Chapter-t INTRODUCTION LI PHYSICAL LOCATION Rawatbhata is located at the bank of river Chambal near the Rana Pratap Sagar Dam, The nearest city is Kota situated at a distance of 60 KMs from the plant. ‘There are four units of 220 MWe each and two units of 235 MWe newly constructed. There is lush greenery around the site. For employee’s vatious colonies are constructed with all the domestic facilities: Fig-1.1 RAPS 1821.2 ABOUT NUCLEAR ENERGY Nuclear energy has tured outto’be the achievement of the past century. The cleanest environmental friendly and of kiss running cost mode of power generation is now in our hand, AL present it is estimated that our natural reserves of UsOs is about 70,000 tones, but the long runpotentials depend upon the laege reserves of Thoritim which is about 3,60,000 tohes, The optinnim usage of the available resources takes place via three stages namely: - The first stage and perhaps used widely is using natural uranium as fuel. The plutonium thus yields by first stage slong with thorium is fed in Fast Breeder Reactors. ‘The third stage: would employ the (U-233 obtained from second stage together with thoriam is employed. Perhaps the thind stage could either be a fast reactor or athiermal reactor. In fast reactors high energy neutrons are required to bring about fission. It is most common with dlement having eveh number of mass number, th thermal reactors. thermal neutions ie, slow moving neutrons are required to being dbout the fission, ‘Those having mass number as an ddd rumber passese this type of property. 13 D FOR NUCLEAR POWER. ‘The exploration of naturil resources for generation of electricity has been an evalutionary process. Over the years, it has progressed from tapping the potential energy of failing water to buming of fossil fuels. But the quest for more sources of electricity, which is the Cleanest and most efficient form of energy, i ‘unending and the limits of the conventional sources have served to heighten man's anxious efforts in this regard. The discovery of fission and the promise of abundance which nuclear energy came to hold subsequently turned man’s attention to utilize the potential of this source: Considering the current population growth which has already crossed 100 crores in the 21° century and improvements in standard of living of the forth coming generations, there will bea largsineresse inthe need of electrical energy particularly from clean, green and safe energy sources. The electrical energy will play a vital role in sustainable development of the country, Among all the available conventional and onconventional energy sources, the nuclear energy is rhast efficient, abundantly available, sustainable and cost effective energy sources: It does not emit obnoxious gases that cause global warming, ozone hole and acid rain. 1480 THE NUCLEAR POWER It is thus evident that some new form of energy, such as nuclear, which is a lange addition to our energy resourees, has to be developed in a.big way. The curently known uranium reserves in thecountry ch suppart a PHWR programme of 10,000MW five a desig life of 30 years. Evehi though there is every reasons can support an ultimate capacity of 350,000 M\V(e) by fast breeder. the long range potential of so, on thorium resourees which exceed 360,000tonnes. when used in the breeder reactors, the thorium reserves would be equivalent t0 600 billion tons of coal. This is explained below. 1.SNUCLEAR POWER IS SAFE. Improving the quality of life has been the driving force for miaking w push ahead with the use of imodern technology. That these benefits carry along with them seme risks, has been known for sometimes and one has also to recognize that there is nothing like an absolutely safe technological Products be # the automobile, aiteraft, Electrical industry, or for that matter, a nuclear reactor. If mankind had decided to take a” zero-risk approach”, we would not have undertaken space exploration or developed nuclear technology. They would have burnt riore coal and oil, resulting inimore acid rin, pollution and searce ail. 1.6 PRINCIPLE OF NUCLEAR REACTION When a heavy nucleus split into smaller nuclei, a small amount of mass is converted into energy ‘The amount of energy produced is given by Einstein mass energy relation (E=mc*). this breaking tup of nuclei is calted nuclear fission. Natural uranium has two types of isotopes, Usse and Us {isotope in the ratio of 139:1. The less aburidant Us isotopes that fissions when & Usss atom is struck by allows (or thermal) neuiron, it splits into two or reftagments. This splitting is accompiled by release of energy in the form of heat, mdio-ability and two or three atom at high speed, are made to slow down in the split atom at high speod, are made to slow down ina moderatian, ie. heavy water, so that they have a high probability of hitting other US atoms which ia tum release more energy and further sets of neutrons, Attenuation of self-sustained stage of spilling of uranium atom is called chain reaction, There is a particular size of fisionable material for which the neutron produetion by fission is exactly balanced by leakage and absorption, This is