GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION OF LANDSLIDE OCCURRENCE IN

NORTHERN AKWA IBOM STATE.

WRITTEN BY

IBANGA, MFREKE EMMANUEL

AK16/NAS/GEY/019

SUBMITTED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES
AKWA IBOM STATE UNIVERSITY. IKOT AKPADEN
MKPAT ENIN L.G.A, AKWA IBOM STATE

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF BSc. DEGREE IN GEOLOGY.

MAY 2021
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page i

Declaration ii

Certification iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

Abstract vi

Table of Contents vii

List of figures
Abstract.

Landslide that happened at a ravine that originated from the old Quo river at Ibam
Edet village of Ini Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State Nigeria had
caused some big damages. A Geophysical investigation of the landslide was
carried out in the location to ascertain the root cause which could trigger the
landslide. Two ERT lines of survey, one perpendicular and the other parallel to the
axis of the slide, were conducted using Wenner technique and two Schlumberger
techniques were also employed to map the subsurface resistivity. Areas with
relatively low resistivity in the VES data was observed to be the shale layer with
resistivity ranging from 20 to 66.2Ωm and at a depth range of 35.3 and 41.3. also
the effects of weaker geologic units with low resistivity indicated by the ERT data
were observed between the distances of 75 and 105m for profile-1 and between 88
and 105m for profile-2. The length of the lines were about 150m. The resulting
tomogram along this profile suggests relatively high resistivity values at the
flanges and lower resistivity values within. They are in the range of 898–12,557
Ωm for high and the distinct low resistivity zones along the line with range of 313-
530 Ωm. High resistivities were generally obtained in the north western and south
eastern parts of the line. Landslide material, clay, mud and sand units observed in
these boreholes are in good agreement with the results of the electrical resistivity
tomography.
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

1.2 Statement of the problem

1.3 Aim and Objectives

1.4 Scope of Study

1.5 Physiography description of the study area

1.6 Geology description of Study Area

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of relevant Previous research

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Research Methodology

3.1.1 Preliminary and Desk study

3.1.2 Field data acquisition

3.1.2.1 Vertical electrical sounding (VES) survey

3.1.2.2 Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) survey

3.1.3 Data processing

3.1.4 Data interpretation

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 VES data Presentation

4.2 ERT Data Presentation

4.3 Results

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary and Conclusion

5.2 Recommendation

REFERENCES
 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Natural hazards are life threatening activities that have the capacity of

causing serious harm and even damage to both the environment and the

biodiversity, not only at the moment of their occurrence, but also thereafter.

Natural disasters including those that originate from geophysical and geological

(e.g., volcanic eruptions, landslides, earthquakes and tsunamis); atmospheric and

meteorological (e.g., storms, tornadoes and cyclones); hydrological (e.g., floods,

avalanches and famines). Landslides are disasters of hydrometeorologic origin and

a common geological hazard in areas where the slope angle of soils and regoliths

over bedrock is greater than its frictional angle. Soils that have suffered continuous

saturation with water are prone to changes in their long-term physical properties

and such changes can lead to instability on slopes.

Geophysical techniques like electrical resistivity, seismic refraction, ground

penetrating radar and electromagnetic surveys can be used to monitor, track and

map the distribution of zones with anomalous physical properties in terrain beset

by landslide problems (Makino et al., 2007, Akpan et al., 2009). Inspired by the
successful application of geophysical techniques in investigating landslide-ravaged

sites, we applied two common geophysical techniques in the investigation of the

Ibam Edet Landslide site. Electrical resistivity (VES and ERT) aimed to assess the

internal structure of the landslide area and infer the influence of groundwater flow

in the initiation of the landslide activity were performed.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

A terrific landslide swallowed several buildings within the study area

threatening hundreds other buildings surrounding the deep valley in the area, the

sudden landslide which initiated its threat less than 48 hours before the actual

execution was considered to have taken people unawares. This research will

analyze the main cause of these failures and tend to suggest solutions to avoid

further occurrence of landslide in the area.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to ascertain the main cause leading to the

underground failure which resulted in the massive landslide in the area.

The objectives of these research include

 To model the image of the subsurface structures in the study area.

 To identify saturated shale and clay units in the study area.

 To ascertain the shear pressure responsible for the massive slide.

1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope is limited to literature review and desk study, V.E.S and E.R.T

data collection and interpretation of the collected data and report presentations.

