite sets are equivalent their cardinal numbers are same, Notice that two equivalent sets need not beequal Example: Let A=(1,2,3) Bes y. 2] then, A and B are equivalent sets Equal Sets ‘Two sets are equal they have exactly same elements Example: FA = (1, 2, 3) B = (2,3, 1) then A=. Empty or Null Sets ‘Aset which does not possesses any elementis called empty ornul or void setandis denoted by @or{}. Example: fA = (r:xe Nand? A=B ‘hiss the strategy that is used to prove that some two arbitrary sets are equal 4. Power Set: Let A be a set, then power set of A is P(A) given by P(A) = (S: SCA}. it Ais the set of n elements, then the number of elements in P(A) is 2". = niP(Ay] = 2" Example: I'S = (a 6 then PCS) = (¢ (a), (o,f, 6, {8 ) b,c), (a, bl} Here S has 3 elements, so P(S) has 2° = 8 elements. 5, If Ais the subsect of B, then B is the superset of A Superse is denoted by the symbol 2". ie AcB=BoA 6. Every sets a subset of itso and nul sets a subset of every se. ie. AGA (or all A) and 6c A (for all A) 3.22 UniversalSet ideration. itis @ set which contains all the sets in the ent universal set since itcontains al ye r the real no set is a convenien ‘numbers such as integers, rational nos eto, ‘numbers discussed, lement ofa Set , ; 7m ra n eee set and A be any element of it, then A® or A’ Is the complement of A given by 38 a Aefesxe Aandxe U) rears 1. (APE = Aor (at) . (law of double complementation) AUAP =U OFAN AC =o 7 , (That is to say that A and AC together contain ‘everything and A and AC have nothing in common Union of: ™ ane Behe ‘sets. A set consisting of the elements of both A and B is called union of set A and B ‘andi denoted by AUB. AUBs={r:xe Aorze B) a i AUB contain elements belonging to A or B or both A and B. The “or" is being used in inclusive Sense. inciudes elements belonging to both A&B also). ‘So, “U" is the inclusive or. Example: LetA= (a, 0,6 ),B=(a,¢,f, AUB=[a,b.c,d,6,f} 3.25 Intersection of Sets Let A and B be two sets, then the set which consists the Common elements of A and B is called intersection of A and B and itis denoted by AaB, 3 ANB=(e:r6 Aandxe B} Example: tA = (a, b,c, d),B = (a, , f, then AB = {2}, Properties of *U" & “ar, 1. ACAUBandBcAUB 2 AnBcAandAnBUcB 3.26 Disjoint Sets [Wo sets A and B are said to be asjont sts, i there is no ‘common element in A and B. If A and B are disjoint sets, then Ar B = 9, Example: Let A = (a,b,c), B= (x,y, 2) then Aand B are disjoint sets, because AN B = ¢, 3.2.7 Difference of Sets stand B be two sets. Then the set of all those ok of Aand B and denoted by A-B = fixe A, xe B) Also B-A=fx:xeBxe A} lements of A which are notin Bis called difference set Example: It A= {1, 2,3, 4), B= (2, 9,5} thon A~B = (1, 4) and B= A= (5). ‘A= B includes all elements which belong to A only & (not 8) and B ~ A includes all elements which belong to B only (&.not A) A ~B is also called as relative complement of Bin A. Properties of Set Difference: 1. Ingeneral A-B#B-A 2. A eU-A 3. A-B=A-(AnB) [Le. A~B can be obtained by removing from A, the elements common to both A & B) 4, AUB=(A=B)U(B-A) U (AmB) = (A only) or (B only) or (both A & 8) 328 Symmetric Difference of Sets Let A and B be two sets. Then the set of all those elements which are in A but notin B orn B but notin Ais called symmetric ditference of A & B, denoted by A ® B. i.e. A@ B contains all elements belonging o either A only or B only but not both. This is also called as the “XOR" operation. (Exclusive - 0). Example: HA=(1,2,3,4) and B = (3, 4,5, 6) Then AGB =(1,2,5,6) Properties of Symmetric Difference: 1. A@B =B8A (Commutative) 2. A@B=(A-B)U(B-A) = Acnly or Bonly 3. A®B=(AUB)-(BNA) 4, A@(B@C)= (ABB) OC (Associative) 329 VennDiagrams ‘Most of relationship between the sets can be represented by diagrams known as venn diagrams. ‘A universal set U is represented by points in the interior of a rectangle and any of its non empty subsets by points in interior of closed curves (usvally circles). The venn diagrams for common set operations is shown below. Da-airony NTE! Venn diagrams can be elfectively Used for proving equality of set expressions or for answering |. QUestion regarding counting of elements of sets. 3.2.10 Fundamental Products Fundamental products ao te int paton (ragions) of avenn diagram vith 0 ot mere ety For example consider avennclagram wih two arity eels A and. The four fundamental pony, are shown below a8 (1). (2), ()and (4). : ‘The number ol fundamental products is always = 2°, where nis he number of sets under consideratisn 4. Ange Toniy] [A and not 8} 2 AmB {B only] [8 and not A] 3 ANB [Aga] 4 AenBe {neither A nor B] ‘Similarly for a9 set ven diagram, there are 2*= 8 fundamental products as shown below: 1. AnBence [Aon 2 AEMBnCe [Bony] 5 3. Amen (Cony) 4. AnBeac (Aacoutnot 8} 5. AnBace (AB but notC} & AenBac (B&Cbutnot A} 7. AnBac falttwee} 8B. AnBence {none of them] Fundamental products are useful in counting since they are disjoint in nature and therefore provides no ‘chance for double-counting, 3.2.11 LawofSetTheory Identity Laws Domination Laws Idempotent property Commutative Property 5. peared ‘Associative property An(Bn0)=(AnB)nC. 6, Au(BnC)=(AvB) ial Distributive property An(Bu0)=(AnB)u(Anc) 3212 7 oe AUK } Complement laws Ana ag B. (ASP RA 8. (AUB = ACA Be (AmB = AC uBe Law of double complement Demorgan's Laws ‘Set Theory: More results A-B=ANBe= A(ANB) A-B= Be Ac ACBeBoc Ac AcBandCcD=AxCcBxD FAA. B) = nA) + (8)-n(ArB) MAU BUC) = nfA) + 148) + KC) ~ ANB) ~ ANC)- (BNC) + AANBNC) HAC) = AU) ~ (A) A-B) = KAMBO) = r{A)~ KAMB) 10, 11, 12.and 13.are used in counting problem involving sets. Cartesian Product of Sets Let Aand B be two sets, then A x B = ((a, b): ae Aand be B Ax Bis called Cartesian product of sets. The elements of A x B are of the form (a, b) called ordered pairs. It Ahas m elements and B has n elements then A x B has mn elements. Example: Let A = {a,b}, B= {c, 0, é}, then A x B = {(a, c), (a, 0), (a, €), (b, o),(b, 0), (b, e)} Bx A= ((o, a), (6, ) (4, a), (, b), (6,2), (2, 8)} Here, AxB has 2x3 =6 elements B x Aalso has 3 x 2 = 6 elements Properties of Cartesian Product: 1. AXB#BKA 3. Ax(BAC)=(AxB)n(AxC) 5. (AxB)m(CxD)=(ANC)x (CD) 6. (AxB)U(CxD)=(AUC)x(BUD) Relations Definition: Let A and B be two non emply sets, then a relation R from A to B is a subset of A x B. 1. Let CAxB. I(x, y) € R then we say "x is related to y’, denote it by x Ry. In this notes, whenever you see x Ry, read it as x related to y (by relation R). 2, Let RGAxB, given by R = ((x, y):x€ A, ye B}, then Domain (R) = [x : (x, y)€ R}, and Range (A) =v: ye R) 3. Arelation R on set A is a subset of A x A and is called a binary relation on A. Example: Let A= (1, 2, 3) and B = (a, b, ¢, a) ‘Then a relation R defined on A x B is any subset of A x B. For instance, R=((1, a), (2, 0), (2, 6) Now since (1, a) € R, we say 1Ra (1 Is related to a by R) Domain (A) = (1, 2} {The cot of alot elements of the ordered pairs of Ri} Range (R) = (a,b, o} {Tho sot of all second elements of the ordored pairs of A} Note: Since 4s also a subset of A xB itis also a relation, Re g ={ is. called the null retation or void relation, Itis the smallest possible relation on A and B, Since Ax BEA x B.A x Bitself is a relation. I Contains all possible ordered pair combina felation from a set A toitselt is A x A, which i 33.1 Rerelative Sets For any element x R, we can is the biggest possible relation on A and 8, since fons from element of A and 8. Siri, the lrgext isthe universal relation in A. Gefine a set called R-relative set of x as As) ©f-+6 all the elements which are related to the ‘element x by relation R. Example: R= (1, 1)(1, 2), 3), 2,1), (2,2), (3,3)) RU) =(1,2, 3} R(2)=( 1, 2}and R (3) = (3) jou for some B.& A, we can define also AB) = (y| ‘AY, Nix eB). In example above, If B = (1, 3 IxAy, We B= (1, 3), then “all elements related to 10r 3 = (1,2, 3}, ae 3.3.2 Representation of Relations Since relations are also, ‘methods, used for representin, % rations can be represented by other methods such as mati ‘method, arrow method, ‘graphical method or digraph method, a ~~ ' Consider a relation R on = (yIsFyhie. R relative set $2 (of ordered pairs), They can be represented bylsing, set builder or statement ig sets, A=(1,2,3) B= (1,2,3,4) Set Builder: R = (,y)Ix < y)s a relation exp ressed in set builder method, Usting: = (1, 2.1, 31(1,4) (2,3), (2,4) (3,4) is the same ‘elation expressed in listing method, 12-38% fo 14 Matric: My= 2/0 0 1 41 is amatix representation of the same relation soo 014 f(, y)¢ R, then there will bea 1 in the position. ‘Corresponding to row representing elementx and column representing element y. Allother entries in My are made zero. Notice, that the row and column labels 4are shown for reference only and can be omitted as folows, # order of elements listed in A and Bis fixed, The elements of Mmay therefore be defined as to follows: qj = 1 {il there is a relation between element jof A and Element jof 8} = Ootherwise song Theo pan petals eu es N ‘The graphical representation of R would be as follows: a) 27 can Digraph : A Digraph (Directed graph) representation is suitable only if the relation is between a set Aand itself, Le. onAx Example: A= (1, 2,3, 4) Consider a relation on A x A given as follows. R={(1.1), (2.2), (1,2), (2,1) (2.3) ‘The Digraph for the above relation is shown below. @ The lines representing (1, 1) and (2, 2) are called self loops. For Example R = {(x, y)/x Sy} has a different meaning Rx R. (Note: the default set for numbers is the set of real nos). So, if you wish to allow only integer values of x and y the correct representation will be, let Rafe y)/xsylonZxZ Identity Relation Let A be anon empty set. Then the relation {(x, y):x, ye Aand x = y} is called identity relation. Example: Let A = (a, b,c, d} then the identity relation 1, = {(a, a), (b, b) (6, ¢) (2, d)} Identity relation is also known as diagonal relation, since in matrix representation of Z,, the diagonal ‘elements are all 1 (Identity matrix). specified on Z x Z, than when specified on 3.33 Operations on Relations ; Soe relations ar sts, al set operations canbe performed on relations also. Le. TR and Sao yp relations, than the folowing are defined, RUS, ANS, RES R-S,RUOS Example: R = {(1, 1) (1,2), (2,3)) S = ((1.2), (2,3), (3,3) on Ax Awhere A =(1,2,3) RUS = (1, 1}. (1,2), (2.3),(3,3)) RAS = ((1,2),(2,3)} =(AxA)-R=(1,3)(2, 1), (2,21 (3, 1) (3, 2)(8,3)) ReR P= U-S= (Ax A)—S = (1, 1), (1,3). (2, 1,(2,2),(8, 1), (3,2) (RS) =((1, 1)) (SAR) =((3, 3)) RS = (R-S)U(S-A) = (RUS)-(R NS) ={(1, 1),(3,3)) |n addition to the above operations, the following are also defined on R and S. ie. R', S-!, RoS, SOR. Definition: RY = (43)/6, YER) In this example: R=. 