SCIENCE

CHEMISTRY PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE

College Admission Test Reviewer Physical Change
The change of matter that occurs without altering the chemical
composition of the matter. This process is reversible and usually
the size, shape, and phase are changed.

Examples:
Melting / Freezing
FOCUSED TOPICS Evaporation / Condensation
Sublimation / Deposition
Chopping, Dicing, Shredding, Powdering
Physical and Chemical Change Mixing, Dissolving
States of Matter
Chemical Change
Classification of Matter
The change of matter that occurs with altering the chemical
Properties of Matter composition of the matter. This is more likely to be irreversible
Dalton’s Atomic Theory and is accompanied by chemical reactions. It includes formation
Nuclear Notation of Atom of new product.
Isotopes and Isobars
Examples:
Periodic Table of Elements
Combustion, Rusting, Fire, Chemical Reaction, Nuclear
Periodic Trends Decay
Quantum Numbers Cooking, Baking, Spoiling, Rotting, and Digesting Food
Electron Configuration Biological Respiration
Chemical / Intramolecular Bonding Formation of solid suspension (precipitates), bubbles
(effervescence), and gases
Molecular Geometry
Change of color, odor, and temperature
Lewis Structure
Hybridization Theory
Types of Solution’s Saturation STATES OF MATTER
Stoichiometry
Hydrocarbons Property Solid Liquid Gas
Half-Life of Radioactive Isotopes
Kinetic Molecular Theory Takes shape Takes shape
Gas Law Shape Definite of the of the
container container
Law of Thermodynamics
Rate of Diffusion of Compounds
Phase Change Volume Definite Definite
No fixed
volume
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
Chemical Equilibrium
Redox Reactions Close
Particle Tightly Far apart, can
together, can
Acids and Bases Arrangement packed
move
move

Vibrating Flowing &

Particle Rapid and free
in fixed sliding past
Motion movement
position e/o

Ice, wood, Water, oil, Air, oxygen,

Examples
stone milk nitrogen
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Bose-Einstein Condensate

Other States of Matter

Bose-Einstein
Property Plasma
Condensate (BEC)

No definite shape, No definite shape; CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

expands to fill the conforms to the
Shape
shape of the container which it is
container held. Matter

The volume is small

due to extremely low
Volume No definite volume Can it be physically
temperature and Mixture separated?
Pure Substance
high density.

Not arranged in
fixed pattern. particles are in a Is the composition Can it chemically
Contains free highly ordered state uniform? decompose?
Particle
electrons and ions. where they overlap
Arrangement
Particles are and act as a single
electrically quantum entity. Homogeneous
Compound
charged. Mixture

Particles move Heterogeneous

The particles in a Element
rapidly and freely. Mixture
BEC move very little.
Due to their
Particle The particles exhibit
charge, their
Motion wave-like properties,
motion results in Colloids
and their motions are
waves and
synchronized.
turbulence.
Suspensions

Super fluiditity; can

Other Highly conductive; Mixtures
flow without
properties High temperature A mixture is a compound made up of two or more chemical
viscosity
components that are not chemically linked. A mixture is a
physical blend of two or more substances that preserve their
stars, lightning, identities and are blended in the form of solutions,
Rubidium-87,
Examples auroras, neon and suspensions, or colloids.
sodium-23, lithium-7
fluorescent lights
Homogeneous Mixture (Solution): A homogeneous mixture has
a uniform composition and appearance throughout. The
Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter formed at different components are not distinguishable from one another.
temperatures very close to absolute zero, where a group of
bosons (particles that follow Bose-Einstein statistics) occupy Examples:
the same quantum state, resulting in unique properties. Saltwater: Salt dissolved in water forms a single-phase
solution.
Air: A mixture of gases (mainly nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and
carbon dioxide) uniformly mixed.
Alloys: Metals like brass (copper and zinc) and steel (iron
and carbon) are homogeneous mixtures of metals.
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Heterogeneous Mixture: A heterogeneous mixture has a
non-uniform composition, with distinct regions or phases Solutions Colloids Suspensions
where the components are distinguishable.

Colloids - A microscopically dispersed insoluble particles Do not separate Do not separate on

Particles settle out
of one substance are suspended in another substances. on standing standing
Examples includes milk, cheese, smoke, fog, and clouds.

Suspension - A mixture containing solid particles that are Cannot be Cannot be

Can be separated
sufficiently large for sedimentation. The solid sinks under. separated by separated by
by filtration
Examples includes paint, medicine, muddy water, milk of filtration filtration
magnesia

Do not scatter Scatter light May either scatter

light (Tyndall effect) light or be opaque

Tyndall Effect
Effect of light scattering in colloidal suspension, while
showing no light in true solution.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
Pure Substances
Depends on the system size or the amount of matter in the
Pure substances have a constant composition and
system. Extensive properties depend on the amount of
distinct chemical properties. They can be classified into
substance present. They change when the quantity of the
elements and compounds.
material changes. Extensive properties include size, volume,
mass, length, weight, entropy, and energy.
Elements - Elements are pure substances that consist of only
one type of atom and cannot be broken down into simpler
INTENSIVE PROPERTIES
substances by chemical means.
Do not depend on the size of quantity of matter. Intensive
properties are independent of the amount of substance
Examples:
present. They remain the same regardless of the quantity of
Oxygen (O₂): A diatomic molecule consisting of two
the material. Intensive properties include lust, color,
oxygen atoms.
hardness, boiling point, temperature, refractive index, and
Gold (Au): A metal consisting of only gold atoms.
melting point.
Carbon (C): Found in different forms such as graphite
and diamond, but still consists of only carbon atoms.

Compounds - Compounds are pure substances composed of DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

two or more elements that are chemically combined in fixed
Dalton's atomic theory, proposed by John Dalton in the early 19th
proportions. They can be broken down into simpler
century, was a pivotal development in the field of chemistry. It
substances by chemical means.
provided the foundation for our modern understanding of matter.
Examples:
Statements:
Water (H₂O): Consists of hydrogen and oxygen atoms
All matter is made up of extremly small particles called atoms.
chemically bonded in a 2:1 ratio.
Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other
Carbon dioxide (CO₂): Consists of carbon and oxygen
properties (However, this postulate was later modified when
atoms in a 1:2 ratio.
the existence of isotopes (atoms of the same element with
Sodium chloride (NaCl): Table salt, consisting of sodium
different masses) was discovered.) Atoms of different elements
and chlorine atoms in a 1:1 ratio.
have different size, mass, and other properties.
Atoms cannot be created nor destroyed (Law of Mass
Conservation).
Atoms of different elements can combine in simple, whole-
number ratios to form chemical compounds (Law of Multiple
Proportion). For example, water (H₂O) consists of two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or
rearranged. A given compound always contains elements in a
certain proportion by mass (Law of Definite Proportion).
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Nuclear Notation
Nuclear notation
provides information
about the composition
of an atom, including
its element, atomic
number, and mass
number.