1.5 PHYSIOGRAPHY DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

Ini Local Government Area of Akwa-Ibom state is located within latitude

5°18 N – 5°16ˈ ˈand longitude 7°39 – 7°53. The community is moderately

populated: peasant farmers, traders and civil servants dominating the inhabitants. A

major tributary of the cross river runs across the area. The region is located in a

tropical rain forest zone where tall trees are dominant.

1.6 GEOLOGY DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

 The area is underlain by two main rock types which are Clay/shaleˈ ˈand

sandstone (Olugbenga and Christopher, 2015). The shale is bluish to dark gray in

color. It is fissile and flat lying. The upper part grades into a mixture of clay and

shale and finally into light brownish gray to reddish brown clay. Observation

from gullies shows that the clay-shale sequence is over five metres thick,

becoming silty clay in some localities. Carbonized streaks of plant remains are

locally present in the dark gray portion of the shale particularly in the area towards

the boundary between Akwa-Ibom and Abia State. Pebbles, boulders and lenses

of limestone is common in the clay portion. The sandstone is essentially massive

over six to eightmetres in some exposures particularly around Ebo, Okpoto

and Iwere area in Ini Local Government Area (Olugbenga and Christopher,

2015). It is characterized by fine laminationprobably as a result of grading and

streaks of whitish clay (kaolin). It is generally friable andwhitish beyond the

laterized portions. Texturally it is medium to coarse grained and

finingupwards (Esu and Okereke, 2002).

Fig.1 Map of the Study Area.

Fig.2 Vegetation Map of the Study Area.

Fig.3 Drainage Map of the Study Area.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of relevant previous work

A geophysical survey using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT)) was

carried out by (Gö ktü rkler et al., 2008) to study a landslide site in the Altindag

district of Izmir city, western Turkey. In the city, landslide is one of the causes of

natural hazard, and one of the most important landslide sites is located in the

Altindag district. The ERT studies were performed along four profiles over the

landslide body in the directions of N-S and E-W. A Wenner-Schlumberger

configuration was used during the resistivity measurements. The resistivity and the

seismic data sets were processed by least-squares inversion techniques. The

landslide material was characterized by low resistivity and low seismic velocity.

The resistivity results also indicated the zones associated with the high water and

clay contents within the landslide mass. A layer of consolidated clastic rocks was

considered to be the landslide bedrock, and it was represented by relatively high

(moderate) resistivity and high velocity. Integrated interpretation of the resistivity

data along one of N-S trending profiles helped them identify the geometry of the

failure surface and the changes in the thickness of the landslide material. An

undulating sliding surface is present along that profile and the landslide material

gets thicker in the middle and the northern parts (the toe area) of the profile.
Moreover, the water content is thought to have a key role in the mass movement in

the landslide site.

C. N. Nwankwo et al (2019) used geophysical approach to investigate the

subsurface structure in a landslide area in a community in Ohafia Abia State, using

geophysical data obtained from the subsurface formation of the area. A total of

seven stations comprising of three vertical electrical sounding (VES) using

Schlumberger electrode configuration and four electrical resistivity profiling (2D)

using Wenner array configuration were occupied. Resistivity data were acquired

using the Abem terrameter (AGI single R8). The data were smoothened and

analyzed using Schlumberger computer automatic iterative software. In the same

line seismic critically refracted data were acquired using 12-channel ABEM

Terraloc MK III digital seismometer and processed with the Reflexw software into

2D velocity depth models. A two-layer model was delineated by the velocity

profile with a range of 338 m/s and 4356 m/s for the entire depth of probe. Results

of resistivity model show 6 constrained geo-electric layers covering a total depth of

55.0 m with low resistivity values for the top soil. Increase in resistivity with depth

observed in the study indicates increase in compaction and solidification with

depth in the subsurface as layers alternates. The resistivity of most of the formation

layers are averagely high suggesting a high degree of void spaces inside the rock

material. This might have resulted from high erosional activities in the area that
gave rise to landslides. Also, the formation lithology for the area is mainly

sand/sandstone from the top soil to the survey depth, suggesting non protective or

absence of highly compacted clay materials that are more resistant to erosion

associated with heavy rainfall in the area.

