Complex numbers

23
Complex numbers

23.1 Cartesian complex numbers Problem 2. Solve the quadratic equation

2x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0.
(i) If the quadratic equation x 2 + 2x + 5 = 0 is
solved using the quadratic formula then,
 Using the quadratic formula,
−2 ± [(2)2 − (4)(1)(5)] 
x=
2(1) −3 ± [(3)2 − 4(2)(5)]
√ √ x=
−2 ± [−16] −2 ± [(16)(−1)] 2(2)
= = √ √ √
2 2 −3 ± −31 −3 ± (−1) 31
√ √ √ = =
−2 ± 16 −1 −2 ± 4 −1 4 4
√
= = −3 ± j 31
2 2 =
√ 4
= −1 ± 2 −1 √
√ 3 31
It is not possible to evaluate −1 in real Hence x = − ± j or −0.750 ± j1.392,
4 4
terms.
√ However, if an operator j is defined as correct to 3 decimal places.
j = −1 then the solution may be expressed as
x = −1 ± j2. (Note, a graph of y = 2x 2 + 3x + 5 does not cross
(ii) −1 + j2 and −1 − j2 are known as complex the x-axis and hence 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0 has no real
numbers. Both solutions are of the form a + jb, roots.)
‘a’ being termed the real part and jb the imag-
inary part. A complex number of the form Problem 3. Evaluate
a + jb is called cartesian complex number. −4
(a) j3 (b) j4 (c) j23 (d)
(iii) In pure √mathematics the symbol i is used to j9
indicate −1 (i being the first letter of the word
imaginary). However i is the symbol of electric (a) j 3 = j2 × j = (−1) × j = − j, since j2 = −1
current in engineering, and to avoid possible
confusion the next
√ letter in the alphabet, j, is (b) j 4 = j2 × j2 = (−1) × (−1) = 1
used to represent −1.
(c) j 23 = j × j22 = j × ( j2 )11 = j × (−1)11
Problem 1. Solve the quadratic equation = j × (−1) = − j
x 2 + 4 = 0.
(d) j 9 = j × j8 = j × ( j2 )4 = j × (−1)4
√ = j×1=j
Since x 2 + 4 = 0 then x 2 = −4 and x = −4.
−4 −4 −4 −j 4j
  √ Hence = = × = 2
i.e., x = [(−1)(4)] = (−1) 4 = j(±2) j 9 j j −j −j
√
= ± j2, (since j = −1) 4j
= = 4 j or j4
(Note that ± j2 may also be written ±2 j). −(−1)
250 COMPLEX NUMBERS

vertical (or y) axis is used to represent the imaginary

Now try the following exercise. axis. Such a diagram is called an Argand diagram.
In Fig. 23.1, the point A represents the complex
Exercise 100 Further problems on the number (3 + j2) and is obtained by plotting the
introduction to cartesian complex numbers co-ordinates (3, j2) as in graphical work. Fig-
ure 23.1 also shows the Argand points B, C and
In Problems 1 to 3, solve the quadratic equations. D representing the complex numbers (−2 + j4),
1. x 2 + 25 = 0 [± j5] (−3 − j5) and (1 − j3) respectively.

2. 2x 2 + 3x + 4 = 0
√
3 23 23.3 Addition and subtraction of
− ±j or − 0.750 ± j1.199
4 4 complex numbers
3. 4t 2 − 5t + 7 = 0 Two complex numbers are added/subtracted by
√ adding/subtracting separately the two real parts and
5 87
±j or 0.625 ± j1.166 the two imaginary parts.
8 8
For example, if Z1 = a + jb and Z2 = c + jd,
1 4
4. Evaluate (a) j8 (b) − 7 (c) 13 then Z1 + Z2 = (a + jb) + (c + jd)
j 2j
[(a) 1 (b) −j (c) −j2] = (a + c) + j(b + d)
and Z1 − Z2 = (a + jb) − (c + jd)
= (a − c) + j(b − d)

