HUMAN ANATOMY

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

I. INTRODUCTION
II. SKELETAL MUSCLE MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
III. SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION
IV. NEURAL CONTROL OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
V. SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE
VI. SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER TYPES
VII. SMOOTH MUSCLE
VIII. CARDIAC MUSCLE

ADDENDUM = (FYI) NAMING THE SKELETAL MUSCLES

I. INTRODUCTION
* Myology = study of muscles
600, muscles in human muscular system (40% of body wt.)
EACH muscle is an organ
Skeletal muscle tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue
EACH muscle has a specific function

* Primary muscle functions

Movement
Maintain posture
Stabilize flexible joints
Support visceral organs
Postural muscles – support body against gravity
Especially for body parts engaged in constant activity
Generates heat
Muscles provide the primary source of body heat
Muscles comprise large percentage of body weight & are
constantly active (contraction, tonus)
During exercise heat production increases
Helps maintain homeostasis = maintenance of constant internal conditions

* Classification
Skeletal
Each muscle is attached to the skeleton & moves bones
Cells show striations (stripes)
Control is voluntary
Cardiac
Only in heart
Cells show striations & bifucations & junctions
Control is involuntary
Smooth
Within the walls of blood vessels and hollow visceral organs
NO striations in cells
 Control is involuntary

* Common structural properties among all 3 types

Elongated cells are called FIBERS
Contraction depends on proteins in cytoplasm called myofilaments
Contract when stimulated by nerve impulses
Contraction not always complete
! Result = a graded response
Greater the stimulation - greater number of fibers contract
Tonus = constant stimulation of muscle fibers

* Common functional properties among all 3 types

Irritability = sensitive to nerve stimuli
Contractility = muscles respond by shortening
Extensibility = fibers may be stretched beyond resting length by antagonistic
muscle
Elasticity = muscles tend to recoil after stretching back to resting length

II. SKELETAL MUSCLE MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY

* Each muscle cell called a “fiber”
UNLIKE other cells – they are LONG, thin, cylindrical (fusiform)
Multinucleate syncytium = each formed by fusion of hundreds of embryonic
(satellite) cells

* Muscle cells have same basic organelles as other cells - but different terminology
Sarcolemma = tri-laminar plasma membrane
Sarcoplasm = cytoplasm
Sarcoplasmic reticulum = endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondria are called sarcosomes

* Each fiber (cell) is FILLED with numerous ‘myofibrils’

Shape = thin cylinders - separated by cytoplasm holding mitochondria &
glycogen granules
Each myofibril composed of 1-2000 myofilaments
Myofilament composition
1. Thin filaments = made up of the protein F (fibrillar) actin
F actin is composed of polymerized chains of G (globular) actin

Tropomyosin = rod-like protein lying between F-actin chains

Troponin = [3] unit globular protein complex attached to
tropomyosin at regular intervals along F-actin chains

2. Thick filaments = made up of the protein myosin

Each thick filament is composed of 200-500 myosin molecules
 Each myosin molecule looks like a double headed golf club
Individual myosin molecules organized in staggered array
Heads project out from thick filament in helical
pattern

* Sarcomere
Way to organize actin & myosin molecules
Group of structural components that repeat over & over down length of cell
Definition = distance from one Z-line to the next Z-line
Components
A (anisotropic) band = DARK band
Appears dark in living fiber
Composition = full length thick (myosin) filaments & ends of
thin (actin) filaments

H band = light-staining band at center of each A band

Composition = ONLY thick filaments
M-line = center of H band
Center attachment for 2 myosin filaments joined together
and facing away from each other

I (isotropic) band = LIGHT band

Pale in living fiber
Composition = ONLY thin (actin) filaments
Each I band overlaps 2 sarcomeres

Z line = DARK line within each I band

Protein plate where thin (actin) filaments attach

! This regular and repeated arrangement of myofibrils is what produces

the characteristic banding pattern under light microscopy

* [2] sets of intracellular tubules

1. Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Special type of sER
Complex series of tubules & cisternae (enlarged area of tubule)
Location
Around each myofibril
Around the T-tubule system
Most run longitudinally along length of cell
Some run perpendicular to surface (along A-I band junctions)
Terminal cisternae
ENLARGED areas of tubules
Join T-tubules at A-I band junction
Function = holds Ca,2 ions
 Run in pairs
Triad = [2] terminal cisternae & [1] T-tubule
between them