1,2,0.6.2) Note that if relates x to y, then Rt relates y back tox. S*= (2, 1).6,2),(8.3) Using matrics My. can be obtains by taking transpose of My Le. My. = (Ma)™ Composition of Relations ROS = (lz, Mx, z) € S and (z, y)e R) RoS is called composition of S with R, Similarly, SR is composition of R with S. TD find elements of oS. start wth Sand for each (x, z)¢ Sidentty elements of the type (2, y)e Rand ‘ite (x, 2) € RoS. This must be done for each o the ordered pair of S. Exampl RoS ={(1,3)) (NERS. 3(1,2)eS0R (12)ER&(2Z,3)eS. — +.(1,3)e SoR 23)eR&BRIES. —+.(2,3)e SoR SOR = ((1, 2), (1,9), (2, 3)) Note: RoS # SoR (Composition is not commutative) But, Ro SoT) = (Ro8) oT (Compositionis Associative) Using matrices for R& S, RoS can also be obtained as follows: Macs = Me M, Where © is boolean mutiplication of matrices 334 Typesof Relations 1, Reflexive Retetion Arelation Ron his calles refering, « fone Airis Example: Le 8 be a set A wi rnicgn fe, The ration 8 tollavive because every SIGN Nines is Grane te oa (a) n (6) The matrix ch a rehire ration wi crrtain 18% wh tm eagored eemtter. Yreho net 08 coher ty "1's paral of. ahs = 9,1), 2,2). 21,69, 2),5,9) selene i x outers hx (1,223 144 Nom, Ma=10 1 9} jo 0 4, Notice thet diagonal elements are ih 1, 4 This sa reflevive relation, (b) The digraph of a reflexive relation wil hae Se og on erery cade. Fer erarrpiafor 2o0Ve relation R, the digraph is (0) Ris reflexive if A Is reflexive, (6) Note that when chacking for reflexive property, check that every element is related to tse (€) Tocheck a set builder relation for rflevity etx Rx for en exttsery x and see itis tue. Thent Is reflexive, Examplo: R « ((x, y)|x divides y) Let x Rx = x divides x which is tue x. + Ris rellexivo, 2. Symmetric Relation: ‘Arelation R in A is callod aymmetrc relation if (x,y) « A=» (y, x) € R lo, xAynoyRe Ve, ye A (0) Tho matrix of a eymmetric relation wil be such as that M, = Mj i.e. the matrix willbe symmetric mati, Sinco Mj; represents tho inverse relation A~ 10 bo eymmotric Is A= A Example: R(t, 1), (1,2), (2 1), (8,2) (2, 3)} isa symmetric relation 14 Hore, Mp=|1 04 0 10, Notice that Mis a symmetric matrix, ‘Aigo, Rot £2 & (My)! = My necessary & sufficient condition for aretation (6) The raph ofa symmetric relation wil be such that allarrows (which are not selloops) wt bg $e digr toon 7 (b) 0 (a). Of course, since self ico from (a) to (b), there will be an arrow | from ( ). ° 4 SE arcs eae ae ans en Now, LetxRy be trua=x+ y= 10 = ytx= 10 yRe «+ Ris symmetic (2 Since on pcan tu whenever LS alse, hn -xRy itself false, then by default Ri symmati, «. The empty relation is always symmeti. 3 Anti Symmetric Relat Arelation Ron A is caled anti symmetric itt xFy => y fe, unless x = y wea grate folowing detnitoniseasarto use in practice, A relation Rls anieymmetic i (x Je R and (y.a)eRaoxey sRyand yRe=s= ys, ye A amet trope basil rear fof reaonsarsone wey, Ecxept x sole, which are atways two-ways). (©) Themarxofanantsyrmotic rlasonwilhave a0" inthe mor mage postion (using diagonal {28 mirror) for every “1” inthe off clagonal. Fe check for antisymmetry, check he 1s in off agonal and seeia‘0is therein jcoresponcing mirror image position. ignore diagonal 1s in this check (©) Te check chreph or antsymmoty ignore ee lops and check hat for ‘every arrow going fom to O(a, baste) there is no arrow rom bio a Le. Alanoue (Except seltioops) are uniitectona, Example: R = (1,1), 2,3), (1, 3)}s antisymmetric tot My=|0 0 4 000 ‘The digraph is unidtectional except for set4oops (@) Tocheck a set builder relation for antisymmetry, Let xy and yx and solve. ithe only soit is.x= y, then Ris antisymmetic. Example: R = ((x,y)/x divides y) x, ye N Now LetsAy and y= x divides y and y vides x ->.x ¥ Ris antisymmetric. () ItxAyand yx cannot be satistied by any elements i.e, LHS is false, by default the implicaiot becomes true, ie. Ris antisymmetric, Example: R = ((x, y) [Is father of Now Let xAy and yRr axis father of yand yis father of x. Now, this is not at all possible, Always false, ‘by default the Implication is true and the relation is antisymmetric. 4 Transitive Relations ‘Aralation R on Ais called transite if, y) (2) R= (x 2) € F je. xRyand yRz=xRz x,y, 26 A samp: relation eater than’ detinad onthe set ofnaturalriunbes Nis wansiive BeCa¥2% y ze Nitx> y,y> zthen x > Z {@) Transition property i cific to check with a ma {@) Transtve property can be checked on a cigraph by possible (J). 2) arrow and seeing it, 2) arrow also exists, Sell Ioop5 analysis since they always are transitive. ‘Tis procedure although tedious, can be used for checking a smal digraph for transitivity. (©) Tochecka set builder elation for transit, LetxRy and ‘yAzand solve these two equations If Thor eno solution, orf the solution results in Az, then relation Is wansive. ‘anning each nade systematically all an be ignored inthis Example: Re (pix +yiseven) Now Let xAy and yRz = xty= ky w(t) and y+z= 2 2 ‘Adding (1) and (2) we get 4 2y4z2 Akt) = x42 Okt hI) x + zis also oven = xAz =: Ristransitive (@ Notice that xy and yR2' transitive. 5. Inreflexive Relation: iarelation R on Ais called irefiexive if Vx¢ A. (=, ) € B. ie Wee A xAx Example: Let Sethe set ofalstaght ines, terelaion Ron defined by “xis perpendiculartoy", isirefexive, since no ine is perpendicular to tet {@) lrreflexive property means strictly no sel loops 0 matrix representation. (ie. all's in diagonal of Mp). {&) inthe buider form this can be checked by puting +R ‘and seeing if this is always false. Example: R= (ey) /-xis one inch from y} defined on set of PIs nS plane. Letefiews pris one inch from itsell. Which is aways false. Hence Ris irreflexive. (©) An itefioxve roltion is surely not reflexive, but not rflextve relation may of may not be flexive. i. ireflexive = not reflexive not efiexive 4 ireflexive Example: A = {(1, 1), (2.3) (3: 1) 0" ‘A= 1, 2,3) is neither reflexive, nor reflexive. ig always fase (Le, no solution toxAy and yz), then by default Ris digraphs. Strictly no ts in the diagonal of the 6 Asymmetric Relation: lation it (ee R= (y.xeR xy yAx. A relation Rion A is an asymmetric rel 2 ‘This is similar to antisymmetric property in that all relations are unidirectional, except that, antisymmetric the self loops are alowed, but here in asymmetry even self loops are not alowed (ig ‘ticty unidirectional). Example: A = ((x,)|2is father of ¥) Lot zRy = xis father of y = yis not father of x xy=>yflx. :. Ris asymmetric. Notice that there are no self loops here, i. x cannot be father of x. (@) The matrix of an asymmetric relation must have 0'S in all diagonal positions (no setf loops). Alss wherever a“1"is in off diagonal, a 0" must be there in corresponding mirror image position. (©) The digraph ofa relation can be easily checked for asymmetry, as follows. ‘Check that there are no selt-loops. Also check that every arrow is unidirectional. (©) Tocheck a relation in set builder for asymmetry, Let xR. This must imply that y Ax. (d) IfxRyis always false, then by default the relation is asymmetric i.e. is an asymmetric relation. Equivalence Relation: A relation R on a non empty set A is called equivalence relation iff (@) Risreflexve ie xr Wee A (b) Ris symmetic ie xAy = yRe (© Ristransitve Le xAy and yRz=xRz Vx, y,z6 A Example: R = {(x, y)| x |] y} on straight ines on a plane. Here, Il means “Parallel to”. LetxRr. xR =92||x is always tue since every - Ris reflexive, Set xAy=2 x] y= yl|x => ye Ris symmetric ‘Now, Let sAyand ye =>x|| yand y||z=>x||z=> xRz. + Riis transitive. Now we say that, Ris an equivalence relation since itis reflexive, symmetric and transitive. A relation R on a non empty set A is called a partial order relation if. x & Partial Order Relation: (@) Ris reflexive Vx € A, xP (0) Ris antisymmetric xAy and yx => x = y (©) Ris transitive xAy and yRz => xRz Example: A =((A, 8)|A cB) on sets Now, ¥A Ac Ais true. +. Ris reflexive LetAcBandBcA Now, this => A = Ris antis im symmetric Let Ac Band Bcc Now, this = A= C +. Ris transitive We now say that Risa partial order relation, since it is reflexive, antisymmetric and transi equivalence Relation, Equivalence Classes and Quotient Set Let R be an equivalence relation on A x A Now equivalence class of x © A can be writen as [x ‘We define [1] = {y|xRy1 ie. for every element of A ws goments related 10 tun we can define its equivalence class as the set of al Example: R= ((1, 1), (2,2). (3, 3),(1, 2),(2, Nis iva is Now, t= (1.2) ‘an equivalence relation on A = {1, 2, 3} [= 121) 8-9 Notice that [1] = [2] Le. There