23.2 The Argand diagram Thus, for example,

(2 + j3) + (3 − j4) = 2 + j3 + 3 − j4
A complex number may be represented pictorially
on rectangular or cartesian axes. The horizontal = 5 − j1
(or x) axis is used to represent the real axis and the and (2 + j3) − (3 − j4) = 2 + j3 − 3 + j4
= −1 + j7
Imaginary The addition and subtraction of complex numbers
axis
may be achieved graphically as shown in the Argand
B diagram of Fig. 23.2. (2 + j3) is represented by vec-
j4
tor OP and (3 − j4) by vector OQ. In Fig. 23.2(a)
j3 by vector addition (i.e. the diagonal of the parallel-
A
ogram) OP + OQ = OR. R is the point (5, −j1).
j2
Hence (2 + j3) + (3 − j4) = 5 − j1.
j
In Fig. 23.2(b), vector OQ is reversed (shown as OQ )
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 Real axis since it is being subtracted. (Note OQ = 3 − j4
−j and OQ = −(3 − j4) = −3 + j4).
OP − OQ = OP + OQ = OS is found to be the
−j 2 Argand point (−1, j7).
−j 3
D
Hence (2 + j3) − (3 − j4) = − 1 + j7
−j 4

C
−j5 Problem 4. Given Z1 = 2 + j4 and Z2 = 3 − j
determine (a) Z1 + Z2 , (b) Z1 − Z2 , (c) Z2 − Z1
and show the results on an Argand diagram.
Figure 23.1
 COMPLEX NUMBERS 251

Imaginary Each result is shown in the Argand diagram of

axis Fig. 23.3.

P (2+j 3) Imaginary
j3 axis

j2 (−1+j5)
j5

j j4
(5+j 3)
j3
0 1 2 3 4 5 Real axis
−j R (5−j ) j2

−j2 j

−j3 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Real axis

−j4 −j
Q (3−j 4)
−j2
(a) −j3

Imaginary
axis
−j4 E
−j5 (1−j5)
S (−1+j 7)
j7

j6
Figure 23.3
j5

Q' j4
23.4 Multiplication and division of
j3 P (2+j 3)
complex numbers
j2
(i) Multiplication of complex numbers is
j achieved by assuming all quantities involved
are real and then using j2 = −1 to simplify.
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 Real axis
−j
Hence (a + jb)(c + jd)

−j 2 = ac + a( jd) + ( jb)c + ( jb)( jd)

−j 3 = ac + jad + jbc + j2 bd
−j 4 Q (3−j4)
= (ac − bd) + j(ad + bc),
(b) since j2 = −1
Figure 23.2
Thus (3 + j2)(4 − j5)

(a) Z1 + Z2 = (2 + j4) + (3 − j) = 12 − j15 + j8 − j2 10

= (2 + 3) + j(4 − 1) = 5 + j3 = (12 − (−10)) + j(−15 + 8)
(b) Z1 − Z2 = (2 + j4) − (3 − j) = 22 − j 7
= (2 − 3) + j(4 −(−1)) = −1 + j5 (ii) The complex conjugate of a complex num-
(c) Z2 − Z1 = (3 − j) − (2 + j4) ber is obtained by changing the sign of the
imaginary part. Hence the complex conjugate
= (3 − 2) + j(−1 − 4) = 1 − j5 of a + jb is a − jb. The product of a complex
252 COMPLEX NUMBERS

number and its complex conjugate is always a Z1 Z2 (1 − j3)(−2 + j5)

(c) =
real number. Z1 + Z2 (1 − j3) + (−2 + j5)
For example, 13 + j11
= , from part (a),
(3 + j4)(3 − j4) = 9 − j12 + j12 − j2 16 −1 + j2
= 9 + 16 = 25 13 + j11 −1 − j2
= ×
[(a + jb)(a − jb) may be evaluated ‘on sight’as −1 + j2 −1 − j2
a2 + b2 ]. −13 − j26 − j11 − j2 22
(iii) Division of complex numbers is achieved by =
12 + 22
multiplying both numerator and denominator
by the complex conjugate of the denominator. 9 − j37 9 37
= = −j or 1.8 − j7.4
5 5 5
For example,
2 − j5 2 − j5 (3 − j4) (d) Z1 Z2 Z3 = (13 + j11)(−3 − j4), since
= ×
3 + j4 3 + j4 (3 − j4) Z1 Z2 = 13 + j11, from part (a)
6 − j8 − j15 + j2 20 = −39 − j52 − j33 − j2 44
=
32 + 42
= (−39 + 44) − j(52 + 33)
−14 − j23 −14 23
= = −j = 5 − j85
25 25 25
or −0.56 − j0.92
Problem 6. Evaluate:
Problem 5. If Z1 = 1 − j3, Z2 = −2 + j5 and  
2 1 + j3 2
Z3 = −3 − j4, determine in a + jb form: (a) (b) j
(1 + j)4 1 − j2
Z1
(a) Z1 Z2 (b)
Z3
Z1 Z2 (a) (1 + j)2 = (1 + j)(1 + j) = 1 + j + j + j2
(c) (d) Z1 Z2 Z3
Z1 + Z 2 = 1 + j + j − 1 = j2