Important function = releases Ca+2 ions upon nerve stimulation, then

pumps them back into terminal cisternae following muscle
contraction

2. Transverse (T) tubules

INVAGINATIONS of sarcolemma that run down into muscle cell
Runs down between each pair of terminal cisternae
Component of triad
Function = conducts nerve stimuli from cell surface deep into cell
Result = every myofibril within cell contracts at same time

III. SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION

* Structural components
Sarcomere = repeating unit of myofibril
The basic unit of contraction
Components
Boundaries = Z-lines (or Z discs)
A-band = full length of myosin (thick) filaments & ends of actin
(thin) filaments
H-band = ONLY thick filaments
M-line = center of H band
I-band = ONLY actin (thin) filaments

* "Sliding filament theory"

Both skeletal & cardiac muscle contraction
Summary
1. Nerve signal depolarizes sarcolemma  Ca+2 ions are released

2. Electrical signal conveyed down through T-tubules to cell interior

3. Terminal cisternae (par of T-tubule system) release Ca+2 ions into

sarcoplasm
Ca+2 ions bind to troponin
This binding causes a conformational change in troponin
complex
This change opens a space for myosin to attach to actin
Tropomyosin = stabilizes troponin by binding itself
to actin

4. Muscle contraction begins

Myosin heads binds to actin filament
 Myosin heads holds an ATP-ase (enzyme)
Energy (ATP) is used to change the shape of myosin heads (they
bends)
As it bends, the myosin head pulls the actin
molecule
Z-lines are drawn toward each other

5. Muscle contraction continues

Nerve signal continues
Ca+2 ions are pumped from terimal cisternae into sarcoplasm
Myosin heads are free to release from actin - stretch out and re-
attach to another site on actin – bend – and pull Z-lines
further toward each other
Result = rapid, repetitive ratchet-like movements
! Will continue until nerve signal ceases (or) Z-lines cannot be
drawn any closer together
! Result = contraction is due to an increase in overlap between
filaments

5. Muscle contraction ends

Nerve signal ceases
Ca+2 ions are pumped back into terimal cisternae
Without Ca+2 ions, troponin changes shape & blocks myoin heads
from attaching to actin

* Cramp
An involuntary, painful, prolonged contraction
In use or at rest
Cause = unknown !!!
? Dehydration, low Ca+2 or 02, excessive motor stimulation
* Torticollis
Wryneck = head bent to 1 side in continual muscle contraction
Inborn or acquired
* Rigor mortis
Rigidity shortly after death
Cause = loss of ATP creates stiffness in joints

IV. NEURAL CONTROL OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

* Contraction in skeletal muscle is a sequence of events
Nervous system - is closely linked to muscular system

* Motor unit (MU)

Numerous nerves working in concert to stimulate [1] muscle
Definition = [1] motor neuron & ALL muscle fibers it innervates
* Neuromuscular junction
Contact point between nerves & skeletal muscles
Motor end plate = terminus of nerve – the location where the nerve
communicates with the muscle cell
Communication molecules are sent from the nerve ending to the muscle
cell sarcolemma

* Basic sequence of nerve-muscle interaction

Nerve signal is generated by brain
Signal runs along motor nerves to a location very near a muscle cell
sarcolemma

At the muscle fiber sarcolemma…

Neurotransmitters are released from the motor end plate
Neurotransmitters = signal molecules
Typical neurotransmitter released = acetylcholine
Released into synaptic cleft (space between motor end
plate and sarcolemma)
Diffuse over and bind to sarcolemma
Result = electrical change in sarcolemma (depolarization)

The electrical change spreads over the surface of sarcolemma & down into
transverse (T) tubules - then into triads
The traveling electrical change is called an action potential

Within the T-tubules, the action potential causes membrane channels to

open
Ca+2 ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

…. Muscle Contraction ….

…meanwhile – back at the neuromuscular junction…

Nerve signal from brain ceases
Acetylcholinesterase (an enzyme) within the synaptic cleft degrades
acetylcholine
Result = action potential ceases

Within the muscle cell…

Sarcoplasmic reticulum re-absorbs calcium ions (Ca+2)
Lowered [Ca+2] causes the tropomyosin-troponin complex to return to
resting position (covers active myosin binding sites)
Muscle relaxes

V. SKELETAL MUSCLE ARRANGEMENT

* Each muscle is arranged (organized) to join forces with other muscles
Contraction forces  create tension on bones  create movement at synovial
joints