called the critical Size at wi the hain reaction is self-sustaining this the size of a reaction,se Zz vw @ — — WY yo Ray 4 Xel44 Fig-14 Nuclear Defragmentation Reaction In the above equation, (1) the total mass before fission, is the sum of the masses of U235 and the neutrons, Mass afier fission is the sum of fission fragments and neutrons,Chapter-2 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER REACTORS 2.1 FAST REACTORS The U-235 content of the fuel can be increased, i.e., the fuel is highly entiched in U-235 with a substantial decrease in U-238. The U-235 fast fissions are thus, considerably increased in a fast reactor. Some reduction in neutron energy dees occur due to inelastic collisions of neutrons with nuclei of the fuel and structural matcrial but most of the fissions are caused by neutrons of energies greater than 0. Mev. The mass of U-235 required for the reactor to be critical varies with a mount of U-235 enrichment. In all cases the critical mass of fissile material required increases rapidly below 15% to 20% U-235 enrichment. To avoid large ftiel inventories a practical fast reactor, such as case C above; would require fuel containing at least 20% U-235 by volume. Incidentally the e s considerably greater than ina thermal reactor with the same fuel composition. The highly enriched fuel and absence of modenitor results in a small core therefore, fast reaetors have high power dehsity cores. The in a Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) ix 500 MW/m3 compared with 100 MW/ m3 for a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), It is therefore essential that a heat transport average power densi fluid with good thermal properties be used. The choice is also limited to a non-moderating fluid and liquid metals seem to satisty both requirements, The capture cross-sections of most elements for fast neutrons ate small sind since there is a relatively large mass of U-235 in thie reactor; the macroscopic capture cross-sections of structural material and fission products are small compared with the macroscopic fission cross-section of the U-235.Consequently there is more flexibility in the choice of materials and stainless stecl can be used instead of aluminum or zirconium, Fission product poisoning is wot significant and for this reason, (and the fect that temperatuée coefficient of reactivity is low), the excess reactivity required in a fast reactor is. small. 2.2 THERMAL REACTORS Since a chain reaction cannot be maintained with fast neutrons without considerable enrichment, the alternative is to reduce the neutron energy until the fission cross-section of U- 235 is sufficiently increased. If the neutrons arc reduced to thermal energies, the U-235 fissioncross-section is 580 barns whereas the radioactive capture cross-section is 106 barns, Thus, even allowing for the low percentage of U-235 in natural uranium, the thermal neutron fission cross-section in natural uranium is 4.2 barns whereas the radioactive capture cross-section is 3.5 bars, Thus, for every 77 neutrons captured in natural uranium about 40 will cause fission aand produce 40x 2.5 oF 100 new neutrons, For 77 neutroiis out of every 100 10 be captured, fewer than 23 neutrons can be lost by escape or radioactive reaction could be sustained. In thermal reactors the fission neutrons are thermalized by slowing them down in a moderator, Most of the power reactors in existence are thermal reactors. 2.2.1 TYPES OF THERMAL REACTORS In the previous lesson reactors were classified on the basis of neutron energy and the various advantages and disadvantages of fast and thermal systems were enumerated. It was mentioned that most of the reactor systems, at present in operation, are thermal reactors. Thermal reactors will now be classified further on the basis of core structure, the moderator used and the heat transport system used. Some reference will be made to the advantages and disadvantages of cach type, but some of these considerations will be discussed later when moderator and heat transport system properties are discussed The moderator may be: 1. Light water 2, Heavy water 3. Graphite 4, Organic liquids The heat transport system may be: 1. Pressurized light water 2, Pressurized heavy water 3. Boiling light water 4, Boiling heavy water5. Gases such as CO» or hefiin 6, Liquid metals 7. Steam or fog. 8, Organic liquids 2.2.2 HEAVY WATER MODERATOR REACTOR Heavy water has a thuch lower neutron capture cross section than both light water and graphite, The principal advantage of using heavy water asa moderator is, therefore, the neutron economy that ean be achieved wit increased because of lower neutron capttire in the moderator. Neutron economy is so much |. The thermal utilization factor, f, in the four factor formula, is iiproved that not only can natural uranium fuel be used, but that this fuel can be used in oxide. or carbide form. Thus, there is no longer any need for an enrichment plant. In addition, oxide or carbide fuel improve the Fuel integrity and the fuel in less susceptible to distortion, 2.2.3 PRESSURIZED HEAVY WATER REACTOR: PHWRs have established over the years a record for