are only 2 distinct equivalence classes, Now the set ofall equivalence is called the quotient set of A induced by R, denoted as AR Here AR = {11}, (2). [31 (11, 2).43)) —_— ‘NOTE Here, the converses also rue, | Theorem: Corresponding to every partion P of A, there exists an unique equivalence relation whose quotient setis exactly P, ‘Theorem: Every quotient set A/R is also a pariition of A. To find the equivalence relation corresponding to a given partition, Simply take the union of the cross product of the blocks of the partition with themselves. Example:LetA =[1, 2,3, 4) Find the Equivalence relation corresponding tothe pariton P, = (1 2). {3.41} Now there are two blocks A, = {1, 2}& A, = (3, 4}in P, ‘Tne equivalence relation R corresponding to partion P, is simply, R=AKAUAXA, = ((1,1),(1,2), (2,1), (2,2). B39), 8, 4) (4, 3) (4, 4)) Similarly the equivalence relation corresponding to partition P= {(1, 2,3), (4I} is R= ((1, 1), (1,2), (1,3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), 8, 1,8, 2), (8,39). (4,4) Theorem: he relation congruence modulo mis defined as R= ((x.y)}| x= ymod m} (where misa freed integer). Ths relation partons the set of integers Z into exactly m distinct equivalence classes. Itcan be shown that the m distinct equivalence classes are (0) = kan, ke 2} t= km+i.ke 4 [mt] = yly= km +(m-1), ke 2} ‘These are also called residue classes since 0, 1,2, ...m=1 are the residues obtained upon dividing any Integer by m. yents. What is the total number of elations possible on ARs (from A to B)? Solution: ‘The cross product A x B has m+ nordered pairs. And every elation Ris either a subset or proper subset of Ax B. This problem reduces to number of subsets of ordered pairs in A x B, There total number of relations are 2". ‘What Is tha total nurnbor of reflexive relations from Bet A to itself having 'k ‘olamante Inthe Bo Soluttons ~ i= Beds mo Whee Wo can rapretant relation as matix of size Kx K, | Thora ara K’ raloxive pars and hanes diagonal elements aro fized as 1. Thara aro (K? ~ K)non-diagonal pai, Therefore numberof raloxive relations are aqual to number of subsets of non-iagonal elements, 1 ok eee ‘What Ie the total number of ‘symmetric, relations from set A to itself that has ‘nt olomonta? | Solutlon: a Conair roation as n xn mati, Thora ao’n! dlagonalelomonts representing rellexive pairs or fal cope, Thoroforo 2" boots of oloxve par. In eyrmotic roation, te ordered paire above the agonal ermanta ra miror image ofthe ordorod pars below the diagonal, Thorolro, =" pala are obo takan, Pen shan 2x22 = 22 eymmotticrelations | | EEE Water ictar number otaniopmmanie relations from Set Ato itself which ‘hao 'r! olomonto? Solutlon: Sollloops aro alwaye allowod, Thorolore 2° ordered palre are not allowod, 1.6. f(a, b) oxlste thon (b, a) should not be presont 4 Total ‘Subsets of rllexive pats, In aneymmetic relations symmetric | ‘Tho Imago pale can tako (10,01, 00} but not (11), Therefore, 3 possibile fora (43) pairs. | ton * Total antiaymmotric relations aro 2°32 LotR = ((a, b), (b, 0), following lo transitive closure of (a) {(a, b), (b, ©), (e, d), (a, d)) (b) ((@, b), (b, ©), (¢, a), (a, 0), (b, d), (2, dd (©) (fa, b), (b, 0), (0, 4), (b, a), (0, b), (d, )) (d) None of those (6, d)) bo a rolation on set (a, , ¢, d). Which of the Solution: (b) R= ((a,b) (b,c) (64) Transitive closure of R = ((2,b), (b, ¢) (6d). (8, €) (Psd), | Missing elements In R: (ii) (b,c) and (c, d) = (b. 4) (9 (@,b)and (b,c) =9 (2,6) (ui (ec) and (C, 6) = (2, &) 3.4 Functions Definition: A function or aqdere pairs withthe same first component. hor words, a function is a unique valued relation. ie. every element of Ais mapped to only one jenn ot However, elements of Bmay be related fo more than one eleriers of A se tet every function isa relation, buta relation may or may not be a function. rae it element may be thought of as input andthe second element 2s output every input has a unique output. f= {(, 1), (2.3) (8, 8)} 8 a function on Ax A, where A = (1, 2,3) 1 mapping isa relation between the elements of A and those of 8 having no then, ina function, £3) = B)=3 B= [(1. 1) (2, 9).(2, 4), (8, 9)} isnot function, since R(t) = (11,22) = (3, 41. RG) = (3) Hore R(2) has 2 values 3 and 4 and hence Ris nota fun There are two ways to writ a function, one asa formula and other as arelation Example: (3) = and f= (cx, y)ly = #4 ae both one and the same function, Takreer enti es A» B, itmeans that fis a mapping that takes all elements of and maps each, to ‘unique element of B. It must be noted here {@) that there may be some elements of (0) that each element of set A must be associated with one an Then Ais the domain of f and B is the Co-domain of *f Hee ye fits customary to write y= f(). vis called tho image ofx and xs called the preimage ot y. yi also called value of fat x. The set ff Itis denoted by f(A). Range of f= f(A) = {f(e)|x€ AL To check ifa given relation is a function f: AB ct (Ye A,is f(x) defined and belongs to B? (i) f(2)is unique, and single valued, (4, y)|y = 3x +1Jon Fx Ris a function, since, O We R, Si) =yar+1ER (i) + thas a single value for any real value +, 4+ Sis function, We say SR R oF Spon the set B which are not associated to any element of set A. \d only one element of set B. consisting of all images of elements of Ais called the range heck the following: 34.1 One-OneMapping A function f: A -»B Is said to be one-one i diferent elements of A have diferent mages ing Hay) = (xg) =9 x, = x, OF equivalently x, #.x, =9 f(x) # f(x) (One-one mapping are also called injection. To check f a function is one to one, Let f(x,) = f(x.) and see if this leads to asingle solution. tt 50, fis one-to-one. Els, itis many to one. (Assuming, itis function.) Example: § = (x, y)|y= 3x +1} on xR. We already have checked that indeed Sis a function Now to check 1 ~ 1, wo sot Stx,) = St) 79; = Yqo9 Oty $1 = Bey aoe «2 Sis one-to-one function 342 Many-OneMapping ‘Afunction f: A Bis said to be many one if two or more diferent elements in A have the same fimage ins. ‘Afunction which is not one-to-one is many to one. Notitcan easily be checked tha Ts indeed a function Now et Tx) = Th)=>¥4=Yo-e xf = a8 Now, 22 = x3 has two solutions x, =x, Or =~f, 2. Wo say, x2 5 Thay) = Thy) Sx, =%2 This means Tis not one-to-one, ie, Itis many-to-one function, Let f:A>B (here f: AA since A= 8) 343. Into-Mapping The mapping fs said to be into If there is at least one element in B which is not the Fimage of ary element in A. Inthis case f(A) <8. range of A is a proper subset of B. (1,1), 2,9), (8,4), (4.3)} Example: Where, A=B={1,2,3,4) Now, NA) = (1,3, 4) (12,3, 4) «+ fis an into function. 344 OntoMapping The mapping { Is sald to be onto iff avery elements in B, is the (Lo, every element of B has atleast ono pre-image in A). Inthis case (A) = B {e., the range of f= Co-domain ‘Onto Mapping is also called surjectlon. Brample: Let £:A-Bbe f= 10.10.23), 4),¢4,2)) where, A= Bait,2.3,4 Now, <: fis an onto function, We say, fis A onto B, we aprtnag ae HFN Oenin emul of set bude rttonis no cot, ea every elonert ye Bhas a preimage in A Example: Checkit : RA £3) = 3-41 is onto or not 62,3, FA) = (1,.2,3, 458 tet, 1G) = y=Seet Now soWve xin terms of ie. ono eVyeRxeR Every element yin second set has a primage inthe fist set. Le fis onto function, | NOTE: if ancion!ZA~ Bis bo cnc one an oi, arte a bigGan incon GT aUIBERA A 4 [bijection s also called a one-one correspondence between A and B. two sets Aand 8 aren 1-1 corespondence, then Al = UI, tnatis they have exactly same number of elements, 345 Composition of Function Definition: Let A+ Band g:B+C he composiion ff and g denctedby go, read as goresutsinanewhuncton {rom A» andi given by (90). (x)= ol) Wye A Faxample: Let A= 12,9), B= (ab) and C= {r,s} and f:A-+ Bis defined by (1) = aand f(2)= a ‘and f(8) = band g: B+ C be defined by ga) = 5, ob) = r Then gof: A» Cis defined by, (of (1) = o(F(1)) = g(a) (gof) (2) = 9(f(2)) = ga) (gof (3) = a(f(3)) = 9(6) Example: Let f: RR Rbe f(z) =x4+2 Let g: RR be g(a) = 22 Now (got (x)= o(F(s) = g(x + 2) = (+2)? (fog)tx) = fate) = 8) = 22+ 2 Note that fog # gof (composition is not commutative) However, fo(goh) = (fog)oh (composition of functions is associative) ‘Theorems (@) If fand gare one-one then |gof is one-one (b) If fand gare onto, then got is onto (©) If fand gare bijections, then. ‘gof is also a bijection. Mdentity Mapping Ais anon- empty set then fA B such that f(x) = x, Vr Ais called identity mapping. itis deney ea byl, Inverse Mapping {His one-one and onto (bijective), rom f:A-»B, thon ft exists andi cartes. laments of Bback Faample: Lot f= (1,2) (2,3), (, 1} is atunetion on f: A> Awhere A= [1,2 3) Now f-"= (2, 1), (8,2), (1, 8)] is the inverse function (1) = 2and #12) 1 Pf inverse of set builder functions, the folowing procedure is given: Example: Find inverse of ) =r 41, 1: R 1) = y= Se 44 1. Wrte.xin terms of y 2. Now, iff) = yore My) a Myers 22 te. Hyp 21 : ‘Since ys @ dummy variable, we can replace it with x also, ie HG) = + HM) = ar + 4, then () = = Here the inverse exsts becauso f(x) = r+ 1 isa bijection fom RtoR. How many onto functions from a set with six eloments to @ Sol wi three elements? . Solution: L2tF.Feand P, be the properties that bb, and b, ate notin the ‘ange of the function, respectively. ote that a function is ONTO if and only ithas none of properties P,, Pyor Py. Hence by using incusion-exclusion principle the number of ONTO functions from a set with sixelements toa setwith three elements are: (P,P; Ps) = Total # of functions Possible — [n(P,) + n(P,) + n(P,)] + UAP,P,) + APP.) + MXP P2)1— m(P,P2P,) ‘(F)) > is the number of functions that do not have in their range. 