Dalton’s Billiard Ball Model

Atom to be a ball-like structure, as the concepts of General Form
A
atomic nucleus and electrons were unknown that time.
Z X
NUCLEAR NOTATION OF ATOM X: Symbol for the element.
A: Mass number (total number of protons and neutrons).
An atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains Z: Atomic number (number of protons).
the chemical properties of that element. It consists of a
central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons. The Determining the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons
nucleus contains protons and neutrons, while the electrons 1. Number of Protons
orbit the nucleus in various energy levels. Formula: Number of protons = Z

Structure of an Atom 2. Number of Neutrons

Formula: Number of neutrons = A - Z
1. Nucleus:
Protons: Positively charged particles located in the 3. Number of Electrons
nucleus. For a neutral atom: Number of electrons = Z
Neutrons: Neutral particles (no charge) also located For an ion: Number of electrons = Z - (Charge)
in the nucleus.
Nucleus Charge: The nucleus is positively charged Examples:
due to the protons.
12 238 23 + 35 2-
1. Electron Cloud: 6 C 92 U 11 Na 17 Cl
Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the
Protons: 6 Protons: 92 Protons: 11 Protons: 17
nucleus in electron shells or energy levels.
Electrons: 6 Electrons: 92 Electrons: 10 Electrons: 18
Electron Arrangement: Electrons are arranged in
Neutrons: 6 Neutrons: 146 Neutrons: 12 Neutrons: 19
shells around the nucleus based on energy levels.
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B. Groups (Families)
ISOTOPES AND ISOBARS Vertical columns in the periodic table.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the
Number of Groups: 18
same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Trend: Elements in the same group have similar chemical
This difference in neutron number results in different mass
properties and the same number of valence electrons.
numbers for isotopes of the same element.
C. Blocks
Key Characteristics
s-Block: Groups 1 and 2, plus Helium (Group 18)
Same Element: Isotopes of the same element have the
p-Block: Groups 13 to 18
same atomic number (number of protons).
d-Block: Transition Metals (Groups 3 to 12)
Different Mass Numbers: Isotopes have different mass
f-Block: Lanthanides and Actinides (two rows below the
numbers due to the different number of neutrons.
main table)
Chemical Properties: Isotopes of the same element have
nearly identical chemical properties but may have
Period No. Elements
different physical properties (e.g., different densities or
melting points).
1 H, He
Example:

12
6 C 14
6 C 2 Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne

Protons: 6 Protons: 6 3 Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar

Electrons: 6 Electrons: 6
Neutrons: 6 Neutrons: 8
K, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga,
4
Isobars are atoms of different elements that have the Ge, As, Se, Br, Kr
same mass number but different atomic numbers. This
means they have different numbers of protons and neutrons,
Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In,
but the sum of protons and neutrons is the same. 5
Sn, Sb, Te, I, Xe

Key Characteristics
Different Elements: Isobars are different elements with Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy,
different chemical properties. 6 Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au,
Same Mass Number: Isobars have the same mass Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, Po, At, Rn
number, which is the sum of protons and neutrons.
Different Atomic Numbers: Isobars have different
Fr, Ra, Ac, Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf,
atomic numbers, meaning they are different elements. 7 Es, Fm, Md, No, Lr, Rf, Db, Sb, Bg, Hs, Mt, Ds,
Rg, Cn, Nh, Fl, Mc, Lv, Ts, Og
Example:

40
18 Ar 40
20 Ca Group No. Elements
Protons: 18 Protons: 20
Electrons: 18 Electrons: 20 Hydrogen (H), Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na),
Neutrons: 22 1: Alkali
Neutrons: 20 Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs),
Metals
Francium (Fr)

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS Helium (He), Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg),

2: Alkaline
Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba),
The periodic table arranges elements in a grid based on Earth Metals
Radium (Ra)
increasing atomic number and recurring chemical properties.
Each element is represented by a unique symbol and includes
information about its atomic number, atomic mass, and, 3: Scandium Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Lanthanum (La),
sometimes, its state of matter at room temperature. Group Actinium (Ac)

Structure of Periodic Table:

4: Titanium Titanium (Ti), Zirconium (Zr), Hafnium (Hf),
Group Rutherfordium (Rf)
A. Periods
Horizontal rows in the periodic table.
Number of Periods: 7
5: Vanadium Vanadium (V), Niobium (Nb), Tantalum (Ta),
Trend: As you move from left to right across a period, the
Group Dubnium (Db)
atomic number increases, and elements gradually change
from metals to metalloids to non-metals.
SCIENCE
Chromium Group (Group 6): Known for their role in steel
Group No. Elements production and coloration.
Manganese Group (Group 7): Transition metals with diverse
oxidation states.
6: Chromium Chromium (Cr), Molybdenum (Mo), Tungsten
Iron Group (Group 8): Known for their magnetic properties
Group (W), Seaborgium (Sg)
and wide industrial use.
Cobalt Group (Group 9): Transition metals used in alloys
7: Manganese Manganese (Mn), Technetium (Tc), Rhenium and magnets.
Group (Re), Bohrium (Bh) Nickel Group (Group 10): Transition metals used in coins,
catalysts, and batteries.
Coinage Metals (Group 11): Known for their use in coins and
Iron (Fe), Ruthenium (Ru), Osmium (Os),
8: Iron Group electronics.
Hassium (Hs)
Zinc Group (Group 12): Metals used in coatings and
batteries.
9: Cobalt Cobalt (Co), Rhodium (Rh), Iridium (Ir), Boron Group (Group 13): Includes a metalloid and metals
Group Meitnerium (Mt) used in electronics and materials.
Carbon Group (Group 14): Includes nonmetals, metalloids,
and metals.
10: Nickel Nickel (Ni), Palladium (Pd), Platinum (Pt), Nitrogen Group (Group 15): Includes nonmetals, metalloids,
Group Darmstadtium (Ds)
and metals.
Oxygen Group (Group 16): Includes nonmetals essential for
11: Coinage Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), life.
Metals Roentgenium (Rg) Halogens (Group 17): Highly reactive nonmetals.
Noble Gases (Group 18): Inert gases used in lighting and
refrigeration.
Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd), Mercury (Hg),
12: Zinc Group
Copernicium (Cn)
Category Metals Metalloids Nonmetals

13: Boron Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Indium

Group (In), Thallium (Tl), Nihonium (Nh) Shiny,
Dull or semi- Dull or
Appearance metallic
metallic colorless
luster
14: Carbon Carbon (C), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Tin
Group (Sn), Lead (Pb), Flerovium (Fl)
High (good Intermediate Low (poor
Metallic
conductors, (semi- conductors,
Behavior
15: Nitrogen Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), malleable) conductors) brittle)
Group Antimony (Sb), Bismuth (Bi), Moscovium (Mc)

Electrical Moderate to
High Poor
Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), Selenium (Se), Conductivity low
16: Oxygen
Tellurium (Te), Polonium (Po), Livermorium
Group
(Lv)
Density High Moderate Low

Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br),

17: Halogens Generally Generally
Iodine (I), Astatine (At), Oganesson (Og) Melting Point Moderate
high low

Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton

18: Noble Gas Gases,
(Kr), Xenon (Xe), Radon (Rn), Oganesson (Og) At Room Solid (except Solid (except
liquids, or
Temperature Hg, liquid) At)
solids
Group 3-12 are Transition Metals

Electrone-
Low Intermediate High
Alkali Metals (Group 1): Highly reactive metals, especially gativity
with water.
Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2): Reactive metals but less so
than alkali metals. Metals are typically shiny, good conductors, dense, and have
Scandium Group (Group 3): Includes the first of the high melting points.
transition metals and the lanthanide/actinide series. Metalloids have properties intermediate between metals and
Titanium Group (Group 4): Transition metals with high nonmetals; they are often used in electronics.
melting points and strong materials. Nonmetals are generally not shiny, poor conductors, and can be
Vanadium Group (Group 5): Transition metals used in alloys gases, liquids, or solids at room temperature. They have high
and industrial processes. electronegativity.
SCIENCE
Metals are typically shiny, good conductors, dense, and have Trend 1: For Ionization Energy, Electronegativity, Electron
high melting points. Affinity, and Nonmetallic Property.
Metalloids have properties intermediate between metals and Increasing: bottom to top, left to right
nonmetals; they are often used in electronics. Decreasing: top to bottom, right to left
Nonmetals are generally not shiny, poor conductors, and can be Note: the priority is between periods, not between groups.
gases, liquids, or solids at room temperature. They have high
electronegativity. Definition of Terms
Atomic Size - measurement of the atomic radius of an
Metalloids: Boron (B), Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si), Arsenic (As), element (length of nucleus to its valence electrons)
Antimony (Sb), Tellurium (Te), Polonium (Po), Astatine (At). Ionization Energy - the amount of energy required to
remove an electron from an isolated atom or molecule.
Electronegativity - the tendency of an atom or a
functional group to attract electrons toward itself.
PERIODIC TRENDS Electron Affinity - the amount of energy released when
an electron is added in the outermost shell of an atom.
Metallic Property - the ability of an atom to give up
electrons and form cations and other properties of
metals.
Nonmetallic Property - the ability of an atom to accept
electrons and form anions and other properties of metals.