* Attachment
Tendons attach skeletal muscles to a bones surface (periosteum)
Composition = dense regular connective tissue
Most skeletal muscles run from bone to bone - crossing at least 1 joint
Origin = bone attachment that moves less
Origin is often proximal attachment
Insertion = bone attachment that moves more (the insertion is pulled
toward the origin)
Insertion is often distal attachment

* Associated connective tissue sheaths

Muscle fibers must work in concert to be effective
Muscle fibers are bound together in bundles
These bundles are bound into larger bundles.... all by connective tissue
Function of connective tissue
Bind
Protect
Strengthen
Connective tissue organization (from small to large)
Endomysium
Reticular fibers surrounding each fiber
Also holds vessels & nerves
Perimysium
Fibrous connective tissue surrounds groups of fibers
Fascicluli = 1 group of muscle fibers bound by perimysium
Fibers within each fascicle are parallel to each other
Organization of fascicles relative to a tendon VARY
Also holds vessels & nerves
Epimysium
Dense irregular connective tissue surrounding a whole muscle
Continuous with a tendon
Fascia (NOT = Fasciculi) = fibrous connective tissue covering
muscle
The connective tissue that attaches muscle to skin
Superficial fascia = attaches skin to underlying structures
(ie., muscles)
Usually contains adipose tissue
Deep fascia = continuous with epimysium
LACKS adipose tissue
Binds whole muscles into functional groups

!! ALL 3 eventually join tendons – that connect muscle to bones

 When muscle fibers contract  they pull on connective tissue
sheaths  which pull on a tendon  forces bone to move
! Result = contraction is SUMMED across all the cells within a muscle
Force of contraction = cross-section area of muscle

* Skeletal muscle gross arrangement (architecture)

Shape (appearance) provides clues to primary function

2 factors interact to determine effects of contraction (for an individual muscle)

1. Arrangement of fibers
2. Way muscle is attached to skeletal system

! Variation in micro- and macroscopic organization - has HUGE affect on

tension & range & speed of movement

4 different patterns of fascicle organization

1. Parallel muscles
Fascicles parallel to long axis of muscle
MOST skeletal muscles in body
Function = similar to individual fiber
Shapes vary
Flat bands, broad aponeuroses (sheets) at each end
Spindle (football) shaped cord-like tendons at one (or both) ends
Body (belly or gaster) = large central area
Contraction results in a shorter muscle with a larger
diameter
Ex. Biceps
Features
1. HIGH endurance
2. LOW strength
3. Can contract over a large distance
Ex. Rectus abdominus , sartorius

2. Convergent muscles
Muscle fibers are in fan-shape arrangement (triangle) that converge onto
1 attachment site (tip of triangle)
Attachments vary…
Tendon
Tendinous sheet
Raphe = slender band of collagen fibers
Features
1. Versatility = direction of pull can be changed by contracting
separate fascicles
2. Strength LESS than parallel muscles
Fewer fibers contracting in any 1 direction
 3. Pennate muscles
1(or more) tendons run thru body of muscle
Short fascicles attach at oblique angle to tendon
MORE fibers than parallel muscle (of same size)
Features
VERY strong
Contract over a short distance (relative to parallel muscles)
HIGH maneuverability
Types
1. Unipennate = muscle fibers only on 1 side of tendon
2. Bipennate = fibers found on both sides of tendon
3. Multipennate = tendon branches in muscle into several
insertion points

4. Circular muscles
Sphincter muscles = fascicles form rings (sphincters) around openings or
recesses
During contraction the diameter of an opening decreases

!! Summary = muscle arrangement influences motion & power

The more parallel the fibers - the more a muscle can shorten (motion)
Power depends on number of fibers - NOT shortening length

* Senescence (aging)
Decrease in mass often observed as individuals age
Loss of connective tissue
Degeneration of circulation
Degeneration of nervous system - thus decrease effectiveness of motor
activity
To SIGNIFICANTLY reduce muscle loss…
EXERCISE
Provide muscular system the nutrients needed for maintenance &
growth