1XF;P))—>'s the number of functions that do not have +b, and bjin their range, (F, FFs) isthe numberof functions that do not have +, byand b, in their range, The total number of functions are 38, “{P,) = 2° (since b, Is notin range every elementin domain have ‘two choices (b, and b,). Similarly, MAP2) = MP.) = r{P,) =28 * TAPP) = APP.) = . (Evr/oent ith arama soe toa) = MAPLP APA) = 0 ieamrvaemnts see se fav eeronmh ince 1 Mimber ONTO taco «3-362 ax ee 709- Noo:Letmandn bo postnoinegersuihinwn Noreen r— 90, (= 1)" + °C, (n= ZY" "Cy (n= 3)" +. 4-1-1 9C,_, FEEEEIEEME tow many ways aro there to assign fve diferent Jobs to four different ‘employees If every employee Is assigned to atleast one job? Solution: ‘Consider the assignment of obs as a function from the seto five jobs tothe set of four employees. An assignment where every employee gets atleast one job is same as an onto function from the set of jobs tothe set of employees. Hence number of onto functions are: B= AC = AY # °Cl1~2Y"—"OL0~ 3 (APN My wheren=4,=5 * BACB) + 4G, (2)°—4Cy(1)> = 1024-4 x 243 + 6 x 32-4 = 240 8 that have none of by, by and by in thet range. Cleary, in EXEEEEEE Let fbe the function from fa, b, ¢, d} to (7, 2, 3, 4) with Ma) = 4, Mb) =2, f(c) = 1 and 1(d) = 3. 1s fa bijection. Solution: ‘The function fis one-to-one and onto. tis one-to-one because notwo values inthe domain are assigned the same function value. Itis onto because all four elements ofthe co-domain are images of elements in the domain, Hence fis a bijection. Figure displays four functions where the firsts one-to-one but not onto, the second is onto but not one- to-one, the thd is both one-to-one and onto, and the fourt is nether one-to-one nor onto. The fifth correspondence in figure isnot a function, because it sends and element to two diferent elements. Suppose that fis a function rom a set Atoiisell. IAs finite, then fis one-to-one ifand onl iftis onto, This is not necessarily the case if Ais infinite, (Nomen One (Onmtnore (Neerratene (ete ben roren relorwicone Cardone ron oat ot a fe BD Th Se a be 2 “3 3 “3 SS ce +3 ce ce a eh de © sae ng de et 4 esa ate yet oon Let fbe the function from {a, b, c) to (1, 2,3} such that (@) = 2, f(b) f(c) = 1. Is finvertible and if itis what is Its inverse? Solution: ton tt The function fis invertible because itis a one-to-one correspondence. The inverse function reverse the correspondence glen by f, 80 /"(1)= 0, (2) =a, and F1(9) = B. EEE et 1:2 Z bo such that x) = e+ 1. inverse? Solution: The function fhas an inverse because I's. @ one-to-one ct the correspondence, suppose that yi he nage ols, so that y=x 1. Thenx= y~ 1.Thismeans that {yi the unique element of Z tha is sent to y by f- Consequently, (~(y) = ¥~ 1 [EEE | 0¢ 00 tho function from R to R with (=) = =. 18 invertible? Solution: Because f(-2) = (2) = 4. fis not one-to-one. If an Inverse function were defined, ‘assign two elements to 4. Hence f is not invertible, Sometimes we can restrict the domain or the cco-domain of a function, or both, to obtain an invertible function, ‘orrespondence, @s We have shown. To reverse it would have to ‘Show that if we restrict the function f(x) =>? n example previous to a function from the set of all non-negative real numbers to the set of all non-negative real numbers, then f is invertible, Solution: The function f(x) = x8 from the set of non-negative real numbers tothe set of non-negative real numbers, Is one-to-one. To see this note that if f(x) = fx), then.x?= y2, sox? y®= (x+y) (xy) = 0. This means thatx +y=Oorx-y=0, sox =-yor = y. Because both x and yare non-negative, we must have = y. So, this function is one-to-one. Furthermore, f(x) = x®is onto when the codomain is the set ofall ‘non-negative real numbers, because each none-negalive real number has a square root. Thatis, it yis ‘anor-negative real number, there exists a non-negative real number x such that x = /Y, whic that? = y. Because the function /(z) = x? rom the set of non-negative real numbers to the set of non- means negative real numbers is one-to-one and onto, it invertible. Its inverse is given by the rule f(y) = Jy. EGEEEREN ot o be the tinction irom the set (@, 6, o} to itself such that gla) = b, @, and g(c) = a, Let fbe the function from the set (@, b, c} to the set (1, 2, 3) such that f(a) = 3, What isthe composition of fand g, and what is the composition of g and f? 2, (Fo g) (b) = fig(b)) = f(a) = 1, ‘and (fo g)(c) = f(9(¢)) = f(a) = 3. Note that g o fis not defined, because the range of fis not a subset of the domain of g. FEEEEIEREN) tnd abe the functions from the set of integers to the sat of rtogers defined by fx) = 2x +9 and g(x) = ax + 2. What is the composit i 3 of gandf? Postion of fand g? What isthe composition Solution: (FoQ) (x)= Mole) = (3x +2) = 28 +2) 43= 647 Each (901) @) = 9(f(x)) = g(2x+3) = 3(2r +3) +2=6r411 3.5 Equal Functions ‘wo unctlons {and g on same domain A aro equa (x)= gla), Wee A symmetrle Function Mt fand f-" aro equal then { is sald to bo symmottlc: functior for exam Lot = 12,7). (8, 8) (7,2), (8,9) thon "= (7, 2) (8, 3),2. 7, 8 Horo f= and Hence fis symmatric function, Binary Operation as a Function Consider a set’ and an operation denoted by s' whlch when placed between two elements @ and b ‘produces a unique result denoted by a b which may or may not belong to A. {1''Is nary operation on A and a+ be AV a, be A, then'e'ls sad to be closed and we say Ais ‘losed wit respect to binary operations” Sinco a + bis uniquo (single valued) and also if +" is closed on A, then we may look ata binary ‘poration as a function from A x Ato A, Insuch a case instead of a * b, we may even write it in functional notation as « (a,b). a+ b= + (a, b) defined on Z x Z maps pairs of integers to a value which is their sum. Le, e(.getees (1,2) is mapped to 3 «: Inthis case this is a function + : 2 x ZZ ‘Abinary operation may be defined as a formula or as a binary operation table, Example: a+ b= a+ b—abis a binary operation defined by formula method Say * is defined in Z Then2+3=243-2x 41#2=142-(1x2)= 1 and soon. Example: Let a binary operation be defined as in the following binary operation table. be from table we can see that a* b= a& be b=c&as(b+c)=aec=b 3.6 Groups ‘Algebraic Structure: A non empty set S along with one or more binary operations is called an algebraic structure, Suppose «is binary operation on S, Then (S,4)isanalgebrale structure. (N+). (2,4). (2-W(Res.%) are all examples of algebraic structures. 36.1 SemiGroup Analgebraic structure (G, »)is called a semi group ifthe binary operat be G) and is associative in G ((a* b) * c= a+ (b+ c) Va, b,ce G). Example: (2, +)is a semi group since 1. Va,beZ,a+ be Z closure) 2. Va,b.ceZ,a+(b+c)=(a+b)+e jon *isclosedonG (a+ be GA, However (2,-) is not semigroup since although closure property holds, associative property does ne, hold for", a= (b=) 6)—6. 3.62 Monold An algebraic structure (M, 4) scaled a monotd, i. ("+ "isclosed on i) "+ “is associative & ii) e« G such that VaeM, e+ a= a= ae ‘Such an element "is unique and is called the identity element forthe moncic. NOTE: Every monoidis a semigroup but the converse inno rue. Example: (Z, +s not only a semigroup, buts alo a mandid since and (i holds and Wx € Z, x+ ' {rots oenty sane forre ora operon“ on 2 Nice thal Nis aso arene snc Osi However (2*,+)is semigroup, butnot amoroid since 0 2°. WOE N= 0, 1,2.8,4..)« Gotol WelnoGer)” ‘etl non-negative ieger Seale 8 he] BE [1-28 an) RZ= (0 2,42, sto ntegers 363 Group ‘An algebraic structure (G,+)is called a group. i the binary operation satisfies the following postulates, 1. Closure property: a+ be Gva, be G 2. Associatvity: (a+ b)* c= ae (b+ 0) Va, b, ceG ‘3. Exlstence of identity: There exists an element 2 Gsuch that e+ a eis called identity for's' in G." 4. Existence of inverse: Each element of G possesses an inverse. nother words for each ae G, there ‘exists an element be G, Such that a+ b= b+ a= @. The element bis called inverse of and we write Thus "tis an element of G, such that a* a" = a"'+ a +) is not only a semigroup and a monoid, but itis also a group. (Z, +)has already has been shown to satsty (i) closure (ii) association property and (ti) existence of ‘entity. Now we shall show that conaiton (iy) for group, also holds for (Z, +) Vr. Z, It inverse exists it must satisfy, x #2!= xe x= @ = +x! 2x1 +10 /(since Dis the identity element for +) = rle-rsine-rez 2. Vee Z.re Zexists Just ike identity element, the inverse is also unique for a given element. Notice, however that there is only one deny element fr the ent group, whereas there isa unique inverse for each eloment of in (Z +) the identty elementisOfor the entire group, while inverse of | is ~1, inverse of 2is 2, andsoon Note however that (2, x) isnot group sine although itis closed, associative, identity exes (c 1 inverse does not exist forall elements. =a=a+ eVae G. Theelement Exampl atateateactartia! a butO€ Zand does rothaveaninvers, since + = me 2 +: 2.x) nota group. 3.64 Abelian Group or Commutative Group ‘Agroup G is said to be abelian or commutative, tin ada eee Madalton tothe above four postulates, the olowing Commutative: e.,a* b= b+ aVa, be G, Example: (Z, +) is an abslian group, since ith eee 2s already bean shown to be a group, le Wy yeZxeyayes, Notice thatthe set of (2 x 2 non singular matrices, «) *) when "es mat : sn abelian group, sino matixmutipicaionis not commutative, "emulations a group but not le A*B#B*A,VABe (2x 2ron singular matices) 3465 Finite orInfinite Groups tin a group G, the underlying set G consists ofa finit and it has the le number of el is finite group, otherwise as infinite group, wrest oon Bead Order of the Group ‘The number of elements in a finite group is called the order of group. An infinite group is said tobe ot infinite order, Some General Properties of Groups: Suppose our group consists of a non-empty set G equipped with a binary operation denoted by . Then, 1, Theidentity element in a group is unique. 