Ionic Size (Special Case: No definite trend)

Ionic radius has the similar definition to atomic radius but
terms of its ionic (charged) conditions. Trend: the more
electrons added (same charges repel), larger ionic size
(larger valence electron radius).
SCIENCE
Facts:
Caesium is the most naturally occurring metallic element since
2p⁶
Francium is a man-made element.
Fluorine is the most electronegative element since Helium is
already stable and does not need electrons, as well as other
noble gases.

The number of arrows is based on the subscript which is

6. The spin is determined by the last arrow. Arrow down =
QUANTUM NUMBERS -1/2, arrow up = +1/2 (spin)
Quantum numbers are sets of numerical values that describe the
properties of atomic orbitals and the electrons within those orbitals. Quantum Number Relationships and Rules
There are four types of quantum numbers:
principal quantum number (n) 1. Pauli Exclusion Principle
angular momentum quantum number (l) No two electrons in an atom can have the same set
magnetic quantum number (ml) of four quantum numbers. This means each orbital
spin quantum number (ms) can hold a maximum of two electrons with opposite
spins.
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
Represents the main energy
level or shell of an electron.
Values: (1, 2, 3, 4, …)
Determines:
The distance of the
electron from the nucleus.
The energy of the electron
(higher n, higher energy).
The size of the electron
cloud. 2. Aufbau Principle
Max. no of electrons: 2n^2 Electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals first before
The total number of orbitals moving to higher energy levels.
from a given n value is n^2.

2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

Describes the shape of the orbital where the electron is found.
Values: Integers from 0 to n−1 for each n.
Subshells:
if n = 1 then, l = 0 (s-orbital)
if n = 2 then, l = 0, 1 (s, p-orbital) - 2d is not possible
if n = 3 then, l = 0, 1, 2 (s, p, d-orbital) - 3f is not possible
if n = 4 then, l = 0, 1, 2, 3 (s, p, d, f-orbital)

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

Describes the orientation of the orbital in space. 3. Hund’s Rule
Values: Integers from -l to +l, including zero. Electrons will occupy degenerate orbitals singly
if l = 0 then, ml = 0 before pairing up, to minimize electron-electron
if l = 1 then, ml could be in -1, +1 repulsion.
No. of orbitals = 2(l) + 1
Determines:
The orientation of the orbital around the nucleus.

4. Spin Quantum Number (ms​)

Describes the spin orientation of the electron.
Values: -1/2 (spin-down) and +1/2 (spin-up)
Determines:
The intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of the electron.
Each orbital can hold two electrons with opposite spins.

Example: 2p⁶
Principal (n) = 2p⁶ -- the big number (n = 2)
Angular (l) = n-1 -- since, n=2, 2-1=1 - (l = 1)
Magnetic (ml) = -l to +l, since l=1, then -1 to +1 (ml = -1, 0, +1)
Spin (ms) = 2p⁶ - the subscript (if even = -1/2, odd = +1/2), since
6 is even, then -1/2 (ms = -1/2)
 SCIENCE

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION CHEMICAL BONDING

Electron configuration is a notation that shows the Chemical or intramolecular bonding refers to the forces that
distribution of electrons among the atomic orbitals. It hold atoms together within a molecule or compound. These
follows specific rules and principles to represent how bonds determine the structure, stability, and properties of
electrons occupy the orbitals of an atom. substances. The main types of intramolecular bonds are ionic,
covalent, and metallic bonds.

Types of Intramolecular Bonding

1. Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonds form between metals and nonmetals through the
transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in
the formation of positively and negatively charged ions.

Formation:
Metal Atom: Loses one or more electrons to become a
positively charged cation.
Nonmetal Atom: Gains those electrons to become a
negatively charged anion.
The electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged
ions holds them together.

Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Na (Sodium): Loses 1 electron → Na⁺
Cl (Chlorine): Gains 1 electron → Cl⁻
Bond: Electrostatic attraction between Na⁺ and Cl⁻.
Writing Electron Configurations
Electron configurations are written using the following format: Properties:
Appearance: Usually crystalline solids.
1s1
no. of electrons
energy level in the orbital Melting Point: High.
Electrical Conductivity: Conducts electricity in molten or
type of orbital dissolved form.
Solubility: Generally soluble in water.
Example:
The electron configuration for carbon (atomic number 6) is: 2. Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds form when two nonmetals share pairs of
1s 2 2s2 2p 2 electrons to achieve a full valence shell for each atom.

Breakdown: Types of Covalent Bonds:

1s²: Two electrons in the 1s orbital. Single Bond: One pair of shared electrons (H₂O).
2s²: Two electrons in the 2s orbital. Double Bond: Two pairs of shared electrons (O₂).
2p²: Two electrons in the 2p orbitals. Triple Bond: Three pairs of shared electrons (N₂).
Total : 6 electrons
Example: Water (H₂O)
Special Cases H (Hydrogen): Shares 1 electron.
O (Oxygen): Shares 1 electron with each hydrogen.
Bond: Shared pair of electrons between H and O.
Expected
Element Actual Configuration
Configuration
Properties:
Appearance: Gaseous, liquid, or solid.
Copper [Ar] 4s² 3d⁹ [Ar] 4s¹ 3d¹⁰ Melting Point: Generally low.
Electrical Conductivity: Poor conductor in all states.
Solubility: Solubility varies; some are soluble in water, others
Silver [Kr] 5s² 4d⁹ [Kr] 5s¹ 4d¹⁰ in organic solvents.

Gold [Xe] 6s² 4f¹⁴ 5d⁹ [Xe] 6s¹ 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰

Palladium [Kr] 5s² 4d⁸ [Kr] 5s^0 4d¹⁰

Chromium [Ar] 4s² 3d⁴ [Ar] 4s¹ 3d^5

Covalent Bonding Ionic Bonding
sharing transferring
SCIENCE
Nonpolar Covalent Bonding
Nonpolar covalent bonds occur when electrons are
shared equally between two atoms, typically of the
same or similar electronegativity.

Polar Covalent Bonding

Polar covalent bonds occur when electrons are
shared unequally between two atoms with different
electronegativities, causing a partial positive charge
on one atom and a partial negative charge on the
other.

3. Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonds are formed between metal atoms
through the delocalization of valence electrons,
which create a “sea of electrons” around positively
charged metal cations.

Formation:
Metal Atoms: Share their valence electrons freely.
Electron Sea Model: Electrons move freely among
cations, creating electrical conductivity.

Example: Copper (Cu)

Cu Atoms: Delocalized electrons move freely
among positively charged metal ions.

Properties:
Appearance: Shiny, metallic luster.
Melting Point: Generally high.
Electrical Conductivity: Excellent conductor of
electricity and heat.
Malleability and Ductility: Malleable and ductile.

Bonding Models and Theories

Model/Theory Description Application

Diagrams showing valence electron

Lewis Structures Predicts molecular shapes and bond types.
arrangements and bonds between atoms.

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion

VSEPR Theory Theory; predicts the shape of molecules Determines molecular geometry.
based on electron repulsion.

Mixing of atomic orbitals to form new Explains bond angles and bonding
Hybridization
hybrid orbitals for bonding. properties.

Considers the combination of atomic Describes bonding, antibonding orbitals,

Molecular Orbital Theory
orbitals to form molecular orbitals. and bond order.

Describes the effect of ligands on the d- Explains color, magnetism, and bonding in
Crystal Field Theory
orbitals of transition metals. coordination complexes.
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3. Tetrahedral
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY Bond Angle: 109.5°
Molecular geometry refers to the three-dimensional arrangement Example: CH4
of atoms in a molecule. It determines many physical and chemical Four atoms arranged around one central atom in a three-
properties of a substance, such as reactivity, polarity, phase of dimensional shape.
matter, color, magnetism, biological activity, and more.
4. Trigonal Bipyramidal
Bond Angles: 90° and 120°
Example: PCl5
Five atoms around one central atom; three in a plane and two
above and below the plane.

5. Octahedral
Bond Angle: 90°
Example: SF6
Six atoms arranged around one central atom in an octahedron
shape.

Influence of Lone Pairs

Lone pairs of electrons occupy more space around the central
atom than bonding pairs, causing deviations from ideal bond
angles.