Muhammad Nazar Qodri, Setio Budi, Fachri Taufik Dasahruddyn,

Alfian Rahman, Widodo, and Fatkhan carried out Geophysical investigation

of landslide using DC-Resistivity method: A case study in Cikahuripan, West

Bandung. Landslide that happened at a cliff besides Kolonel Masturi Street in

Cikahuripan, West Bandung had caused some big damages. It occurred during

rainy season in area which the cliff was closely related to the landslide. There

were a lot of steps that could be done to diminish the risks of landslide. One of

the steps was by applying geophysical investigation using DC-Resistivity

Method. The investigation using DC-Resistivity Method tried to map the slip

planes at the cliff which could be the trigger of the landslide. Three lines of

survey, one perpendicular and two parallel to the strike of the cliff, were then

conducted using Dipole-Dipole and Schlumberger array to map the subsurface

resistivity. Generally, the slip plane should be a contact plane between lower

resistivity areas above the higher ones. But, in contrary, the results of the

investigation showed that the lower resistivity areas took place below the

higher ones. From the results, it can be concluded that there is no slip plane at
the cliff. The cause of the landslide tends to be the accumulation of water

below the surface, which is generally known as rainfall run-off.

Pouyon Dieudonné Epada, Ganno Sylvestre, Tabod Charles Tabod also

carried out Geophysical and Geotechnical Investigations of a Landslide in Kekem

Area, Western Cameroon. The surveys were conducted in the Western Cameroon

(Kekem area) following a landslide on argillaceous material in order to understand

the triggering processes and mechanisms of this landslide and to assess the stability

of the slope. The geophysical soundings consisting of vertical electrical soundings

with the Schlumberger elec- trode array configuration were carried out to monitor

the behaviour of electrical resistivity in the landslide. Geoelectri- cal data showed a

zone of low resistivity values identified as a clayey sand-filled aquifer. This aquifer

played an impor- tant role in the triggering process of the landslide. Geotechnical

soundings showed that the aquifer had a thickness of 7.0 m. The depth from the

landslide crest level to the failure surface reached 3.0 m and 20.6 m. Laboratory

tests were then carried out in order to evaluate the cohesion of the soil and the

angle of internal friction, and to calculate the safety factor in view of making a

stability analysis. The laboratory results exhibited a soil with low consistency,

almost doughy. The mean value of the safety factor (1.4) been lower than the slope

stability coefficient (1.5), revealed that the slope is unstable, likely to know at any
moment a reactivation of the slide. This study showed that electrical soundings

coupled with geotechnical surveys are useful tools for the characterization of

landslides.

D. Jongmans, G. Bièvre, F. Renalier, S. Schwartz, N. Beaurez, Y. Orengo

(2007) carried out Geophysical investigation of a large landslide in glaciolacustrine

clays in the Trièves area (French Alps) In this study, they attempt to physically

characterize the deformation within a large slide (Avignonet) affecting laminated

clays which were deposited in a glacially dammed lake during the Würm period.

Clay deposits, which cover an area of 300 km 2 south of Grenoble (French Alps)

and have a maximum thickness of 200 m, overlay compact alluvial layers and

marly limestone of Mesozoic age. Piezometric data at Avignonet show that the

water table is very shallow, implying that the slide developed in saturated clay.

Several seismic and electrical profiles were performed in order to tentatively

correlate the variations of P-wave (Vp) velocity, S-wave velocity (Vs) and

electrical resistivity with geotechnical data and morphological observations. In

such saturated and fine material, it turned out that only the S-wave velocity

exhibits significant variations with the displacement rates and the morphological

features. Vs values at shallow depth were found to be inversely correlated with

displacement rates measured by GPS, with a division by at least a factor of 2

between the zones unaffected and strongly deformed by the landslide. These
results suggest that Vs mapping could provide valuable information on the

deformation state of the clay material and that the evolution of Vs with time could

be used as an indicator for characterizing the landslide activity in the subsurface,

including the evolution into a flow.

Jessica B., Giuseppe C., Alessandro G., Raffaele L., Maria M., Angela P.,

Sebastian U., Sabatino P. (2018) carried out Electrical resistivity imaging for the

characterization of the Montaguto landslide (southern Italy). Electrical Resistivity

Tomography surveys were carried out for the characterization of the Montaguto

earth-flow, located in the southern Apennines chain (Campania Region, southern

Italy). The earth-flow investigated is one of the largest and most complex

landslides in Europe with a length of 3.1 x 103 m, a width ranging between 45 and