2. The inverse of each element of a group is unique. 3. Ifthe inverse of ais a~, then the inverse of a is ae (art)! = 4, The inverse of the product of two elements of a group Gis the product of the inverse taken in reverse order (ab)' = b-'a”' Va, be G. 5. Ifa, b, care any elements of G, then ab = ac=> b= (Left Cancellation Law) ba= ca=> b= c. (Right Cancellation Law). 6. Ifa, bare any two elements of a group G, then the equation ax = band ya= bhave unique solution in, given by x = a*t band y = ba”, respectively. 7. The left inverse of an element is also its right inverse i.e if a~‘ is left inverse of a(i.e. a-'a = e), then aa’ = @, which means that a“ is also the right inverse of a. 366 CayleyTable The binary operation table for a finite group are called cayley tables. A.cayley table for a group with only 4 elements is presented below: eab cme ity elementin the Itcan be verified that ({e, a, bc}, #)is indeed a group. Itis conventional to putthe identity elem front of both row and column in a cayley table. — Properties of Cayley Tables: 1. Therowand column containing e willbe a copy ofthe column headers & row headers respective, This is because by defiriionr+e=e+x=x VreG 2. Since ax= band ya= b have a unique solution, Every elementin every row (or column) ofthe tabje ‘must be different Thatitto say that no element canbe repeated in any row (or column) i.e. Each row or columns ony ‘permutation ofthe element of G. Inthe example given each row and column can be seen to be a permutation of, a,b, 3, The cayley table tells us i the group is abelian or not. If the cayley table is symmetric about the siagonal (ass the casein the example given), then the group is abelian. 4. Inthe cayley table ite appears anywhere in off diagonal, then anather @ has to appear inits mior image location (using diagonal as the miro). Thisis because, an off diagonal emeans a# band a+ b=, but, this implies that be a= e, Thereby the mior image location must also have an ¢. « appearsin the diagonal, then he corresponding element i its own inverse, ‘Theorem: Ifevery element ofa group is its own inverse, then the group is abelian, (The converse is not necessarily tue. Inother words, iG is a group and Ve Git Multiplication Modulo p then the group is abelian, ‘We shall now define a new type of multiplication known as ‘multiplication modulo p' and written as ax, b where aand bare any integers and pis a fixed positive integer. By definition. We have @x,b = r,0S r< phere is the least nonnegative remainder when ab is divided by p. For Ex. 8x3 = A (since 24 = 4 (5) +4) Also, 4x,2= 1 (since 4x 2=8=1(7)+1) ‘Some Properties of Integers: Let, -8,-2,-1,0,1,2,3....) be the set of integers Division Algorithm Letae Zand de 2*. Then we can divide aby bto get nonnegative remainder rwhich is smaller in size than. Inother words if ae Zand d e Z*, then there exist unique integers qand rsuch that = dq+rwhereos red Example: a= 23, d=3, then 23=37 +2, (ais called quotient and ris called as reminder). Divistbility in Set of integers Leta, b#0¢ |. We say that ais divisible by bif a= bmwhere mis some it " tae eget ie. at is a multiple of b. eerie tba Greatest Common Divisor and bit Let a and 6 be any two integers, Then the Positive integer cis said to be greatest common divisor of @ (@ claendelb (i) Whenever d| and dl, then dle The greatest common dvsor of integer aand bvil be symbolically denoted by GCD (a,b) 467 Some Classic Examples of Group's 1, LetB = (0, 1} & operation + is defined as +04 oo il10 P with O as identity an ents ovm vers 2. (Zp +9) i8 an abelian group for every me 2+, where Z,, is the set of equivalence classes for the relation congruence modulo m& +,,is the modulo m addition The operation table for (Z,+,)is {2|_ [3] 2B) 2 bt (2 {3} [4 (9 § (4 fo tf (2 WIA oO fh a Here, [1]= set of allintegers which leave aremainder of 1 when divided by 5 = (26, +11, 216, + + (Gm +1)} of course, a simpler form of thsi simply ((0, 1, 2,3, 4, +4). Then (B, +) is an abelian grou send ile 3, When pis prime, ({1, 2,3, ... PM), x,)is always on abelian group. Example: ((1,2, 3 3 1 4 2 A i |. is.als0 Here the inverse of 21s 3, 3is 2, 4is 4 1is 1. Amore general version ofthis (2,10). anabelian group. x 2)_(3]_[4) eae 2) 3} (4 (2 wile 0 4. Symmetric group of permutations: : Let § = (1, 2.3} Let S,be the set of all permutations on S. There are 3! = 6 m permafaons is 2one-one, orto map from’ StoS. The S, form @.group under the operation con, ‘ofmappings. Tis group S, is called the symmetric group of permutations of order Pon Consider S = [1, 2,3}. Then S5= [2,, Pp» Pps Pas Pas Pel Where toa es “24 Bale sbelo 1 alos 2 1 eal ft? line! | melts keels e bens + 2 ‘The compostions 0 are given in table below: OP: Pe Ps Pi Ps Pe Pile Pe Ps Pe PS Po Po | Pe Pi Pe Ps Ps Pe Ps | Pa Ps Pi Pe Po Me Pe | Pe Pa Ps PL Ps Me Ps|P5 Pa Pe Po Pa Pt P51 Ps Pe Po Pa PL PS Py isthe identity element. , is called the group of symmetric of a triangle. ‘This group is not abelian. Power of an Element Let(G, «) bea group andlet 2 G, forany postion integer m, we define, a= a+ a+ a*...«a(mimes) and 2 = (2) (2) + (2)... #(€*) (mtimes) & = e and if m& nare position integers, then a+" = a+ @ Example: On (z, +) which is group Bat4tet1=3 2n2+24+206 28a 2442442422) +(2)4(-2)=-6 Order of an Element of a Group ‘Suppose Gis group. By the order of an element ae G, is meant the least positive integer n, fone exists such that 2” = @ (the identity of G). lf there exists no positive integer n such that a” = e, then we say that ais of infinite order. We shall use the symbol O(@) to denote the order of a. Example: Consider the group given below ‘The order of the group = |G| = 4 The order of element @is 1 since e! = @ ‘The order of element ais 4 since a =a+a+a*a=beasanceane ‘The order of element bis 2 since b= b+ b = end the order of element cis 4 since c= c* 6" °° b*c*c=a*c=ein(Z, +), the order of each element other than 0 is « and the order of element 018 some Rests Regarding Order of an Element ‘The order of every element of a finite group is fi ‘The order of an element a of a group toto came as aialestnan or equal order 0p. ‘The order of any integral power of an element a, carnal berites x protect Ghai onion tan Oa9HGieediterda perder ofthe elements a and x" ax ae the same whore a» are Prearof abis samo as tha of ba where aand bare any elements ots ru elements of a group. Pais an element of order nand ps prim ton, then islsoof oder 36s cyelicGroup ‘Agroup (2, +)|s called a cyclic group i ther exists an element a G such that every element of pewitonas aor some niegern-ThatisG= (a n< 2, We say hat is generated by nisthegeowtsoral veo may then wit G2) oF (2), Natural, acyce grove i abelian, + alse generar “the order ofa cyclic Group is same as that a its generator. 4. (2. +)isacyclic group generated by 1 2. (Zp ty) is generated by [1] Note that in example 1, order of G = order of 1 = e and in example 2, order of G = Zp = order of (em Properties of Cyclic Group: +. Every cyclic group is an abelian group. 2. fais generator ofa cyclic group G, then a is also a generator of G a. -Reyelic roup G with generate of finite order ssomorphic to multiplicative group of. 1918 of unity. 14, Acyclic group G with a generator classes modulo n. 5. afite group of order mcontans element of order nthe group must be eyel. 6. Every group of prime order is cyclic. 7. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. Method for Finding the number of generators of a cyclic group of order n: Tho number of generators ctacyclc group of order nis same as the number of numbers from 1 19% which are relatively prime to n. Method for finding the number of numbers from 1 to.n, which aro relatively prime to n: The number cof umbers from 1 to.n, which are relatively prime to ni.e., god (m1) ' given by the Euler Totient function where py, Peete are distinct prime numbers, then of finite order n is isomorphic to the additive group of residue ¢{n). If nis broken down into its prime factors as = pt’ pe. 40) = 640%") 4(p%).. then by using the property Xe") = phe" we can find each of o(0)"), (28%). @t0- For example, lotus find the numberof generat of acyclic OAR ‘of order 80: ‘The number of generators of a cyclic group of ‘order 80 = The number of numbers from 1 ton, which are ‘elatively rime to 0. Since 80 = 2x8" Tho number of numbers from 1 ton, which are relatively prime to 80 = (80) = 6(24) x. 45") Now 6 (24) = 24 29» 16-8 =8, Similarly, 6 (6) = 51~ 59m 6 = 14, 80, 6(80) = 8x 4 = 32, ‘So, the number of genorators of a oyciic group of order 80 Is exactly 32. 3.6.9 Subgroup Let(G, )b9. group. Anon empty subset Ho! Gis called a subgroup of ifthe folowing conten, - sallstiod, 1. acH, be H= ae be H (closure) 2, The identity ec H also (exlstence of identity) 3. ae H=>a"1¢ H (existence of inverse) In other words, (H.+) Ia subgroup of (6,*), iH = G and (H,«)istself a group (since associate ly holds in H also.) Example: (E, +) where Eis the set of even integers isa subgroup. Infact, (kz +) wien ke 2%, ing ‘subgroup of (z, +). Properties of Subgroup: 1. Forany group (6. »),(e),#)and (, #)are called tral subgroups. Other subgroups (any) of(,) are called proper subgroups. 