LEWIS STRUCTURE
A Lewis structure (also known as a Lewis dot diagram) is a
graphical representation of the arrangement of valence electrons
around atoms within a molecule. It is used to show how electrons
are shared or transferred between atoms to form covalent or ionic
bonds.

Key Concepts

Valence Electrons:
Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom that are involved in
chemical bonding.
Represented as dots around the symbol of an element.
Key Concepts
Octet Rule
1. Electron Pair Repulsion Atoms tend to form bonds to achieve a full valence shell,
The shape of a molecule is determined by the repulsion typically eight electrons for main-group elements (except
between electron pairs (both bonding and lone pairs) hydrogen, which aims for two).
around the central atom.
The VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) theory Bonding Pairs and Lone Pairs
is often used to predict molecular geometry. Bonding Pairs: Electrons shared between two atoms to form a
covalent bond (represented by a line).
2. Bonding and Lone Pairs Lone Pairs: Electrons not involved in bonding and belong to a
Bonding pairs: Shared electrons between atoms. single atom (represented by pairs of dots).
Lone pairs: Non-bonding pairs of electrons on the central
atom.

Common Molecular Geometries

1. Linear
Bond Angle: 180°
Example: CO​2 (O=C=O)
Atoms are arranged in a straight line.

2. Trigonal Planar
Bond Angle: 120°
Example: BF3​
Three atoms arranged around one central atom in a plane.
SCIENCE
Steps to Draw a Lewis Structure Process of Hybridization
Promotion: An electron from a lower-energy orbital is
1. Determine the Total Number of Valence Electrons promoted to a higher-energy orbital to allow for more bonding
Add up all the valence electrons from each atom in the opportunities.
molecule. Mixing: Atomic orbitals (s, p, d) mix to form new hybrid
orbitals.
2. Choose a Central Atom Formation of Hybrid Orbitals: Hybrid orbitals have properties
Typically, the least electronegative atom (excluding hydrogen). intermediate between the contributing atomic orbitals.

3. Distribute Electrons Around Atoms

CARBON ATOM (Hybridization Theory)
Place a single bond (a pair of electrons) between the central
atom and each surrounding atom.
Distribute remaining electrons to satisfy the octet rule (or duet
rule for hydrogen).

4. Form Multiple Bonds if Necessary

If any atoms lack an octet, form double or triple bonds by
sharing more pairs of electrons.

5. Check for Formal Charges

Minimize formal charges on atoms where possible to achieve
the most stable structure.

Example: Water (H2O)

1. Total Valence Electrons: 1 (H) × 2 + 6 (O) = 8 electrons
2. Central Atom: Oxygen (O)
3. Distribute Electrons:
Place single bonds between O and each H: H-O-H
Remaining electrons go on oxygen as lone pairs.

HYBRIDIZATION THEORY
Hybridization theory explains the formation of equivalent orbitals
in molecules to account for the observed shapes and bond angles.
It describes the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid
orbitals suitable for the pairing of electrons to form covalent
bonds.
Sp3 Sp2 Sp2
Key Concepts

Atomic Orbitals: Single bond Double bond Triple bond

The regions around the nucleus where electrons are most
likely to be found. 1 sigma bond 1 sigma 1 pi bond 1 sigma 2 pi bond
Types: s, p, d, and f orbitals.

Hybrid Orbitals: Lowest s character Highest s character

Formed by the combination of standard atomic orbitals.
Hybrid orbitals are degenerate (same energy) and have
Longest bond Shortest bond
specific geometries.

Types of Hybridization: Weakest bond Strongest bond

sp: Linear geometry (180° bond angles)
sp²: Trigonal planar geometry (120° bond angles)
sp³: Tetrahedral geometry (109.5° bond angles) Most stable (least Least stable (most
sp³d: Trigonal bipyramidal geometry (90° and 120° bond reactive) reactive)
angles)
sp³d²: Octahedral geometry (90° bond angles)
SCIENCE

TYPES OF SATURATION STOICHIOMETRY

Saturation refers to the amount of solute that can dissolve in a Mole Concept
solvent at a given temperature and pressure. The mole concept is based on the number of Carbon-12 atoms
present in 12 grams of the isotope. This is the basis for the
Types: Avogrado’s number: 6.022 x 10^23
1. Unsaturated Solution
2. Saturated Solution Hence,
3. Supersaturate Solution 1 mole = 6.022 x 10^23 particles
1 mole = 6.022 x 10^23 atoms
Unsaturated Solution 1 mole = 6.022 x 10^23 molecules
An unsaturated solution is one in which more solute can be 1 mole = 6.022 x 10^23 ions
dissolved in the solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
Contains less solute than the maximum amount that can be Mole Triangle
dissolved.
Additional solute can be added and will dissolve.
Example: If you have a cup of water and you add a small
amount of salt that dissolves completely, the solution is
unsaturated.

Saturated Solution
A saturated solution is one in which no more solute can be
dissolved in the solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
Mass of Common Elements
The solution has reached its maximum capacity of dissolved
solute.
Contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute. Element Z
Any additional solute added will not dissolve and will remain as H 1
a precipitate.
C 6
Example: If you keep adding sugar to a cup of tea until no
more sugar dissolves and some sugar remains at the bottom, O 8
the tea is a saturated solution. Na 11
Mg 12
Supersaturated Solution
Al 13
A supersaturated solution is one that contains more dissolved
solute than is possible under normal circumstances. This is Si 14
usually achieved by dissolving the solute at an elevated S 16
temperature and then cooling the solution gently.
Cl 17
Contains more solute than the saturation point at a given
temperature. K 19
Unstable and can crystallize upon disturbance or seeding with Ca 20
a small crystal of the solute.
Example: If you heat a solution of sodium acetate in water and Molar Mass and Atomic Mass
dissolve more sodium acetate than would be possible at room
temperature, then slowly cool the solution, it becomes Atomic Mass
supersaturated. If you then add a small crystal of sodium The mass of an individual atom, typically expressed in atomic
acetate, it will cause the excess solute to crystallize out. mass units (amu).
For example, the atomic mass of carbon is approximately 12
amu.

Molar Mass
The mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams per
mole (g/mol).
Numerically equivalent to the atomic or molecular mass in
amu, but expressed in grams.
For example, the molar mass of carbon is 12 g/mol.

Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula

Empirical Formula
The simplest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound.
For example, the empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is
HO.
SCIENCE
Molecular Formula
The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of HYDROCARBONS
the compound.
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed exclusively of
It may be a multiple of the empirical formula.
hydrogen and carbon atoms. They are the simplest organic
For example, the molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide is
molecules and form the basis of organic chemistry.
H₂O₂.
Classification of Hydrocarbons
Example 1 (Empirical Formula)
1. Alkanes (Saturated Hydrocarbons)
2. Alkenes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons)
A compound contains 40% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen, and 53.3%
3. Alkynes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons)
oxygen by mass.
4. Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Convert to moles:
1. Alkanes (Saturated Hydrocarbons)
C: 40g/(12g/mol) = 3.33 mol
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds between
H: 6.7g/(1g/mol) = 6.7 mol
carbon atoms. Each carbon atom is bonded to the maximum
O: 53.3g/(16g/mol) = 3.33 mol
number of hydrogen atoms.