* Selected nutrients needed to support muscle mainentance & function

Muscle proteins are composed of amino acids
Amino acids
~28 Known amino acids – these are combined in various ways to create
proteins
Liver synthesizes 80% of amino acids in body – these are called the non-
essential amino acids
Remaining 20% are taken from food – these are called the
essential amino acids
Obtained from protein
 An inadequate supply of even 1 essential amino acid can
hinder protein synthesis
Causes of inadequate supply = poor diet, impaired
absorption, infection, trauma, stress, drug use,
insufficient vitamins or minerals (especially
vitamin C, and vitamin B6)
Too much protein in diet can be a problem!
Great stress on kidneys & liver – which need to process the waste
products of protein metabolism
Half of protein in diet – converted to glucose by liver
By-product (waste) is ammonia (TOXIC)
Strenuous exercise also produces ammonia
L-Carnitine
Main function = help transport long-chain fatty acids into the
mitochondria, where they are used to provide the major source of
energy (ATP) for muscle cells
Using fat efficiently in muscles- helps prevent fat buildup in liver,
heart and muscles

VI. SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER TYPES

* Red & White muscle fibers
Red vs. white fibers
Red fibers are SMALLER than white fibers
Red fiber cytoplasm contains MUCH myoglobin (muscle pigment that
can carry oxygen)
Myoglobin prduces red color
Red fibers have less glycogen than larger white fibers
Red fibers have more mitochondria than larger white fibers
Red fibers are more vascular (contain more capillaries) than white fibers

* [3] Contraction categories

Red slow twitch
Energy = aerobic (using O2) mechanisms
MANY mitochondria
Many capillaries
Contract SLOWLY
LOWER strength, HIGH endurance
Result = resistant to fatigue
Muscles for constant sustained support against gravity (postural muscles)
White fast twitch
LITTLE myoglobin – thus more white in color
Anaerobic energy mechanisms used (NO O2 needed)
MUCH glycogen
Contract FAST
 HIGH strength, LOW endurance
Result = tire quickly
Muscles for leaping, running
Intermediate fast twitch
MUCH myoglobin
Aerobic energy mechanisms used
Contract FAST
LOWER strength, HIGH endurance
Endurance = resistant to fatigue

Human muscles are composed of ALL types

One type – is usually is dominant
Physiological research suggests that muscle types may be dependent on
type and activity of innervation

* Skeletal muscle regeneration

Adult muscle cells are post-mitotic (NO more cell division)
Result - regeneration of damaged muscle is very limited
Repair is usually limited to the formation of a fibrous scar

Skeletal muscle may have some myoblasts appear after injury

Source = satellite cells
Problably mesenchyme cells
Location = in connective tissue surrounding blood vessels,
or within basement membrane of adult cells
Limited repair

Vigorous exercise - muscle cells hypertrophy (increase in size)

Increased number of myofilaments in cell
Lack of use, nerve supply disrupted - muscle cells atrophy (decrease in size)

VII. SMOOTH MUSCLE

* Involuntary muscle
* Located in walls of visceral organs, blood vessels, secretory gland ducts

* Smooth muscle cell characteristics

Spindle shaped
NO striations
NO sarcomeres
Cytoplasm is filled with thin (actin) microfilaments
Actin = present as isoform UNIQUE to smooth muscle
NOT arranged in register with each other
Thick (myosin) microfilaments are scarce
Myosin = DIFFERENT type than skeletal muscle
* Cell organelles
MANY mitochondria around nucleus to provide energy (ATP)
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Sparse
Lacks complexity of skeletal muscle

* Contraction mechanism likely SAME as skeletal muscle

Unique contraction characteristics
1. Tonus = cells capable of prolonged continuous contraction
2. Diffuse movements = slow, low strength contractions accomplished by
an entire sheet of muscle
NOT controlled at level of individual muscle fiber
3. Low force of contraction

* Regeneration
NO regeneration - healing by generating a fibrous scar
EXCEPTION = hypertrophy or hyperplasia (more mitosis) in uterus during
pregnancy

VIII. CARDIAC MUSCLE

* Forms bulk of heart walls and the initial section of the walls forming the vessels
leaving the heart
* Function = pump blood thru cardiovascular system

* Similarities to skeletal muscle fibers

Cross-striations present (as seen under microscope)
Myofibrils are more delicate - thus striations are LESS prominent
Sarcomeres are present
Many mitochondria
Rich capillary plexus around fibers
Endomysium present between muscle cells