420 m and an area of about 6.6 x 105 m2. In the spring of 2010, a large

reactivation of the earth-flow heavily damaged some strategic infrastructures. In

order to mitigate the effects of the mass movement, considerable efforts were

carried out by the Italian National Civil Protection Department (DPC) to tackle the

emergency. The aim of the study was to contribute to a more accurate geometric

reconstruction of the landslide body and to improve the knowledge of the

geological setting. Due to the lithological characteristic of the outcropping

lithotypes, i.e. Faeto Flysch (calcarenite, clay and marl) and Villamaina Unit (sand

and silty clay), the electrical resistivity contrasts were not very pronounced.
However, the highresolution of the electrical tomographies was the key to observe

the presence of both lateral and vertical discontinuities that were associated with

lithological boundaries, structural features and sliding surfaces. The results of the

geoelectrical surveys could be considered for planning additional and more

appropriate actions aimed at the stabilization of different portions of the Montaguto

landslide.
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1.2 Field data acquisition

3.1.2.1 Vertical electrical sounding (VES) survey

3.1.2.2 Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) survey

3.1.3 Data processing

3.1.4 Data interpretation

3.1 MATERIALS NEEDED

 Terameter

 sWire Cables

 Electrodes

 Global Positioning System (G.P.S)

 Hammer

3.1 Research Methodology

A resistivity surveys aimed at determining the resistivity distribution in the

subsurface by making measurements along the ground surface was carried

conducted at a landslide location at Ibam Edet in Ini Local Government Area of

Akwa Ibom, Nigeria. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and Vertical

Electrical Sounding techniques were employed in the studies. It is based on

measuring the electrical potential between a pair of electrodes cause by direct

current injection between another pair of electrodes from which the apparent

resistance is measured and then the apparent resistivity is determined.

It has been used to identify the discontinuity between landslides material and

bedrock (Jongmans and Garambois, 2017). In this configuration, current (I) is fed

into the ground using two current electrodes A and B placed at a maximum spread

of 200 m and the resultant medium resistance were measured between two

potential electrodes M and N placed at a fixed distance until the voltage reading

became too low. The resistivity of the soil surrounding the current electrodes were

obtained and the apparent resistivity and thickness of the various geo-electric

layers were then estimated using Advanced Geosciences Incorporation (AGI)

computer iterative Earth Imager 2D software and Schlumberger analysis version.

This involves inversion of direct current resistivity field data to produce the

electrical resistivity distribution of the formation under the survey line.

Resistivity studies
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Vertical Electrical Sounding VES

The electrical resistivity studies was performed using Ohmega resistivity meter, 4

electrodes and Cables. The VES survey in the study area was conducted at two

locations 10m and 24m away from the landslide axis and about 180m apart. Data

were acquired using the Schlumbeger configuration. A curve marching inversion

technique was employed to process the data using ipi2win software.

In addition, based on the geologic observations and VES results in the study area, a

lateral discontinuity between the resistivity zones of 10 and 35m was observed.

Since the groundwater level was very close to the surface, it was discovered from a

borehole at the point of the landslide that the water bearing formation slided along

side, thus there was no water in the borehole. Areas with relatively low resistivity

was observered to be the shale layer with resistivity ranging from 20 to 66.2Ωm.

Geologically, shale is very porous but not permeable. This is to say that it absorbs
water but there are no interconnectivity for the water to flow in it. Thus in the

presence of excessive load on it, it tends to expand and collapse under this

pressure.

The geologic units and assigned resistivities are also given in Table X.

Table X

S/N Range of Resistivity Inferred geology

1 100-110 Laterite

2 20-70 Shale and or clay

3 1200- 2000 Intercalation of sand and clay

material

4 8000- 10,000 Quick sand (unsaturated)

The plotted curves for the two VES are presented below;

VES 001 IBAM EDET

VES 002 IBAM EDET
A Correlating the two VES in a fence diagrame is presented below;

4.2 2-D electrical resistivity tomography survey (ERT)

Data from ERT are generally presented in the form of a pseudosection, which is a

representation of the apparent resistivity variations in the subsurface. The electrical

resistivity studies was performed using Ohmega resistivity meter, 4 electrodes and

Cables. The ERT survey in the study area was conducted along two lines. Line-1

which was along the landslide axis and line-2 was perpendicular to the landslide

axis. Data were acquired by a Wenner configuration for ERT. A 2-D tomographic

inversion technique was employed to process the data using RES2DINV software.