Simplest Ratio
General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
C: 3.33 mol/3.33 mol = 1
H: 6.7 mol/3.33 mol = 2
Properties:
O: 3.33 mol/3.33 mol = 1
Single Bonds: Only single bonds (C–C) between carbon atoms.
Saturated: Contain the maximum possible number of
Empirical Formula: CH₂O
hydrogen atoms.
Structure: Can be straight-chain, branched, or cyclic
Example 2 (Molecular Formula)
(cycloalkanes).
Let’s say the given molecular mass is 180 g/mol.
Reactivity: Relatively low reactivity due to strong C–C and C–H
It is important that we know the atomic mass of basic
bonds.
elements. For carbon, the atomic mass is 12 g/mol, hydrogen is
Examples: Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆), Propane (C₃H₈),
1 g/mol, and oxygen is 16 g/mol.
Butane (C₄H₁₀).
We know that the empirical formula is CH2O, let’s multiply the
subscript (atoms) to the molar mass of each element.
2. Alkenes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons)
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon
C = 16 x 1 = 16 g/mol Add all of them to get 30 g/mol. double bond.
H = 1 x 2 = 2 g/mol Then, divide. 180/ 30 = 6
O = 18 x 1 = 18 g/mol so, n = 6 General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ

C=1x6=6 Multiply 6 to the number of atoms. Properties:

H = 2 x 6 = 12
Double Bonds: Contain one or more double bonds (C=C)
O=1x6=6
between carbon atoms.
Unsaturated: Not saturated with hydrogen atoms.
So, the molecular formula is C₆H₁₂O₆
Structure: Can be straight-chain, branched, or cyclic
(cycloalkenes).
Reactivity: More reactive than alkanes due to the presence of
double bonds.
Examples: Ethene (C₂H₄), Propene (C₃H₆), Butene (C₄H₈).

3. Alkynes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons)

Alkynes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon
triple bond.

General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ₋₂

Properties:
Triple Bonds: Contain one or more triple bonds (C≡C)
between carbon atoms.
Unsaturated: Not saturated with hydrogen atoms.
Structure: Can be straight-chain or branched.
Reactivity: More reactive than alkanes and alkenes due to the
presence of triple bonds.
Examples: Ethyne (C₂H₂), Propyne (C₃H₄), Butyne (C₄H₆).
SCIENCE
Example:
4. Aromatic Hydrocarbons If you start with 100 grams of a radioactive isotope, after one
Aromatic hydrocarbons contain one or more benzene rings, which half-life, 50 grams will remain. After another half-life, only 25
are stable ring-like structures with alternating double bonds. grams will remain, and so forth.

General Formula: CₙHₙ Decay Process

Radioactive decay is a spontaneous process where
Properties: unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation (alpha, beta,
Benzene Ring: The primary structure is benzene (C₆H₆), with a or gamma). The decay process can be described as a first-
ring of six carbon atoms and alternating double bonds. order reaction where the rate of decay is proportional to the
Stability: Highly stable due to resonance, where electrons are number of radioactive nuclei present.
delocalized over the ring structure.
Aromaticity: Characterized by aromaticity, a property Decay Modes:
resulting from the delocalized π-electrons in the ring. Alpha Decay: Emits an alpha particle and transforms into a
Reactivity: Undergo substitution reactions rather than addition different element.
reactions, preserving the aromatic ring. Beta Decay: Emits a beta particle (electron or positron) and
Examples: Benzene (C₆H₆), Toluene (C₇H₈), Naphthalene transforms into a different isotope of the same element.
(C₁₀H₈). Gamma Decay: Emits a gamma ray (high-energy photon)
without changing the element.

No. of Carbons Name

Concept Description Formula
1 Meth
2 Eth Time required for half of
3 Prop Half-life the radioactive nuclei to t 1/2
decay.
4 But
ln(2)
λ = ______
5 Pent Decay A measure of the rate of
6 Hex Constant decay. t 1/2
7 Hept Relates the remaining t
Decay ______
t 1/2
8 Oct quantity of a substance to N(t) = N 0(1/2)
Formula
time.
9 Non
10 Dec Spontaneous emission of
Decay
11 Unde radiation by unstable -
Process
nuclei.
12 Dode
Uses include dating
methods, medical
Applications -
imaging, and nuclear
HALF-LIFE FORMULA power management.
t
______
Half-life is a fundamental concept in the study of radioactive Basic How much of a sample t 1/2
isotopes and nuclear chemistry. It refers to the time required for Calculations remains after a given time.
N(t) = N 0(1/2)
half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay. The concept
ln(2)
t 1/2 = ______
applies to all radioactive substances, whether they decay by Finding Half- Calculating half-life from
alpha, beta, or gamma radiation. life the decay constant. λ
 SCIENCE
Diffuses rapidly
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY Compressible (inc P), expandable (dec P)
Postulates: Very light (depends on T and P), D= 0.0012g/cc
Particles in Constant Motion: Gas particles are always moving Has mass and can be measured
in random directions with varying speeds. This motion is the Applies constant pressure on the walls of the container
cause of pressure exerted by gases.
Negligible Particle Volume: The volume of the gas particles Mixture of Gases
themselves is negligible compared to the total volume of the Air - a mixture mostly made up of oxygen and nitrogen
gas. Most of the volume occupied by a gas is empty space. Natural gas - flammable and comes from ground, used as fuel
No Intermolecular Forces: There are no attractive or repulsive Oxygen - produced through photosynthesis, used in
forces between gas particles. They move independently of propulsion of space shuttle in combination with H
each other except during collisions. CO2 - used in fizzy drinks and fire extinguishers
Elastic Collisions: When gas particles collide with each other Nitrogen - used in fertilizers and explosives
or with the walls of the container, the collisions are perfectly Water vapor - evaporated form of water, in cloud form
elastic. This means that there is no loss of kinetic energy in the Helium - light gas
collisions. Argon - used in electric bulbs, a small amount of it is found in
Average Kinetic Energy and Temperature: The average air
kinetic energy of gas particles is directly proportional to the
temperature of the gas in kelvins. Higher temperatures BOYLE'S LAW
correspond to higher average kinetic energy and thus higher Robert Boyle in 1662 studied the relationship between the
speeds of gas particles. volume of a gas and its pressure.
Boyle varied the pressure and noticed its effect on the volume
of the gas, without changing its temperature.
GAS LAW He noticed that the volume of the gas decreased as the
pressure exerted on it increased.
Measurable Properties of Gas
This experience is now known as Boyle’s Law.
Pressure - the force exerted by the gas on the walls of its
At constant temperature, the pressure (P) of a given amount of
container divided by the surface area of the container. (P =
gas is inversely proportional to its volume (V).
Force/Area)
Volume - defined as the space occupied. The volume of the
gas is equal to the volume of the vessel or container.
Temperature - defined as the degree of hotness or coldness.
If the volume of a gas decreases, the gas particles have less
space to move around, resulting in more frequent collisions
with the container walls and thus higher pressure. Conversely,
Pressure can be converted from unit to another using the
if the volume increases, the pressure decreases.
following conversion:
Boyle's Law applies when the temperature and the number
1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg
of gas particles are kept constant.
1 torr = 1 mm Hg
1 atm = 101,325 Pa Pressure and Volume Data for a set amount of Gas at a Constant Temperature

Pressure (atm) Volume (mL) P x V = k (atm.mL)

Common Units of Volume
0.5 1000 500
cubic meter (m³)
cubic centimeter (cm3) 0.625 800 500
liter (L)
1.0 500 500
milliliter (mL)
2.0 250 500
4.0 125 500
Common Units of
Temperature C to K = +273.15 5.0 100 500
°C Tc= 0.56 (Tf-32) 6.0 83.0 500
°F Tc= 5/9 (Tf-32)
Kelvin (K) 8.0 62.5 500
10.0 50.0 500