dependability, with Load factors in excess of 90% over extended periods. In the PHWR, the heavy water moderator is contained in a large Stainless steel tink (calandrin) through’ which runs several hundred horizontal zircdloy calandria tubes. The D20 moderator is of about 70°C. Concentric with the calandria tube, but separated by a carbon dioxide filled maintained at atmospheric pressure and a temperature annulus which minimizes heat transfer from fuel to the moderator, is the zirealoy pressure tube containing the natural UO2 fue! assemblies and the'heavy water coolant at a pressure of about 80 kyicm? and a temperature of about 300°C. The term pressurized refers to the pressurized 120 cooiant which flows in opposite directions in adjacent tubes and passes its heat to the secondary coolant via the steam generators, System pressure is maintained by a pressuriser.on ohe of the legs of a steam generator, 2.2.4 GRAPHITE MODERATED REACTORS: With @ graphite moderator, a liquid oF a gas must be used as the coolant, Alitiough there is woderated reactors, e:g., the Soviet Union's RBMK series of power stations, of which Chernobyl is one, only gas cooled reactors will be referred to here. Whilst water cooled |graplithe United States and Canada pioneered, respectively, the light and heavy water moderated design: France and United Kingdom undertook the early development of the graphite 7 favour of'an extensive moderated reactor, selecting carbon dioxide as the coolant because of its relative Elect inertness.and low neutron activation, France abandoned this approacl PWR programme, The UK continued to be heavily committed to gas cooled reactors in the form, i Jy, of magnox and subsequently the advanced gas cooled reactor.Chapter-3 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF RAPS. 3.1 THE PRIMARY HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM 3.1.1 PRINCIPLE OPERATION Primary heat transport system provides the means for transferring the heat produced in the fuel (located inside the pressure tubes of the reactor) to the Steam generators (boilers) in which the steam to run the turbine is generated from ordinary DM water. The heat transport medium is pressurized heavy water and is circulated through the m: cireuit by px ary coolant pumps. The principal feature of the system is to maintain continuous circulation of coolant through the reactor at all times i.c. during normal & abnormal operation and shutdown condition The PHT system provides continuous circulation of coolant through the reactor at all times by various modes as listed below: Normal operation: - By primary coolant pump, Sudden loss of power to pumps: - By inertia of pump flywheels t avoid a sudden drop in coolant flow. ‘Thermo siphoning: - By placing main equipment above the elevation of reactor core. Loss of primary coolant; - By receiving emergency injection of heavy water from moderator system after depressurization of primary heat transport system. In ease of paucity of heavy water from moderator system light water injection is initiated. 3.1.2 DESCRIPTION The heavy water runs through the feeders into 306 coolant tubes, through the end fittings and feeders to the reactor outlet headers. The reactor utilizes restriction orifices in selected inlet feeders to achieve the flow required by the reactor channel ratings, commensurate with equal temperature from all channels. The reactors outlet headers distribute the flow through 8 boiler inlet valves, 4 on the north and 4 on the south, the respective 8 boilers (in new PHWR it is only 4 boilers 2 on each side). From the boilers through the boiler outlet valve the heavy water arrives at the pumps. Each pump is associated with a respective boiler through an individualsiiction line. The pumps discharge the flow through purap discharge valves imo tlie reactor inlet header, No common suction header has been:provided and pumps are attached directly to the boilers, the only commen connection being reactor inlet and: outlet headers. ‘This arrangement allows the isolation of any of the circulating pumps and leads to the loss of a boilers, the circuit lias no spare plump, This situation is acceptable in View of the expected high reliability of the heat transport purnps and aiso that the loss ofa pump and a boiter does not result in «substantial loss of plant capacity. From the reactor injet headers, the heavy water flows through the feeders and cad fittings to the reactor coolant tubes. Corrosion products and fission products are removed from the system by purification circuit, Purification cireuit also helps to achieve a pH value between 9.5 to 10.5 and to maintain the conductivity of heavy water between 20 to 30 micromhovem. In addi t redhices radia lytic decomposition of heavy water by contro ionic impurities. The operwting design pressure in the reactor outlet headers is controlled at 87 Kg/em2 (1237.5 psig). The pressure is controlled by a feed and bleed system. In the event ofa leak in the primary system, no matter how large it is, cooling of the fuel cin be maintained or restored by the emergency injection system which is designed to pump heavy water from the moderator