(1 + j)4 = [(1 + j)2 ]2 = ( j2)2 = j2 4 = −4

(a) Z1 Z2 = (1 − j3)(−2 + j5)
2 2 1
= −2 + j5 + j6 − j2 15 Hence = =−
(1 + j)4 −4 2
= (−2 + 15) + j(5 + 6), since j2 = −1, 1 + j3 1 + j3 1 + j2
(b) = ×
= 13 + j11 1 − j2 1 − j2 1 + j2
Z1 1 − j3 1 − j3 −3 + j4 1 + j2 + j3 + j2 6 −5 + j5
(b) = = × = =
Z3 −3 − j4 −3 − j4 −3 + j4 12 + 22 5
−3 + j4 + j9 − j2 12 = −1 + j1 = −1 + j
=
32 + 42
 2
9 + j13 9 13 1 + j3
= = + j = (−1 + j)2 = (−1 + j)(−1 + j)
25 25 25 1 − j2
or 0.36 + j0.52 = 1 − j − j + j2 = −j2
 COMPLEX NUMBERS 253

 2
1 + j3 23.5 Complex equations
Hence j = j(− j2) = − j2 2 = 2,
1 − j2
since j2 = −1 If two complex numbers are equal, then their real
parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal.
Hence if a + jb = c + jd, then a = c and b = d.
Now try the following exercise.

Exercise 101 Further problems on opera- Problem 7. Solve the complex equations:
tions involving Cartesian complex numbers (a) 2(x + jy) = 6 − j3
1. Evaluate (a) (3 + j2) + (5 − j) and (b) (1 + j2)(−2 − j3) = a + jb
(b) (−2 + j6) − (3 − j2) and show the
results on an Argand diagram.
[(a) 8 + j (b) −5 + j8] (a) 2(x + jy) = 6 − j3 hence 2x + j2y = 6 − j3
2. Write down the complex conjugates of Equating the real parts gives:
(a) 3 + j4, (b) 2 − j. 2x = 6, i.e. x = 3
[(a) 3 − j4 (b) 2 + j] Equating the imaginary parts gives:
In Problems 3 to 7 evaluate in a + jb form 2y = −3, i.e. y = − 23
given Z1 = 1 + j2, Z2 = 4 − j3, Z3 = −2 + j3 E
and Z4 = −5 − j. (b) (1 + j2)(−2 − j3) = a + jb
3. (a) Z1 + Z2 − Z3 (b) Z2 − Z1 + Z4 −2 − j3 − j4 − j2 6 = a + jb
[(a) 7 − j4 (b) −2 − j6] Hence 4 − j7 = a + jb
Equating real and imaginary terms gives:
4. (a) Z1 Z2 (b) Z3 Z4
a = 4 and b = −7
[(a) 10 + j5 (b) 13 − j13]
5. (a) Z1 Z3 + Z4 (b) Z1 Z2 Z3 Problem 8. Solve the equations:
[(a) −13 − j2 (b) −35 + j20] √
(a) (2 − j3) = (a + jb)
Z1 Z1 + Z3 (b) (x − j2y) + ( y − j3x) = 2 + j3
6. (a) (b)
Z2 Z2 − Z4
  √
−2 11 −19 43 (a) (2 − j3) = (a + jb)
(a) +j (b) +j
25 25 85 85
Hence (2 − j3)2 = a + jb,
Z1 Z3 Z1
7. (a) (b) Z2 + + Z3 i.e. (2 − j3)(2 − j3) = a + jb
Z1 + Z3 Z4
  Hence 4 − j6 − j6 + j2 9 = a + jb
3 41 45 9
(a) +j (b) −j
26 26 26 26 and −5 − j12 = a + jb
1− j 1 Thus a = −5 and b = −12
8. Evaluate (a) (b)
1+ j 1+ j (b) (x − j2y) + (y − j3x) = 2 + j3
 
1 1 Hence (x + y) + j(−2y − 3x) = 2 + j3
(a) − j (b) −j
2 2
  Equating real and imaginary parts gives:
−25 1 + j2 2 − j5
9. Show that − x+y =2 (1)
2 3 + j4 −j
= 57 + j24 and −3x − 2y = 3 (2)
i.e. two simultaneous equations to solve
254 COMPLEX NUMBERS

Multiplying equation (1) by 2 gives: Imaginary

axis
2x + 2y = 4 (3)
Z
Adding equations (2) and (3) gives:
r jy
−x = 7, i.e., x = −7
θ
From equation (1), y = 9, which may be O A Real axis
x
checked in equation (2).