The method for ERT is based on the smoothness-constrained leastsquares

inversion of pseudo-section data. In the ERT algorithm, the subsurface is divided

into rectangular blocks of constant resistivity, then the resistivity of each block is

evaluated by minimizing the difference between observed and calculated pseudo-

sections using an iterative scheme. The smoothness-constraint leads the algorithm

to yield a solution with smooth resistivity changes. The calculated pseudo-sections

can be obtained by either finite-difference or finite-element methods. The synthetic

modelling studies mostly help to understand the response of the resistivity method

to different geological and engineering problems before the field surveys.

The modelling was achieved in two steps. In the first step, a pseudo-section was

calculated for a Wenner electrode configuration using RES2DMOD software

(Geotomo software 2005a). Figure 1a, 2a displays the resulting pseudo-section.

Then this pseudo-section was inverted by RES2DINV software (Geotomo software

2005b) to reconstruct the resistivity distribution in the model. The smoothness

constrained

least-squares scheme was used to achieve this step. At the end of five iterations,

the resistivity section shown in Fig. 1c, 2c was obtained with an RMS error of

26.8% and 20.5% respestively. One can easily observe that the resistivity section

reveals main features of the model in Fig. 1a and 2a. The resistivity values

evaluated are also very close to the original ones.

The effects of weaker geologic units with low resistivity were observered between

the distances of 75 and 105m for profile 1and between 88 and 105m for profile 2.

This might be as a result of shale upwelling due to overburden pressure.

4.3 Results

The resistivity surveys was performed during the dry season. Thus, the slope-

forming material was not saturated. Obviously, this condition affected the

resistivities in the subsurface and a data set displaying relatively lower apparent

resistivities was obtained. Figure 1 and 2 shows the results of electrical resistivity

tomography while figure X shows the results for the VES. The ERT data along

Lines-1 and -2 were measured in parallel and perpendicular directions to the

landslide movement respectively. Line-1 was approximately in the direction of

NW–SE. The length of the line was about 150m, and the measuring surface was

approximately flat. The resulting tomogram along this profile suggests relatively

high resistivity values at the flanges and lower resistivity values within. They are

in the range of 898–12,557 Ωm for high and the distinct low resistivity zones along

the line with range of 313-530 Ωm. High resistivities were generally obtained in

the north western and south eastern parts of the line. They relatively increase with

depth in the south eastern part of the line.

The zone of low resistivity (313-530 Ωm), located in the middle part of the section,

probably represents the landslide materials with higher water content. There is a

borehole on Line 1. Landslide material, clay, mud and sand units observed in these

boreholes are in good agreement with the results of the electrical resistivity

tomography. Line-2, which is nearly perpendicular to the direction of landslide

movement, runs from NE to SW. It is 150 m in length, and has almost flat lying

surface. As can be seen from Fig. 2c, the resistivity distribution in Line-2 does not

really differs from that in Line-1.

The resistivities are very low (150-300 Ωm) in the almost the middle part of the

line (88 and 105m), while they are rather high (100 and 2998 Ωm) at the flanks. In

addition, the resistivities suddenly change in the middle of the line. The low

resistivity might be caused by the water content of the unconsolidated material

while the higher values might be an indicator of the consolidated materials. Thus, it
can be concluded that there might be a shale upwelling at this location. Th VES

results indicates a geo-electric layer with very low resistivity that ranges from 20 to

70Ωm at a depth range of 35.3 to 41m to be the shale/clay formation that might

have been the root cause of the landslide due to excess pressure as a result of the

overlying layers.
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary and Conclusion

In this study, a landslide case from Ibam Edet, Ini L.G.A is presented which

occurred in 2020 and damaged residential buildings and farmland along its path.

This case study shows that the electrical resistivity is a useful tool for the

investigation of landslides. The geometry and some physical properties of the

landslide material as well as water saturated zones might be determined by the

resistivity imaging. In this study, the inversion of the resistivity data yielded

information for the determination of the failure surface and presence of shale

upwelling in the landslide area. Moreover, the ERT was successful in detection of

the consolidated and unconsolidated geologic units, which might have potential for

future landslides. Comparison of the VES and ERT results showed that they were

in good agreement.

5.2 Recommendation

From this studies, it was discovered that quarrying activity in the area aided the

landslide occurrence. Thus, it is recommended that quarrying activities should be

regulated by the Ministry of Solid Mineral Affairs. It was also discovered that
majority of the residential buildings were sited along the axis of the landslide. The

Government should organize a re-settlement for these households.

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Geophysical investigation of a large landslide in glaciolacustrine clays in the

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