Gas is a state of matter in which particles are freely moving and

widely apart
Compressible and has an undefined shape and volume
There are 11 elements in the periodic table of elements that
are in gaseous state
Diatomic: H2, O2, F2, Cl2
Noble Gases: He, Ne, Kr, Ar, Xe, Ra
Can fill up containers pressure is inversely pressure is directly
PV = P (constant)
proportional to volume proportional to 1/volume
 SCIENCE
Diffuses rapidly
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY Compressible (inc P), expandable (dec P)
Postulates: Very light (depends on T and P), D= 0.0012g/cc
Particles in Constant Motion: Gas particles are always moving Has mass and can be measured
in random directions with varying speeds. This motion is the Applies constant pressure on the walls of the container
cause of pressure exerted by gases.
Negligible Particle Volume: The volume of the gas particles Mixture of Gases
themselves is negligible compared to the total volume of the Air - a mixture mostly made up of oxygen and nitrogen
gas. Most of the volume occupied by a gas is empty space. Natural gas - flammable and comes from ground, used as fuel
No Intermolecular Forces: There are no attractive or repulsive Oxygen - produced through photosynthesis, used in
forces between gas particles. They move independently of propulsion of space shuttle in combination with H
each other except during collisions. CO2 - used in fizzy drinks and fire extinguishers
Elastic Collisions: When gas particles collide with each other Nitrogen - used in fertilizers and explosives
or with the walls of the container, the collisions are perfectly Water vapor - evaporated form of water, in cloud form
elastic. This means that there is no loss of kinetic energy in the Helium - light gas
collisions. Argon - used in electric bulbs, a small amount of it is found in
Average Kinetic Energy and Temperature: The average air
kinetic energy of gas particles is directly proportional to the
temperature of the gas in kelvins. Higher temperatures BOYLE'S LAW
correspond to higher average kinetic energy and thus higher Robert Boyle in 1662 studied the relationship between the
speeds of gas particles. volume of a gas and its pressure.
Boyle varied the pressure and noticed its effect on the volume
of the gas, without changing its temperature.
GAS LAW He noticed that the volume of the gas decreased as the
pressure exerted on it increased.
Measurable Properties of Gas
This experience is now known as Boyle’s Law.
Pressure - the force exerted by the gas on the walls of its
At constant temperature, the pressure (P) of a given amount of
container divided by the surface area of the container. (P =
gas is inversely proportional to its volume (V).
Force/Area)
If the volume of a gas decreases, the gas particles have less
Volume - defined as the space occupied. The volume of the
space to move around, resulting in more frequent collisions
gas is equal to the volume of the vessel or container.
with the container walls and thus higher pressure. Conversely,
Temperature - defined as the degree of hotness or coldness.
if the volume increases, the pressure decreases.
Boyle's Law applies when the temperature and the number
of gas particles are kept constant.
Pressure can be converted from unit to another using the
following conversion:
1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg
1 torr = 1 mm Hg Pressure and Volume Data for a set amount of Gas at a Constant Temperature
1 atm = 101,325 Pa
Pressure (atm) Volume (mL) P x V = k (atm.mL)
Common Units of Volume 0.5 1000 500
cubic meter (m³) 0.625 800 500
cubic centimeter (cm3)
liter (L) 1.0 500 500
milliliter (mL) 2.0 250 500
4.0 125 500
Common Units of 5.0 100 500
Temperature C to K = +273.15
6.0 83.0 500
°C Tc= 0.56 (Tf-32)
°F Tc= 5/9 (Tf-32) 8.0 62.5 500
Kelvin (K)
10.0 50.0 500

Gas is a state of matter in which particles are freely moving and

widely apart
Compressible and has an undefined shape and volume
pressure is inversely
There are 11 elements in the periodic table of elements that
proportional to volume
are in gaseous state
Diatomic: H2, O2, F2, Cl2
Noble Gases: He, Ne, Kr, Ar, Xe, Ra
Can fill up containers
SCIENCE
If the same gas is brought into two different pressures, it will Rearranged Formula: v/t = constant v is directly proportional to t
result in two distinct volumes, with the same value for k.
Hence, the equation will become:

or
Charles's Law applies when
the pressure and the number
of gas particles are kept
P1 = initial pressure P2 = final pressure constant.
V1 = initial volume V2 = final volume Temperatures must be in
kelvins (K) for the formula to
Remember: be valid.
Gas particles have a very weak intermolecular force of
attraction; hence they move as far as possible from each Avogadro's Law
other. They have the tendency to occupy all the spaces Amedeo Avogadro
they are contained in. If the pressure is increased, the At constant temperature and pressure, the volume (V) of a gas
volume will be decreased forcing the gas particles to move is directly proportional to the number of moles (n) of gas.
closer to one another. Adding more gas particles increases the volume of the gas,
provided the temperature and pressure remain constant.
The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its Similarly, decreasing the number of particles decreases the
pressure, if temperature and amount of a gas are held volume.
constant. This was stated by Robert Boyle.
V1 = Initial volume
V2 = Final volume
The pressure of a gas is the force exerted by the gas on
n1 = Initial number of moles
the walls of its container divided by the surface area of the
n2 = Final number of moles
container.

Pascal is the standard unit of pressure. 101,325 Pa is Gay-Lussac's Law

equivalent to 1 atm or 760 torr. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
At constant volume, the pressure (P) of a gas is directly
Boyle's Law is important when using a syringe. When fully proportional to its temperature (T) in kelvins.
depressed, the syringe is at a neutral state with no air in Increasing the temperature of a gas increases the kinetic
the cylinder. When the plunger is pulled back, you are energy of its particles, leading to more frequent and forceful
increasing the volume in the container and thus reducing collisions with the container walls, thus increasing the pressure.
the pressure. If the temperature decreases, the pressure decreases.
CHARLES' LAW
P1 = Initial pressure
In 1787, the French inventor Jacques Charles, while P2 = Final pressure
investigating the inflation of his manned hydrogen balloon, T1 = Initial temperature
discovered that the volume of a gas varied directly with T2 = Final temperature
temperature.
Charles's Law states that the volume of a given mass of
Ideal Gas Law
gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of the
The product of pressure and the volume of one gram molecule
gas when pressure is kept constant.
of an ideal gas is equal to the product of the absolute
The temperatures are conventionally measured in Kelvin,
temperature of the gas and the universal gas constant.
the SI unit of temperature.
Combination of four gas law formulas:
Since the volume of a gas decreases with falling temperature,
scientists realized that a natural zero-point for temperature
could be defined as the temperature at which the volume of a
gas theoretically becomes zero.

The absolute temperature scale was devised by the English

physicist Kelvin, so temperatures on this scale are called
Kelvin (K) temperatures. The Kelvin scale must be used
because zero on the Kelvin scale corresponds to a complete
stoppage of molecular motion.

V1 = Initial volume
V2 = Final volume
T1 = Initial temperature
T2 = Final temperature
SCIENCE
Properties of Gas It is the basis for the concept of the efficiency of heat engines
All the noble gases (group 18) are monatomic gases, whereas and refrigerators.
the other gaseous elements are diatomic molecules. Examples The Second Law can be formulated in terms of heat engines:
of these gases are oxygen (O2), iodine (I2), chlorine (Cl2), no heat engine can be 100% efficient, as some energy is
nitrogen (N2), and hydrogen (H2). always lost as waste heat.
The volume or space occupied by the molecules themselves is
negligible as compared to the total volume of the container so entropy change for reversible processes
that the volume of the container can be taken as the volume of
the gas.
Gases are easily compressed when pressure is applied.
Gases expand when heated and contract when cooled. ΔS is the change in entropy.
Gases exert pressure in all directions on the walls of their Qᵣₑᵥ is the heat transferred in a reversible process.
container. T is the absolute temperature.
Gases have lower densities than solids and liquids.
The attractive forces between molecules (intermolecular) are Third Law of Thermodynamics
negligible. As the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero (0
Gases mix evenly and completely when contained in the same Kelvin), the entropy of a perfect crystal approaches zero.
vessel. This law implies that it is impossible to reach absolute zero in a
finite number of steps, and that the entropy of a perfectly
ordered crystalline substance is zero at absolute zero.
The Third Law provides an absolute reference point for the
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS determination of entropy.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics It is crucial for understanding the behavior of substances at
If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third very low temperatures and the properties of cryogenic
system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. systems.
There is no specific formula for the Zeroth Law, but it
establishes the concept of temperature and the possibility of
measuring it.
This law implies that temperature is a fundamental and where S is the entropy and T is the temperature
measurable property of matter. It allows the definition of
temperature scales and the use of thermometers.
Specific Heat Capacity
The Zeroth Law forms the basis for the definition of
Specific heat capacity (SHC) is the amount of heat required to
temperature.
raise the temperature of one kilogram of a substance by one
degree Celsius (or one Kelvin). It is a measure of a substance's
First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Energy Conservation)
ability to absorb heat energy.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or
converted from one form to another. Q is the heat added or removed (in joules, J).
m is the mass of the substance (in kilograms, kg).
This law implies that the total energy of an isolated system
c is the specific heat capacity (in J/kg·°C or J/kg·K).
remains constant. Any change in the internal energy of a ΔT is the change in temperature (in °C or K).
system is due to the heat added to the system and the work
done by the system.
The First Law can be applied to various processes, including Specific Heat
Specific Heat
isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric, and isochoric processes. Substance Capacity
Capacity (J/kg·°C)
In an isothermal process (ΔU=0), Q=W. (kcal/kg·°C)
In an adiabatic process (Q=0), ΔU=−W.
Water (liquid) 4,186 1.0
ΔU is the change in internal energy of
the system.
Ice 2,100 0.50
Q is the heat added to the system. Steam 2,010 0.48
W is the work done by the system.
Aluminum 900 0.215
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The entropy of an isolated system always increases over time. Copper 385 0.092
In any energy transfer or transformation, some energy is lost Iron 450 0.107
as unusable heat, increasing the overall entropy.
Gold 129 0.031
This law introduces the concept of entropy, a measure of
disorder or randomness. It implies that natural processes tend Silver 235 0.056
to move towards a state of greater disorder or higher entropy. Ethanol 2,440 0.583
The Second Law explains the direction of spontaneous
Air 1,005 0.240
processes and the concept of irreversibility.