Now try the following exercise.

Figure 23.4
Exercise 102 Further problems on complex
equations
In Problems 1 to 4 solve the complex equations. *
i.e. r = (x 2 + y2 )
1. (2 + j)(3 − j2) = a + jb [a = 8, b = −1]
  (iii) θ is called the argument (or amplitude) of Z
2+ j 3 1
2. = j(x + jy) x= ,y=− and is written as arg Z.
1− j 2 2
By trigonometry on triangle OAZ,
√
3. (2 − j3) = (a + jb) [a = −5, b = −12]
y
arg Z = θ = tan−1
4. (x − j2y) − ( y − jx) = 2 + j [x = 3, y = 1] x

5. If Z = R + jωL + 1/jωC, express Z in (iv) Whenever changing from cartesian form to

(a + jb) form when R = 10, L = 5, C = 0.04 polar form, or vice-versa, a sketch is invalu-
and ω = 4. [Z = 10 + j13.75] able for determining the quadrant in which the
complex number occurs.

23.6 The polar form of a complex Problem 9. Determine the modulus and argu-
number ment of the complex number Z = 2 + j3, and
express Z in polar form.
(i) Let a complex number z be x + jy as shown
in the Argand diagram of Fig. 23.4. Let dis-
tance OZ be r and the angle OZ makes with the Z = 2 + j3 lies in the first quadrant as shown in
positive real axis be θ. Fig. 23.5.

From trigonometry, x = r cos θ and

y = r sin θ Imaginary
axis
Hence Z = x + jy = r cos θ + jr sin θ
j3
= r(cos θ + j sin θ)
r
Z = r(cos θ + j sin θ) is usually abbreviated to
Z = r ∠θ which is known as the polar form of
a complex number. θ
(ii) r is called the modulus (or magnitude) of Z and 0 2 Real axis
is written as mod Z or |Z|.
r is determined using Pythagoras’ theorem on
triangle OAZ in Fig. 23.4, Figure 23.5
 COMPLEX NUMBERS 255
 √
Modulus, |Z| = r = (22 + 32 ) = 13 or 3.606, (c) −3 − j4 is shown in Fig. 23.6 and lies in the
correct to 3 decimal places. third quadrant.
Argument, arg Z = θ = tan−1 3 Modulus, r = 5 and α = 53◦ 8 , as above.
2
= 56.31◦ or 56◦ 19 Hence the argument = 180◦ + 53◦ 8 = 233◦ 8 ,
which is the same as −126◦ 52 .
In polar form, 2 + j3 is written as 3.606∠56◦ 19 .
Hence (−3 − j4) = 5∠233◦ 8 or 5∠−126◦ 52
(By convention the principal value is normally
Problem 10. Express the following complex used, i.e. the numerically least value, such that
numbers in polar form: −π < θ < π).
(a) 3 + j4 (b) −3 + j4 (d) 3 − j4 is shown in Fig. 23.6 and lies in the fourth
quadrant.
(c) −3 − j4 (d) 3 − j4
Modulus, r = 5 and angle α = 53◦ 8 , as above.
(a) 3 + j4 is shown in Fig. 23.6 and lies in the first Hence (3 − j4) = 5∠−53◦ 8
quadrant.
Problem 11. Convert (a) 4∠30◦ (b) 7∠−145◦
Imaginary into a + jb form, correct to 4 significant figures. E
axis

(−3+j4) j4 (3+j 4) (a) 4∠30◦ is shown in Fig. 23.7(a) and lies in the
first quadrant.
j3

r j2 r
Imaginary
j axis
α θ
−3 −2 −1 α α1 2 3 Real axis
4 jy
−j 30°
0 Real axis
−j 2 x
r
r
−j 3

−j4 (a)
(−3−j4) (3−j4)