2. The identity of a sub group is same as that ofthe group (as seen in definition). 3. The inverse of any element ofa subgroup is same as the inverse ofthat element when regardedas part of the group. 4. The order of any element of a subgroup is same as the order of that element when regarded as member ofthe group. Important Results 1. Anecessary and suificient condition for a non-empty subset H of a group to be a subgroup is that 2 H, be H, = ab“ H where b~ is the inverse of bin G, 2. Anecessary and sufficient condition for a non empty finite subset H of a group G, to be a subgroup 's that H must be closed with respect to multiplication ie ae H, be H= abe H. ITH, K are two subgroups of a group G, then HK is a subgroup of G iff HK = KH, IH, K are subgroups of an abelian group G, then HK is subgroup of G, \" Hy, Hpare two subgroups of a group G, then Hm H,is also a subgroup of G. Arbitrary intersection of subgroups i.e the intersection of any family of subgroups of a group is @ subgroup. 7. The union of two subgroups is not necessarily a subgroup. Cayley's Theorem Every finite group G is isomorphic to a permutation group. Pane Cosets Let (G, *) be a group and (H, *) be a sub group of G for any ae G, the set aH = (a+ lhe His called the lett coset of H, determined by a. Ha = {he alte H]/is called the right coset of H, determined by a. ‘Example: Consider the group (0, 1,2, 3), +,), whose table is given below: Now consider H= (0,2) Heine HG, eH, be H,a* De H, (itis closed), identity 2 0¢ H, o'=-0¢Hand2"=26H ‘a His leatly a subgroup of G Now the left coset determined by is {0, 2) Now the lett coset determined by 1 is (1, 3} Now the lett coset determined by 2s (0, 2} Now the lett coset determined by 3is {1,3} = There are only two distinct left cosets of Hin G. Note: Ifa H, aH Similarly the right coset determined by O's (0, 2} ‘Similarly the right coset determined by 1 is (1,3) ‘Similarly the right coset determined by 2 is (0, 2) Similarly the right coset determined by 3's (1, 3) Since in this subgroup the set of lett cosets & right cosets of Hin Gare same, His anormal subgroup of G. Notice that athough H = (0, 2) is a subgroup of G, T = {1,3} is nota subgroup of H (closure property does nothold). 346.10 Normal Subgroup ‘Asubgroup H ofa group G is said tobe anormal subgroup of Gi aH = Ha Vac G (Where a and Ha aro the lett and right cosets of Hin), ‘Aternatvly i for every x © G, and for every he H,x hx H, then His anormal subgroup of G. ‘group having no proper normal subgroups is called a simple group, Some important resuits on normal subgroups: 1. Asubgroup H of a group G is normaliffx Hr = H Vx G. 2. Asubgroup H ofa group Gis a normal subgroup of G iff each left coset af Hin Gis aright coset of HinGieal =Havae G. 3, Theintereection of any two normal subgroups of group is anormal subgroup. 4. The intersection of any collection of normal subgroups sitself anormal subgroup. Uagrange’s Theorem The order of each subgroup of a fnite group isa divisor ofthe order ofthe group. UINTE coneres ef Lagrange’ theoremis notte, exayn of wo SubgrouPs of2.970UP G tho pr ‘order of tho products ou 6 finite sudgrouPs oe ot OHA) ‘Example fr lagranges tneorer We have seen thatin the grouP (0. Corrollary: Let Hand Ko 12,3) +0) H=(0,2}isasud group. Trecorder ot this groups |G = 4 The order of this subgroup is [Hl =2 hearty [HI divides |G], which verifies intact rom lagranges theorem, we can cone! singe $ does not divide 4. the lagranges theorem. Jude that in this case a Subgroup of order 1 3s Not Dossy 3.7. Lattice poxets:A non empty set together witha binary relation is said to form a partially ordered set. ore poset if following conditions are satisfied 1. Reflexivty: aRafor all ae P 2. Anti symmetry: I a Abend b Rathen a= b(va, be P) 3, Transitvty: la Re, b Rethen a Ro (va, b, c« P) tmother wocds, anon empty set, together wth a partial order relation is called as a poset (orpaisy orderedset) For convenience, we generally use the symbol s in place of R. We read < as “less than or equal {ethough it may have nothing to do with the usual “less than or equal to” that we are so familar with) ila bor bs aina poset, we say that aand bare comparable. Two elements of a poset may om=1 be comparable. as band a+ b, we will write a < b (and read as “ais less than 6") Example: (S,c)is a poset where S isthe set ofall sets. So if (P(A), <) where P(A) isthe power sven set A. The set (Z, $) is also a poset where °s" is the usual numerical s. ‘Theset(Z", divides) denoted also as (2°, is also a poset where "I" symbol means aA | ita] (acivoes* sete 3.7.1 TOSET Aposet P,)i : (P.<)in which every pair of element a, be Pare comparable (i.e. sither ac bor bse 8 toset (totaly ordered set) ora chain. Example (Z, <) isa toset. Product Partial Order , (P,.S,)and (P<) are two part ich i (P,P shin en tw pata order. Then we define anew partial order called ProoH patio (24,0995 (2a Badia, $, 2 and by ” G2 . Digraph Hasse Dlagam 373. Supremum and infimum of Poset ee led an upper bound of SitxsaVre Let S be a non empty subset of a poset P. An element ae P is cal Futher fais an upper bound of S such that a's b forall upper bounds b fs, then ais called least upper bound (u,b) or supremum of S. We write sup $ for supremum S. ; Itis important o note that there can be more than one upper bound ofa set. But sup, iit exists, wll be Unique, Again comparing with the definition of greatest element we notice whereas the greatest element belonged ‘othe set ise, an upper bound or sup can lie outside the set. An element 2 ¢ P willbe called a lower bound of Sif asx, Vx € S and a willbe called greatest iy ound (g. £. 6) or infimum S oF in , if b's a fr all lower bounds b of S. Im the hasse diagram example above, Hf we take say S = (la (I then LUB(S) =Sup (8) «jay GLB(S) = Inf(s) = 9 Inthe hasse diagram given below: $= b, 6, dj, Now UB (S) = upper bounds of S = (0, 2} LUB (8) = Sup (S) = d GLB (8) = Inf (S) NOTE! Although there may be many upper and lower Bounds fora given subset Sof a poset, there can be | only one LUB and one GLB ofS. Le, LUB (or Sup (S)) and GLB (or Inf (S) of Sin uni Let, 3.7.4 Maximaland Minimal Elements of Poset ‘Anelement a Pis called maximal if there exist no element x such that a sx. (i. no elements above alinhasse diagram) An element ae P is called minimal if there exist no element x such that. a. (ie. no elemert Is belowa in the hasse diagram). Example: In the hasse diagram below: : . eand fare maximal elements of the poset. aand bare the minimal elements of the poset. raahrhal orinmal laments ina poset [INOTE: There can be more than one 3.7.5 Greatest and Least Elements of a Poset An element a € P is called the greatest element if Vx € P. x < a. (Usually the greatest element $ sometimes devoted by !in the hasse diagram) (ie. In hasse diagram, element ais above all elements of the poset). An element a ¢ Ps called the least element if. Vx ¢ P, ax (ie. in hasse diagram, element ais belo every element of the poset). Usually the least element is sometimes denoted by in the Hasse diagram. Example: Be 7 jlagram shown above, gi ; intho hasso ol 918th Grates lomo, .Butthera tant eo a there aro weminimalolamonisinti pwn Tonnct an te aap not comparable). tha last oteriont (in thy ata BS SY On oroaloet client al a ata roe (ote omarabe laments andanantchanie aon li x ny jd Of ll Incomparabia, solomon in a poset, ‘Theorem | tp ergest canine par ordr tng, tanh pa edo t a bo written, 99.8 partition of puslofthe Above Theorem Mie longest antichaln has iz then th et can bo pationodinto t-chaln 9. Lattices: Aposet (L.5)!8 sald to form a tice for every pa of elomots a, be 1, Supta, band in 0,6} evinn Inthat case, we write Supla, b) = av b (read ‘ajoin b) = LUB (a, b) Infla,b} = a1 b (read 'ameet b) = GLB (a, b) + 2 ‘ ° 1 fs bi eb ,e 2 : ot 1 a a (® isalattice, while It and IIl are not lattices. (i) isnota lattice, since b v c does not exist (There are two upper bounds to (b, c}, which are dand e. But dand e are not comparable, hence noLUB. (ii) is not an lattice since, GLB (a, b) does not exist. Dual Lattice For allatice (P,s), the duals (P,). The duals are shown in figure below. The diagram of (P,2)is obtained ‘fom that of (P<) by simply turning it upside down. ¥ 4 asbsdse oeeeee asosdse ezdzcza Example: Let A bo a non empty set then the poset (P(A), Be PIA)ANB= AnBand AvB=AUB, ; ‘ wpe Tho poset 346 under dvi i not lati a8 Av = LOM (4, 8) doo nt og 5) ofall subset of Ais aati. Hera, Bly Tite eubset NOTEIA BSS je wR mn Some Lattice Results Lis any lattice, then for any a, b, c¢ L, the following results hold 1 @nbsabsavb 2 asbeanbua e@avbeb | ana=aavana (Idempotency) anb=baaavb=bva (Commutativity) (Associativity) (Consistency) 6 Domination Laws: MO.1eL, then Ona=0,0vana Inazalvas| 2 an(avejea (Absorption Laws) av(anb)ea 8 asbcsdaancsbag avesbva Inparticular 10. Inany latice L, the modular inequality holds, Product of two latico is a lattice, or = A into lattice sur [8 ‘te O¥ has least and greatostolements io, a fritelatice is always = Evory chain Is a latico, | Tho sot (0,1) always alattico, whore D's tho aot of , . where D, of disor a Hora LUD (a,b) = LOM, b)and GLB a") =GCD(a,B) ee Tho sot(2", Is also alatice, : The set (P(A), c) The st(P A.) aac, (fac ts eso a Boolean Algetra), Her for any wo LUB (A, B)=A UB and GLB(A, B) = An B, 8 Types of Lattices Bounded Lattice: A Lattice ( L, <) is called bounded, if the lattice has a greatest and least element, gusly denoted by land O respectively (or sometimes 1 and), 381 Bounded Lattice Properties 4. Wael Osast, 2 Ova=0, Ovaza 3. laa=a Iva Example: (P (A), <) is bounded where A = (a, b} with | } &0= while (Z, s)is an unbounded lattice. 