Heat and Work Sign Convention (SYSTEM’S POV)

If q is -, system released heat.
If q is +, system absorbed heat.
If w is -, system did work.
If w is +, system had work done on it.
SCIENCE
Example:
RATE OF DIFFUSION OF COMPOUNDS Which of the following compounds has a higher rate of diffusion?
The rate of diffusion of compounds is the speed at which CO₂
molecules or ions move from an area of higher concentration to NH₃
an area of lower concentration. This process is driven by the CH₄
concentration gradient and occurs until equilibrium is reached.
The rate of diffusion of inversely proportional to the molecular Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
weight, that’s means that the compound with lightest Carbon’s molar mass = 12 g/mol
molecular weight diffuse the fastest. Oxygen’s molar mass = 16 g/mol
Multiply the molar mass to the number of atom present in the
It’s important that we know the molecular weight of common compound.
elements.
C =12 x 1 = 12 g/mol
Elements Molas Mass O = 16 x 2 = 32 g/mol
Carbon 12 g/mol
Then add them together. 12 + 32 = 44 g/mol
Oxygen 16 g/mol
Nitrogen 14 g/mol Ammonia (NH₃)
Hydrogen 1 g/mol Nitrogen = 14 g/mol
Hydrogen = 1 g/mol
Helium 4 g/mol
(14 x 1) + (1 x 3) = 14 + 3 = 17 g/mol
Potassium 39 g/mol
Calcium 40 g/mol Methane (CH₄)
Carbon = 12 g/mol
Silicon 28 g/mol Hydrogen = 1 g/mol
Iron 55.8 g/mol (12 x 1) + (1 x 4) = 12 + 4 = 16 g/mol
Sodium 23 g/mol
Since methane is the lightest compound among the three, that’s
Chlorine 35.5 g/mol means that methane has higher diffusion rate.
Boron 10.8 g/mol
Fluorine 19 g/mol
PHASE CHANGE
Neon 20.2 g/mol

Argon 40 g/mol

Iodine 127 g/mol

Tin 118.7 g/mol

Cobalt 59 g/mol
Zinc 65.4 g/mol
Magnesium 24.3 g/mol
Manganese 54.9 g/mol
Lithium 6.9 g/mol
Beryllium 9 g/mol

Nickel 58.7 g/mol

Copper 63.5 g/mol

Note: Remember this diagram
Phosphorus 40 g/mol
Melting (Fusion): Transition from solid to liquid.
Aluminum 28 g/mol Freezing (Solidification): Transition from liquid to solid.
Tungsten 183.8 g/mol Vaporization: Transition from liquid to gas, including boiling
and evaporation.
Platinum 195 g/mol
Condensation: Transition from gas to liquid.
Mercury 200.6 g/mol Sublimation: Transition from solid to gas without passing
through the liquid phase.
Iron 55.8 g/mol
Deposition: Transition from gas to solid without passing
Gold 197 g/mol through the liquid phase.

Key Features of a Phase Diagram:

Axes: Temperature (x-axis) and Pressure (y-axis).

SCIENCE
Phase Boundaries: Lines that separate different phases. These London Dispersion Forces (LDF)
lines indicate the conditions under which two phases can coexist
in equilibrium.
Fusion Curve: Boundary between solid and liquid phases.
Vaporization Curve: Boundary between liquid and gas phases.
Sublimation Curve: Boundary between solid and gas phases.

Triple Point: The point on the phase diagram where all three
phases (solid, liquid, gas) coexist in equilibrium.

Critical Point: The end point of the vaporization curve, beyond

which the liquid and gas phases are indistinguishable. This point
is characterized by critical temperature and critical pressure. Present in all molecules, whether polar or nonpolar.
Arise due to temporary dipoles formed when electrons move
Regions: Areas on the diagram that represent the conditions around the nucleus, causing an instantaneous uneven
under which a particular phase is stable (solid, liquid, or gas). distribution of electrons.
Generally, the weakest of the intermolecular forces.
Strength increases with the size and number of electrons in
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION the molecule (larger molar mass).

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMFA) are the forces that

act between molecules, governing the physical properties of Strongest Intermolecular Attraction
substances, such as boiling and melting points, viscosity, and Ion-Dipole (STRONGEST)
solubility. These forces are generally weaker than the Hydrogen Bonding
intramolecular forces (covalent, ionic, and metallic bonds) that Dipole-Dipole
hold atoms together within a molecule. London Dispersion Forces (WEAKEST)

Types of Intermolecular Forces Remember:

1. London Dispersion Forces (LDF) Larger molecules with more electrons have stronger London
2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions Dispersion Forces.
3. Hydrogen Bonding More elongated molecules have greater surface area for
4. Ion-Dipole Interactions interactions, leading to stronger dispersion forces.
Ion-Dipole Interactions Polar molecules exhibit dipole-dipole interactions or hydrogen
Occur between an ion and a polar bonding, which are stronger than the London Dispersion
molecule.
Forces in nonpolar molecules.
Important in solutions where ionic
compounds are dissolved in polar Molecules capable of hydrogen bonding (e.g., containing N-H,
solvents (e.g., salt in water). O-H, or F-H groups) will have stronger attractions compared
Stronger than hydrogen bonds. to those with only dipole-dipole or dispersion forces.
The strength depends on the Ionic compounds or solutions with ion-dipole interactions will
charge and size of the ion, and the
dipole moment of the polar
have the strongest attractions.
molecule.

Hydrogen Bonding
A special type of dipole-dipole
interaction.
Occurs when hydrogen is covalently
bonded to highly electronegative
atoms (fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen),
and it interacts with a lone pair on
another electronegative atom.
Generally the strongest type of
dipole-dipole interaction.
Significantly influences the physical
properties of substances (e.g., high
boiling point of water).

Dipole-Dipole Interactions
Occur between polar molecules,
where positive and negative ends of
dipoles attract each other.
Stronger than London Dispersion
Forces.
The strength depends on the
magnitude of the dipole moment;
the greater the polarity, the
stronger the interaction.
SCIENCE

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM Formally:

If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in
Chemical equilibrium is a state in a reversible chemical reaction concentration, pressure, or temperature, the system will adjust
where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, itself to partially counteract the change and restore a new
resulting in constant concentrations of reactants and products equilibrium.
over time.
Factors Affecting Chemical Equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium occurs when:
Change in Concentration
Adding Reactants: Shifts the equilibrium to the right to form
At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products more products.
remain constant, though they are not necessarily equal. Adding Products: Shifts the equilibrium to the left to form
General Form of a Reversible Reaction: more reactants.
Removing Reactants: Shifts the equilibrium to the left to form
more reactants.
Removing Products: Shifts the equilibrium to the right to form
more products.
A and B are reactants.
C and D are products. Example
a, b, c, and d are the stoichiometric coefficients.