Figure 23.6 x
α Real axis
 145°
Modulus, r = (32 + 42 ) = 5 and argument jy 7
θ = arctan 43 = 53.13◦ = 53◦ 8 .
(b)
Hence 3 + j4 = 5∠53◦ 8
Figure 23.7
(b) −3 + j4 is shown in Fig. 23.6 and lies in the
second quadrant.
Using trigonometric ratios, x = 4 cos 30◦ = 3.464
Modulus, r = 5 and angle α = 53◦ 8 , from and y = 4 sin 30◦ = 2.000.
part (a).
Hence 4∠30◦ = 3.464 + j2.000
Argument = 180◦ − 53◦ 8 = 126◦ 52 (i.e. the
argument must be measured from the positive (b) 7∠145◦ is shown in Fig. 23.7(b) and lies in the
real axis). third quadrant.
Hence −3 + j4 = 5∠126◦ 52 Angle α = 180◦ − 145◦ = 35◦
256 COMPLEX NUMBERS

Hence x = 7 cos 35◦ = 5.734 Addition and subtraction in polar form is not possible
directly. Each complex number has to be converted
and y = 7 sin 35◦ = 4.015 into cartesian form first.
Hence 7∠−145◦ = −5.734 − j4.015
2∠30◦ = 2(cos 30◦ + j sin 30◦ )
Alternatively
= 2 cos 30◦ + j2 sin 30◦ = 1.732 + j1.000
7∠−145◦ = 7 cos (−145◦ ) + j7 sin (−145◦ )
5∠−45◦ = 5(cos(−45◦ ) + j sin(−45◦ ))
= −5.734 − j4.015
= 5 cos(−45◦ ) + j5 sin(−45◦ )
= 3.536 − j3.536
23.7 Multiplication and division in 4∠120◦ = 4( cos 120◦ + j sin 120◦ )
polar form = 4 cos 120◦ + j4 sin 120◦
If Z1 = r1 ∠θ1 and Z2 = r2 ∠θ2 then: = −2.000 + j3.464
(i) Z1 Z2 = r1 r2 ∠(θ1 + θ2 ) and Hence 2∠30◦ + 5∠−45◦ − 4∠120◦
Z1 r1 = (1.732 + j1.000) + (3.536 − j3.536)
(ii) = ∠(θ1 − θ2 )
Z2 r2
− (−2.000 + j3.464)
= 7.268 − j6.000, which lies in the
Problem 12. Determine, in polar form: fourth quadrant
 
(a) 8∠25◦ × 4∠60◦ 
−1 −6.000
= [(7.268) + (6.000) ]∠ tan
2 2
(b) 3∠16◦ × 5∠−44◦ × 2∠80◦ 7.268
= 9.425∠−39.54◦ or 9.425∠−39◦ 32
(a) 8∠25◦ ×4∠60◦ =(8×4)∠(25◦ +60◦)=32∠85◦
(b) 3∠16◦ × 5∠ − 44◦ × 2∠80◦ Now try the following exercise.
=(3×5×2)∠[16◦ + (−44◦ )+80◦ ]=30∠52◦ Exercise 103 Further problems on polar
form
Problem 13. Evaluate in polar form 1. Determine the modulus and argument of
π π (a) 2 + j4 (b) −5 − j2 (c) j(2 − j).
16∠75◦ 10∠ × 12∠ ⎡ ⎤
(a) (b) 4
π
2 (a) 4.472, 63◦ 26
2∠15◦ 6∠− ⎢ ⎥
3 ⎣(b) 5.385, −158◦ 12⎦
(c) 2.236, 63◦ 26
16∠75◦ 16
(a) = ∠(75◦ − 15◦ ) = 8∠60◦ In Problems 2 and 3 express the given Cartesian
2∠15◦ 2 complex numbers in polar form, leaving answers
π π in surd form.
10∠ × 12∠
(b) 4 2 = 10 × 12 ∠ π + π − − π
π 6 4 2 3 2. (a) 2 + j3 (b) −4 (c) −6 + j
6∠ − √
3 (a) 13∠56◦ 19 (b) 4∠180◦
13π 11π √
= 20∠ or 20∠− or (c) 37∠170◦ 32
12 12
20∠195◦ or 20∠−165◦ 3. (a) −j3 (b) (−2 + j)3 (c) j3 (1 − j)
√
Problem 14. Evaluate, in polar form (a) 3∠−90◦ (b) 125∠100◦ 18
√
2∠30◦ + 5∠−45◦ − 4∠120◦ . (c) 2∠−135◦