382 Complemented Lattice ‘The complement aof any element in a lattice (L, <)is an element which satisfies both the properties give below: and =0kand=! ‘Obviously, complementis defined only for abounded lattice. in alatice (Lat least one complement exists for every element ae L, then such a lattice is called a complemented latice. 383. Distributive Lattice Lattice (L, <) is called distributive, i it satisfies both the distributive laws. ie. Va bcel av(bac)=(av b)a (aye) aa(bvc)=(anb)v (aac) ; Checking ita given hasse diagram corresponds to a distributive lattice or not is tedious, However the following result is useful for checking if atic is ron distributive or not. Theorem ‘lattice is ron-distibutve if it contains a subatice,lsomorphie to one of the non cstibulve Hattioas: S Yt abishing ia atice is estbutve or nots the flowing, ‘Another result that is useful for est itis unique. t exists, then compliment for some eley ‘Theorem ita complement is more than one Mer Ina distributive bounded ees thatifinalatice, oma a ;nnot be Used to prove that the lattice ig Another way to understan ibutive. This ‘be distributive. ibutive. yn such a lattice cannot 12 is non-dist hone atten, hen seh a 1d to show that a lattice Is ag ESTE ESTO SBI! distributive. Eas : aied and distributive lattices Inf {a, b} exists. 384 sella called a meet semi lattice itfor all a, b € Pr, fi 1. Aposet (P, $)is itha binary composition a is called a meet semilattice ita, b, cep P together with @ 2 Anonempty set @ ane (i) anb=baa i) anton) =(and)ac ad its Sup and Inf in nuke based ‘a complete lattice if every non empty subset of L has its Sup iL Results 1. Dual ofa complete lattice is complete. 2. It (®.s)is@ poset with greatest element | such that every non empty subset S of P has Inf, then Pig ‘complete latice. 3 (3) a poset wth least element 0 such that every non empty subset S of P has Sup then, Pig a complete lattice 3.86 Sub-lattices Anon empty subset of lattice Ls called a sublattice i, a, be S=3anb, av be s( that a and v are taken in L) understood Example: Consider the lattice given below: Results Regarding Subtattices 1. 6 lsasubset of ever Every lattice isa su (lis asubtatice of C8 (called a subchain) latice, I Lisany latice and a¢ L be any element then Every non empty subset of a chain sa sublat ‘The union of two sublatice may not be a sub Alatice Is @ chain if every non-empty subs et ofits a sublatice, 39 Boolean Algebra " petintion: A Latice is called a boolean algebra it itis bounde : 4, comp ; ae tes te ae EY OBES "anda as Sere 8 seb, gerat ts satis the following 6 axioms, " 1"). called @ Boolean Wemay subsite +4 for v andor. ina Boolean Algebra sions 4. Closure: Va, be S,a+beSabeg 2 Commutativiy: Va, be 8,24 b=b+aab-ba & ASsoclatiy: Va, bce S,a+(b+ 0)= (a+b) +08 (b0) (athe 4 Ditibutvy: Va, 8 S,a+ (be) = (a+ Blas o alos c= (ad) (ae 5. Existence of Identiy: va S, 3 (unig, We) Such that ate=e+ana 6. Existence of Compliment: Vac S, 3e’« Such that a+d =a +a=1andad=da=0 Other Derived Laws of Boolean Algebra ataza eal idempotent laws 2. (@'Y'=a-double complementlaw atab=a (a+b) =a) ‘ . 8 Seed, pertonton (32) 2 osrrps Lan 20-4, 20-0 ati=t at= a Domination Laws Operator Precedence in Boolean Expressions 1 Expressions are scanned from leftto right. 2. Expressions are evaluated with following precedence, ( ), complement, ..+ Examples: A +B. C will be Evaluated as A + (B.C) |n (A+B), (A+B) is evaluated first and then complemented. Simplification of Boolean Expressions Boolean algebraic expressions may be simplified by using ee laws of Boolean Algebra. Example: + aby (a+ b) = (aY (a+b) sorpk Fee Peced Ostbdietan =0+ab —_(Complementiaw) =ab (Domination law) ‘Summary @ ar of elements ar@ called finite 8et8 and those having Sols which have a finite num ‘por of elements are called infinite sets. at treo Dotwoen the sets can be reprosonted by diagrams known ag vonn diagrams. Venn diagrams can be e answering question regarding 1 of Cartosian Product: AnD aBxA 2, Ax(BUC)=(AxB)U(AxC) ; 4, Ax(B-C)=(AxB)-(Axc) Ax (BAC) = (AXB)AIAXC) & WeaByniexD) =(AnC)x(Cn0) 6. (AxB)U(CxD)=(AUC)x (BUD) entation of a relation in set builder form is complete only when the sets & stoctvely used for proving equality of set expressions or for ding counting of elements of sets. Tho ropre: and B are clearly specified. ‘Arelation Rion As called reflexive, if Vxe A (x,x) € Re, Vee A,xRx ‘Arelation Pin Ais called symmetric relation it (x, y)€ => (yx) € R le, xAy= yRx Vn ye A ‘Arelation R on A is called anti symmetric iffxAy => yx, unless.x = y ‘Arelation Ron Ais called transitive iff (x,y) (2) € R=2 (x2) € R. je, xAyand yAz=>xRz Vx, y.Z€A ‘Arelation Ron A is called ireflexive iff Vx e A, (x,x) € Rie. Vxe A, xx ‘Arolation Ron Ais an asymmetric relation if (x, ye R= (y,2)€ A xAy=> yA. ‘Arelation Ron a non empty set Ais called equivalence relation if (@) Risrellexiveiox Ax Vre A (©) Ris symmetric Lex Ry= y Rr (©) Ristransitve Lex Ay and yRz=>xRz Vx,y,26 A {relation Ron a non empty set A is called a partial order relation if. @) Risreflexive Ve Axx (b) Ris antisymmetric xAy and yRx => x= y (©) Ris transitive xRy and yRz = xRz Every quotient set A/R is also a partition of A, Here, the converse is also true. Corresponding to every partition P of A, there exists an unique equivalence relation whose quotiont sets exactly P, ‘Afunction or mapping isa relation between the elements of A and those of Bhavind ‘no ordered pairs wth the same frst component. fin agroup G, the underying set G consists ofa frite numberof elements then ‘group is called finite group, otherwise as infinite group. Properties of Cyclic Group: 1. Every cyclic group is an abelian group. 2. Itals generator of a cyclic group G, then ais also a generator of . 3. Acyclic group G with generator a of finite order n, is isomorphic to multipicatve group of 1,1 roots of unity, an az a3 as Qs 4. Acyclic group @ with a gener ator of finite order nis foup of residue classes modulo n, : S ! 5._Ifafinite group of order n contains element of ord rc i fins el i prime cro ge men oferder nthe group must be yee ‘of Sin unique, ae ‘An equivalence relation isa relation whichis. (@) Reflexive and symmetric (0) Symmetric and Transitive (6) Reflexive, Symmetric and transitive (@ None of the above ‘Afunction f: NN defined by f(n) = 2n+ 3is (@) Surective (b) injective (©) Both (@) Noninjective LetL be the set of lines in the Euclidean plane. Let be the relation on L defined by “is paralie! to". Then which of the following is true? (@) Risan equivalence relation (>) Ris POSET (©) Risrefiexive symmetric (@) None of the above a7 Wallace is distributive, then (@ a*(b-c)=(a-b)*(b-o) (b) a: (b+ c)=(a-b) + (a-c) (0) a*(b+c)=(a*b)-(aec) (©) None of these as Let and B be sets with cardinalities 2 and 4 respectively. The number of one-one mapping from Ato B is 7. Every subgroup ‘of a cyclic group is Every tnt group Gis isomorpio tea subgroup H of a: group G is said to | (Where aH and Ha are the left and gl Aposet( P<) in which every pair of element a or bs a)is called a toset (totally ordered set) + Although, there may be many upper & lower boun there can be only one LUB and one GLB ofS. i.e. @ permutation group, be © anormal subgroup ot Giff aH = Ha Vac G ht cosets of H in G). , De Pare comparable (Le. either as b ) oF a chain, Example (Z, <)is a toset ds for a given subset Sofa poset, LUB (or Sup (S)) & GLB (or int (8) @ # () “P, © 4! @1 Match List-l with List-ll and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List List! A. Identity 1. Monoids B. Associativty 2, Abelian groups ©. Commutative 3, Semigroups D. Lettinverse 4. Groups Codes: ABCD @1 32 4 @1 239 4 @4 3 12 @m2 3 41 Given set S = {1, 5, 7, 11}. Then Sis a group wt (@) mutiplication modulo 12 () addition modulo 6 {6) summation modulo 8 (@ Sisnota group ‘a be any two equivalence relationson Leena caeteD {@) PuG,PnQarebotn equivalence {b) PUdis an equivalence reation {@) Prdisaneguvalencersiation {@) Nether PUAN PAG valence relation Q3 Consider the following binary relation s= (Gy) | yox+ and 5.6 (0.1.2 lh ‘The symmetic closure of Sis G) (ee plex ye Vanda, ye (01,2) (©) lx yily=xt tands, ye (0.1.2 (2) (i yilyzze bands ye (0.1.2 (@) None ofthe above Q.10 Which of the folowing staternents is not true? @ it zisthe setof integers and sis the usual dering on z. then (z:s]isparially ordered and totally ordered. (0) If zis te set of irtegers and sis the usual cxdering on 2 then 2 5-» There exisisxe N,x? = (mode) (10) mis any natural number satistying m= 1(er0<2), then the equation 2048 x = (mode) 's guaranteed to have a solution for x. @) Only (nis tue (©) Only (iis tue (6) Both (i) and (if) are true (@) Both (9 and (i) are false a.13 i lAl = kand [Bl =m, how many relation a etweenAandB? finaddien |C| = nhow many relations are there between there in Ax Bxxcy (a) K+ mand k+m+n (b) kxmand kxmxn (9 2m and aneme” (@ 2hand 2m" Q.14 (G,)is anabelian group. Then {@) X =X", for any X belonging to G (0) X=, for any X belonging to G (©) (K+ Y= X?* ¥2, for any X, ¥ belonging toG (@) Gis offinte order Q.15 Enumerate each of the following sets © 9xG.5.9) (i 2 in 2059 {@) 4.1616, (9). (5). (9), 851 (5.9), (39), (359) (©) (0.6.16 (1,5), (9), (85), 6.9},(39},359) © (0.16.19). (5). (9). (5.9). 