Equilibrium Constant Adding N₂ or H₂​ will shift the equilibrium to the right,
The position of equilibrium can be expressed using the increasing NH₃​production.
equilibrium constant K: Adding NH₃ will shift the equilibrium to the left, increasing N₂
and H₂​concentrations.
Where:
[A], [B], [C], and [D] represent the Change in Pressure
concentrations of the reactants and Increasing Pressure: Shifts the equilibrium towards the side
products at equilibrium. with fewer gas molecules.
Decreasing Pressure: Shifts the equilibrium towards the side
For homogeneous equilibria (where all reactants and products with more gas molecules.
are in the same phase): Kc
For heterogeneous equilibria (where reactants and products Example
are in different phases), only gases and aqueous solutions are
included in the equilibrium constant expression.
Increasing pressure favors the formation of NH₃ (fewer moles
Le Chatelier’s Principle states that if a dynamic equilibrium is of gas).
disturbed by changing the conditions, the position of equilibrium Decreasing pressure favors the formation of N₂​​ and H₂​ (more
will shift to counteract the change and reestablish a new moles of gas).
equilibrium.
SCIENCE
Change in Temperature REDOX REACTIONS
Increasing Temperature: Shifts the equilibrium in the
Redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions are a type of chemical
direction that absorbs heat (endothermic direction).
reaction involving the transfer of electrons between
Decreasing Temperature: Shifts the equilibrium in the
substances.
direction that releases heat (exothermic direction).
A redox reaction involves two simultaneous processes:
reduction and oxidation.
Example
Oxidation: The loss of electrons by a substance.
Reduction: The gain of electrons by a substance.
These processes always occur together because electrons
Increasing temperature shifts the equilibrium to the left,
are transferred from one substance to another.
favoring the reactants.
Decreasing temperature shifts the equilibrium to the right,
General Form of a Redox Reaction A is oxidized.
favoring the products.
B is reduced.
C and D are the products of the
Addition of a Catalyst redox reaction.
Catalyst: Speeds up the rate of both the forward and reverse
reactions equally. Oxidation: Loss of electrons.
Effect on Equilibrium: A catalyst does not shift the position of Oxidation State Change: An increase in oxidation state.
equilibrium but helps the system reach equilibrium faster. Oxidizing Agent: The substance that gains electrons and is
reduced.
Example Remember: LEORA (Lost Electrons, Oxidized, Reduced Agent)
In the Haber process for ammonia synthesis:
Example:
Here, zinc (Zn) loses two electrons and is oxidized to zinc ion.
A catalyst like iron is used to speed up the reaction but does
not change the equilibrium position. Reduction: Gain of electrons.
Oxidation State Change: A decrease in oxidation state.
Factor Change Effect on Equilibrium Reducing Agent: The substance that loses electrons and is
oxidized.
Adding
Shifts to the right (more products) Remember: GEROA (Gain Electrons, Reduced, Oxidized Agent)
Reactants
Adding
Shifts to the left (more reactants) Example:
Products
Concentration Here, copper ions (Cu²⁺) gain two electrons and are reduced to
Removing copper metal (Cu).
Shifts to the left (more reactants)
Reactants
Removing Identifying Oxidation and Reduction
Shifts to the right (more products)
Products
Shifts to the side with fewer gas Assign Oxidation States: Determine the oxidation states of all
Increasing atoms in the reactants and products.
molecules
Pressure
Shifts to the side with more gas
Decreasing Identify Changes:
molecules
Oxidation: Increase in oxidation state.
Shifts to the endothermic direction Reduction: Decrease in oxidation state.
Increasing
(absorbs heat)
Temperature Determine Agents:
Oxidizing Agent: The species that is reduced.
Shifts to the exothermic direction
Decreasing Reducing Agent: The species that is oxidized.
(releases heat)

Example:
Speeds up the attainment of Sodium (Na): Oxidation state goes from 0 to +1 (oxidized).
Catalyst Adding
equilibrium without shifting Chlorine (Cl): Oxidation state goes from 0 to -1 (reduced).

In this reaction:
Shifts to the side with more gas Sodium (Na) is the reducing agent.
Increasing Chlorine (Cl₂) is the oxidizing agent.
molecules (for gaseous reactions)

Volume

Shifts to the side with fewer gas

Decreasing
molecules (for gaseous reactions)
 SCIENCE
Polyatomic Atoms Name Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
Oxygen: -2
CO₃²⁻ Carbonate
Carbon:
NO₃⁻ Nitrate Total oxidation state of oxygen = 2 × (−2) = −4
NH₄⁺ Ammonium Since the overall oxidation state of CO₂ is 0, the oxidation
SO₄²⁻ Sulfate state of carbon must balance this to 0:
C + (-4) = 0
BrO₃⁻ Bromate
C = +4 since -4 + 4 = 0
NO₂⁻ Nitrite
CrO₄²⁻ Chromate Water (H₂O)
Hydrogen: Each hydrogen atom has an oxidation state of +1.
PO₄³⁻ Phosphate
Oxygen: −2.
MnO₄⁻ Permanganate
OH⁻ Hydroxide Oxidized: Carbon (changes from -4 to +4.)
ClO₂⁻ Chlorite Reduced: Oxygen (changes from 0 to -2)

ClO₃⁻ Chlorate
Reducing Agent: Methane
ClO₄⁻ Perchlorate The substance that loses electrons (undergoes oxidation).
ClO⁻ Hypochlorite
Oxidizing Agent: Oxygen
Basic Rules for Assigning Oxidation States The substance that gains electrons (undergoes reduction).

Elemental Form
The oxidation state of an element in its standard form is always 0.
Including all the 7 diatomic elementsL O₂, N₂, Cl₂, Fl₂, H₂, I₂, Br₂
ACIDS AND BASES
Acids: Acids are substances that donate protons (H⁺ ions) in
Monatomic Ions a solution. Acidic substances are usually identified by their
The oxidation state is equal to the charge of the ion. sour taste. An acid is basically a molecule which can donate
For Na⁺, the oxidation state of Na is +1. an H+ ion and can remain energetically favorable after a loss
of H+. Acids are known to turn blue litmus red.
Oxygen Bases are characterized by a bitter taste and a slippery
Typically has an oxidation state of −2 in most compounds. texture. A base that can be dissolved in water is referred to
Except in peroxides (like H₂O₂​), oxygen has an oxidation state of −1. as an alkali. When these substances chemically react with
acids, they yield salts. Bases are known to turn red litmus
Hydrogen blue.
Usually has an oxidation state of +1.
Except in hydrides (like NaH), hydrogen has an oxidation state of −1. pH Scale: Measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺). It
ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A pH less than 7
Alkali Metals always have an oxidation state of +1. indicates an acidic solution, and a pH greater than 7 indicates a
Alkaline Earth Metals always have an oxidation state of +2. basic (alkaline) solution.
Halogens usually have an oxidation state of −1 in their compounds.
Exception: When combined with oxygen or other halogens, they can When an acid reacts with a base, they neutralize each other
have positive oxidation states. to form water and a salt.
The sum of oxidation states in a neutral compound must be 0.
The sum of oxidation states in a polyatomic ion must equal the Theories of Acids and Bases
charge of the ion. The Arrhenius theory of acids and bases states that “an acid
generates H+ ions in a solution whereas a base produces an
Example 2: Identify the oxidation states of each compound and element OH– ion in its solution”.
and identify the reducing and oxidizing agent. The Bronsted-Lowry theory defines “an acid as a proton
donor and a base as a proton acceptor”.
The Lewis definition of acids and bases describes “acids as
electron-pair acceptors and bases as electron-pair donors”.
Methane (CH₄)
Properties Acids Bases
Hydrogen: Each hydrogen atom has an oxidation state of +1.
Carbon taste sour bitter
Total oxidation state of hydrogen = 4 × (+1) =+4 litmus paper blue to red red to blue
Since the overall oxidation state of CH₄ is 0 (it’s a neutral molecule), pH value below 7 above 7
the oxidation state of carbon must balance this to 0:
good conductors only
C + (+4) = 0 conduction good conductor
in aqueous solutions
C = -4 since, -4 + 4 = 0
produce H when release OH- ions when
reaction
Oxygen (O₂): Elemental form, so oxidation state is 0. reacted with metals dissolved in water
others corrosive has soapy texture