* DIFFERENCES from skeletal muscle fibers

Single cells - NOT a multinucleate syncytium
Cells are SHORTER than skeletal muscle fibers
Cells branch into a complex network
Organelles
MORE mitochondria
MORE sarcoplasm around myofibrils
Sarcoplasmic reticulum is LESS developed
T-tubules are greater in diameter
Cell-cell junctions
Intercalated discs
Connecting junctions between cardiac cells (fibers)
 Membranes interlock via fingerlike projections
Allows electrical impulses to flow freely - thus facilitates heart
contraction
Contraction
Dependent & regulated by Ca,+2 ions in cytosol (!NOT in sacroplasmic
reticulum)
Purkinje fibers
Modified muscle fibers specialized for electrical conduction
Blood supply
Coronary arteries supply muscles of heart wall
Branches provide an EXTENSIVE capillary network surround
each fiber
Nerve supply
All skeletal muscle fibers have neuromuscular junctions
Many autonomic nerve fibers innervate on cardiac fibers – can increase or
decrease heartbeat
These nerves DO NOT generate heartbeat

* NO Regeneration
NO satellite (stem) cells present
During repair a fibrous scar forms
Fibers may hypertrophy after severe strain

ADDENDUM

FYI: Needed for Laboratory & general working knowledge of muscles

NAMING THE SKELETAL MUSCLES

* Most muscles are paired = same on both R , L side
* Examining names reveals that skeletal muscles are names for their…
Shape
Location
Attachment
Orientation of fibers
Relative position
Function

Learning muscles = may seem overwhelming

! Don’t just blindly memorize names = think about what each name MEANS ,
then find it and feel it contract on your own body = help you remember
where it is & what it does.

Shape
triangle = delta Ex. deltoid
 trapezoid = quadrilateral , no 2 sides parallel Ex. trapezius
rhomboid = parallelogram with oblique angles , equal sides
Ex. rhomboideus
Number of heads (bi =2 , tri = 3 , quad = 4) Ex. tricepts (3)

Location
brachium = arm Ex. biceps brachialis
costal = rib Ex. external intercostals
carpi = wrist Ex. extensor carpi radialis longus
radialis = forearm , radius Ex. extensor carpi radialis brevis
spinae = spine Ex. errector spinae
tibialis = tibia Ex. tibialis anterior
cranium = head Ex temporalis

Attachment
Facial muscles Ex. Zygomaticus , temporalis , nasalis
Onto several structures (sternum , clavicle , mastoid process)
Ex. Sternocleidomastoid

Orientation = direction of fascicles & fibers

Straight or parallel to body midline = rectus Ex. rectus abdominus
Across = transverse Ex. transversus abdominus
Slanting or sloping = oblique Ex. external abdominal oblique

Relative position
Lateral Ex. lateral pterygoid
Medial Ex. medial head of triceps
Internal Ex. internal abdomial oblique
External Ex. external intercostalis

Relative size
Largest= maximus Ex. gluteus maximus
Smallest = minimus Ex. extensor digiti minimi
Longest = longus Ex. flexor pollicis longus
Shortest = brevis Ex. extensor pollicis brevis

Origin & insertion

Origin = less moveable attachment = named first Ex. sternohyoid
Insertion = more moveable attachment = named second

Function (action)
Flexor = reduce angle Ex. flexor carpi ulnaris
Extensor = increase angle Ex. extensor carpi ulnaris
Adductor = toward midline Ex. abductor pollcis oblique
Abductor = away from midline Ex. abductor pollcis longus
Pronation = move palm posteriorly Ex. pronator teres
 Supination = opposite pronation Ex. supinator

* Terminology for specific body regions

Feet
Inversion = turn sole medially
Eversion = turn sole laterally
Since foot joins leg at right angle = BOTH up & down movement 
decrease angle  BOTH are flexion
Dorsiflexion = lift foot
Plantar flexion = depress (point toes)

Upper limb
POSTERIOR (dorsal) side of limb = extensors
Ex. Extend limb segments (forearm , hand , fingers)
Anterior (ventral) side of limbs = flexors

Lower limb
POSTERIOR (dorsal) side of limb = flexors
Ex. Flex leg (knee) , plantar flex foot (ankle) , flex toes
Anterior (ventral) side of limbs = extensors
Ex. Extend leg (knee) , dorsiflex foot (ankle) , extend toes

* Functional classification
No single muscle can both push & pull
Agonist (prime mover) = muscle that accomplishes most of a movement
Ex. biceps brachii = forearm flexion

Antagonist = (can also be prime movers) act in opposition to agonist

Ex. triceps brachii = forearm extension (antagonist for biceps)

Synergists = aid prime movers

Add force to movement
Reduce unwanted movement (add stability)
Ex. stabilize joints .. move fingers , not wrist
Fixators = synergists that hold a bone in place so another part can be
moved
Ex. scapula fixed while arm moves
Ex. maintain posture