3.9}. (35.9) (d) None of these Q.16 LetRCAx Aand SCA x Abeabinary relations ‘as defined below: Let A be the set of positive integers. And R= (a, 6) bis divisible by a} LetA=NxNandS = {((a, b), (c, dlascor bso. Which of the following statements are tue? (@) Ris partial order but not total order and Sis Partial order but not a total order (©) Ris both partial order and total order andS isneither partial order nor a total order (©) Ris partial order but not total order andSis ‘neither partial order nor a total order (@) Ris neither partial order nor a total order ‘and Sis neither partial order noratotal roe 2.17 Ndenotes the set ofnatural numbers, (0.1.2... Z denotes the integers, ln QI 0,1,2, ne? Which ofthe folowing statements are rus? (0) Ywe z,3ee 2,¥ye 2,326 z,sucnthat™ treysz (i) Bee N,Wpe z, p> 522s 1(m0d P) — onyiniete only (is ff only (i) istrue Both (and (i) are true @ oth (i) and (i) are false [tfc Ax AandS CB x Be binary relations 0.18 defined below: Let A= Nand R= (a, b)|b= aorb=a+1) etBbe the soto Engish words. andlet(a, be § vipen ais not longer than b {e) Risparial order but not total order and Sis parialorder but nota total order. (p) Risboth partial order and total order and S isneither partial order nor a total order. (0) Rispatial order but not total order and Sis neither partial order nor a total order. (d) Ris neither partial order nor a total order and Sis neither partial order nor a total order, ‘19 Which ofthe following statements are true? () Let, = (a, b) and, = (0, 1, 2} be disjoint alphabets. Let E,* be the set of (finite-length) strings over S, and let Z,* be the set of (fniteength) sttings over S, We can show that card (£,*) = card (E,*) i Lets = {2'le N} be the set of integers that are powers of two. We can show that Sis uncountable (a) Only (i)is true (b) Only (il) is true (©) Both (i) and (i) are true (8) Both (i) and (if) are false 020 Each of the following defines a relation on the set N of positive integers. Determine which of the folowing relations are reflexive. (@) R:xis greater than y © Sixty=t0 (© Tix+ayet0 (©) None of the above 21 Which ofthe folowing are symmetric R:xis greater than y ) Sixt y= 10 ©) T:x44y= 10 (9) None ofthe above 0.22 Let P(X) be the collection ofall subsets ofa set X with atleast three eloments. Each of the following defines areation on PO) RiAcB S: Als disjoint fom 8 T:AUB=Xx Determine which of the following relation is antisymmetic, @ R:Ace (©) 8: Ais disjoint om 8 (© T:AUB=x (@) None ofthe above Q.23 Determine which of the following relation is transitive (@) R:AcB (©) 8: Ais disjoint tom 8 (© T:AUB=x (@) None of the above Q.24 Find the transitive closure Re of the relation Ron A=[1, 2,3, 4] defined by the directed graph ® @ “es (a) RY=((1.2),(2,9).(1.9) (1,4),(82)(8.3).(3.4)) (b) Rr =((1.2). (1,3). (1,4), (3.2), 8.9), (8.4)) (©) Rr=((1.1), (22), 3), (4,4) (6) None of the above Q.25 LetS=(1,2,3,4,5,6}. Determine which ofthe following is a partition of : (@) Py=U11.2.9), (1.4.5.6) (0) P=111.2), (8561) LetX= (1,2, 8,91 078 ermine whabe each te fing a partition of X @ (0.38), (28).16.7911 (i) (015.71, 2.489) (3561) (i) ((2.4.5.8), (1.9), (3.6.71) Gy) (11.2.7). (8.5), 4.689), (3.81) (©) (iand (i) (@ (and (i) (@) (and © (ipand 0.27 Lat Abe setot niggers andl ~ be thorelaton on Ax Adofined by (a. b)~(c.difard=b+e ‘his relation sais (@) Reflexive, symmetric (0) Symmetric, transitive (© Reflexive, symmetre {@) None of above (1.19, (1.2) 2.1) (22), be i ‘and transite @.28 Thorelaton = ‘an equivalence relation of the sot Find the quotient SIR © ) (hte) © o) © el 129 Determine whch ofthe following i parton of the set Rol eal umbers (@) [jerx> 4), ix <5) (©) [ies > 0} (0), fe: <0 (©) (oeist> 11 21M] {6) None ofthe above ‘Common Data Questions (30.and 31): Functions f, :A-»B, fy: BC, fy: D and i046, 2.30 Which o the functions are one-to-one @ fend f, (b) fyand f, (©) Gand © hands, Q.31 Which of the following function a 18 are onto (@) f,and (b) fand (©) hand, (0) fyand f, Q.32 Which of the following functions are invertible @ ©) & O4 Of aqge vanvosnayraonen 928 apiing 1 integers such that icc a ban od poste loae ‘tus As (a) ari-aymmeticrlaton © raloxvo and eymmoticroaton {©) equivalonceralation {@) parla orderingrlaion AuB=AnBifend only i (@) Als emply sot {o) Bis emply set {@) Aond Baro non-empty sets () A=B jas Let A and B be sets wih carinalties mann ee number of one-one mappings fom ADB, ast when m-< nis @@ (©) "Fe @ Cy 0.36 Which addtional properties are true if parla ‘order “<* must become a linear order () forany aand bisS, alleast one of as b (or) bsaistue (i forall a, band cinS tas band bs, then asc. (i) for any a and bin S, exactly one of ab (on) bs aistue. (@) Oniy( (©) Only i) Q.37 Suppose A=}, B= (1, 2,3). What does the set Bx A contain? @u © (1).2).@) Q.38 Consider abinary elation R shown inthe folowing (©) Both (i) and (i) (d) Allof the above (o) (1,23) (@) None ofthese ‘matrix on set S=(1,2,3,4) 1000 1144 1144 oo00 The relation Ris (a) Equivalence relation ireflexive and antisymmetric M) inefiexive, symmetric and transitive {@ Tanstve butnetherretesivernorinelexve ralowing figure shows relation on set gz (23.68) @ as? BD @ ‘The relation is (@) Equvalencerelation (0) Poset (partial order relation) (@) Symmetric and reflexive relation (@ None of the above Data Questions (40 and 41): axe (1.2.3, 4) iF aatenyolre X ye X: [xy > 0; L-yl%2=0} gefexyolre X ye X: Ix-yl > 0; Lx- yl%3 = 0} 40 Find |RUSland |Ros| @ Inusl=6 IRaS' () IRusI=3, IRoS|= @ Inusl=2, IRAS @ Inusl=5, IRasl= 41 X= (1, 2,3...) whatis ROS? a exyalreniverteyrol @) Re 1 yye=00r(z-¥)%3= ) R= fen yl Kye XH -N7O (x- y)% 6 = 0) (© R= ( 0 4g a bette ‘Set of non-zero integers and let # iene elation on Ax A dofined as (a,b) #(c,d) ad = be. The relation Ais : (@) Equivalence relation (©) Poset (6) Antisymmetric (@) Reflexive and symmetric but not transitive (Q.44 Which of the following statements is true about B= (0,1) hee © tes © Wee (© (0.A}e pow(a) Q45 R:A+B. A, is subset of A and A, is also a subset of A ‘Which ofthe following statements is not correct? (@) AAV A) CRA) URA) (0) FAA, A) CRIA) OA) (©) PA) URAC RAV AD () FIA) ARIA) CAA, A.) Q.46 Consider the following figure which of the following is true? E x (@) There exists a Euler path butnot Euler circu (o) There exists a Euler circuit (c) Evler paths not possible (@) None ofthe above (abcd, @.47 Consider the poset A= below. ‘The Hasse diagramis giver = (a,b) Find the lower and UPP®F bound for B = {2B} respectively. (2) (a,b) and (c} (b) {a, b}and (t) (6) (Vand (c,d, 0.1.9.4) (8) Mand (ey and 0.48 With respect to previous question, the ia upper bound for B, = (0, 0,0} respect (6) (a,c}and{n) — (b) (cl i eH | (© (e,a,bjand(hh (0) (0.0, 0.49 vinataine cardinality of amuticothaving lotors © "MISSISSIPPI? 4 1 @3 6 ly ordorod LaV=(0,b,¢,d,0,{, 0} bo apart 0% faou onn gure andietX =|, 0, Fd ‘he upper and lower bounds of x (@) Upper bounds-e,f, and g, lower bound-a (b) Upper bounds-d, ¢, and f, lower bound b (©) Upper bounds-c, d, and: |e, lower bound-a (6) None ot the above 0.51 Identity hich of the patally ordored sets shown inthe figure are latices ) b.e.d.g (0) 9,0.0,4 Obegs (0) 2.0.69 i 2.3,4,6, 12), tn 1 tho lation Dy = (1, 2.3, 4, 6,12), tng nce of 12ordered by divisibllity 4% stem Find 1 Loner bound and upp bound ot Oy 2. Tho complemonts of 4 and 6 2, {5.D,,acomplemented lattice’? pa ae 3 — 2 (@) 1. low bound is 2 and upper bound is 12 2. complement of 4 is 3, 6 has no complement 3. NO (b) 1. L.B.is 1 and U.B. is 12 2, complement of 4 is 3, 6 has no complement 3. NO LB. is 1 and U.B. is 12 complement 4is 3. complement of 6is3 3. YES 1. L.B.is 1 and U.B. is 12 2. 4has no complement, complementoté isa 3. YES 0.54 Which of the following Statements are true? (9 Itxis positive and irrational, then Vz is also irrational, (H) Let(0, 11 denote ¥-2denotes the Yand z, the set of all binary strings ‘Concatenation of two strings Only (iis true Both (1) and (i) are true Both (i) and (u) are toe oe anas 4elements and Set Bhas 2 elements, Firat i the total number of relations from B oA? aiShas 9 elements. Suppose YOU Where asked ‘ein terumbe of eflenve relations possible frm set to sell, what would be your answer, sashes’ elements, what the total umber srreiexve relations possible fromsetStoitsef? gs hatstetcal number ofasyrmeticreaons from Set A to itself which has'n’ elements? swe Rey? Ta 2) %@ 40 50) ee na 2@ 13@ 410 15.6) 16.0 17 18.6) 19.0) 20.68 21.0) 22.(2) 23.(2) 24.(0) 25.10 W6.(q 27-(0 28(4) 29.(6) 30.60) not) 32.(0) 33(@) 34d) 35.06) 36) 37.(@) 38 (4) 39.06) 40. (0) Wb) 42.) 43.(2) 4400) 45.10) 16.0) 47.(0 48,(4) 49.(6) 50-0) s1.(@ 52.(0 53.0) 54() 55-256 sa 57.2 58.37 Stud Assignments | Explanations: 1. (0) Arelation R on a set Ais called an equivalence elation if itis reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. 2 (by fr) = 2043 Now fe) = fe) 3 yt = 2y4+3 > x = fs one-to-one. injective. focheck for onto, write the function 2 1". 12. Here, y= 4 N but = + fis not onto, ie. not surjective (a) ‘The composition table (Cayley tabe) of Swat ‘mutiplication module 12is Xelt[s]7]q tls tr [a s{5[1[ul7 Tl? (1s aha t7 ps Lt (c) PUQ may not be transtve. (c) Letus take some samples which satisfy the given binary relation. They are (0,1), (1.2),(2, 3) } The symmetric closure of this is {(0,1), (4, 0). (1,2), (2,1), (2,8), (3.2), 0) The above samples satisty the equation (@ yly=x21 ands, yel0, 1,2, completely (a) Itis not a function, since (a, b) and (a, c)arein the relation. (c) Consider A. Since, = 1 mod (p) always, ‘1 Bre Nsuch thatx?= 1 mod (p), Ais tue. Consider B. Since m= 1 (mod 2), this means m is aodd number. ‘This means 2048 and m aro relatively Prime, ‘The equation, ax = b (mod m) has & solution whenever aad mare relatively prime. rne equation 2048 (mod m)is quaranted to have a solution fr since 2048 and re relatively prime. 0 Bis also tus.

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