system into the primary system. Far cooling the system below 300°F and for holding the system at low temperature during plant maintenance, an auxiliary cooling system is provided which is known as standby cooling system or shutcown cooling system. The system is connected between reactor outlet and inlet header at cach end of the reactor. IT aOFmal heat removal fails and normal pressure control fails or their capa jes are exceeded, the increase in coolant volume caused by the reactor heat would be passed out of the primary system by relief valves, One relief fine connects the pressurized end of the north standby cooling loop, to the blecd condenser through these instrumemed safety relief valves in parallel, Isolated boilers are protected against accidental high pressure by system relief valves, The PHT pumps are provided with flywheels to provide better flow coast down after pump trip. The system layout as discussed ubove assures adequate flow for decay heat removal from reactor during shutdown by thermos syphening action, A separate shutdown cooling system is provided to remove reactor decay heat during cold shutdown conditions. This mode of cooling permits the draining of the steam generators and purnps in the PHT system for maintenance. An emergency core cooling system providesadequate coolant flow to prevent overheating of the fuel in the unlikely event of loss of coolant accident. 3.2 RANKINE CYCLE Rankine cycle is a vapour power cycle having two basic characteristics The eycle consists of a succession of steady flow processes, with each process carried out a separate component specially designed for the purpose. The working fluid used in the plant, ie. water substance, when passes through the eycle of operation undergoes changes in pressure and temperature (enthalpy). It receives heat in various feed heaters and undergoes pressure change by pumps in the cireuit. The preheated water is converted into saturated steam inside steam generators and finally supplied to the it undergoes a fa oof energy to the turbine shaft. On reaching the lowest pressure in the system, in the condenser, heat is extracted from it by the cooling water and it is thus restored to its original conditions as condensate. In the simplest possible forth of heat cyele for a steam murbine power plant, the process thus comprises turbine, in whi pressure and increase in volume and gives up a certain amount Four steps. 1, Increase of pressure of the condensate in the feed puryp, with a resultant very small absorption of work, 2. The supply of heat by the combustion of fuel to produce steam in the steam generator, 3, The expansion of the steam in the turbine, with the production of work 4. The rejection of heat by the steam to the cooling water at constant pressure in the condenser, and the return of the water to its original condition, The eycle is rarely as simple as this and is ofien complicated by such devices as regenerative feed heating and reheating. Under ideal conditions of expansion in the wrbine the above cycle is known as the Rankine eycle. The eycle .-3-4-5-6 Feed water shown in figure represents a power station cycle without feed heating, receives the sensible heat 6-7 Feed water receives the latent heat 7+ Adiabatic expansion 8 of steam through high pressure turbine 8-9 Moisture removal and reheating 9-10 Adiabatic expansion of sieam through the low pressure turbine.10-1 Condensation of steam in condenser al constant pressure,Solu rallon Cur Constimt pressure nes ENTROPY Fig.3.1 RANKINE CYCLE, fig.-3.2 Rankine Cycle on P-V, T-S, H-S axis.Chapter-t MAIN COMPONENTS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 4.1 REACTOR BUILDING ‘A.common spent fuel building is provided centrally between the two reactors building on the west side. The orientation and location of the building isso decided as to reduce the total number of bends traversed by the shuttle carrying spent fuel from each reactor building to the respective inspection bay. This building is safety related and designed as class If]. The comman exhaust ventilation system for Reactor Building, Reactor Auxiliary Building, Spent Fuel Building, Service bu located on the first floor of SFB at 106 m elevation. 4.1.1 PHT SYSTEM 1. Calandria, Calandria is a huge cylindrical structures which houses bundles, The specifications regarding 200 MWe reactors calandria are: = Weight = 2tons Length = 4645 mm Main Shield LD. = = $996. mm Small Shell LD. 4928 mm Thickness of SI - 25 sm There are 306 channels each accommodating 12 bundles. The calendria is housed in steel Lined concrete, ealandria vault filled with light water which provides shielding and cooling of vault structure, calandria tubes made up of zircaloy.a Fig-41 Structure of Calandria 2. Control Rod The control rods contain material that regulates the rate of the chain reaction, ITthey are pulled out of the core, the reaction speeds up. If they are inserted, the reaction slows down. 15In RAPS, cobalt(Co-59) is used as control rods. The used cobalt is then processed and enriched. The enriched cobalt is then used for jerent purposes stich as cobalt therapy ete, 3. Fuelling Machine Reactor fuel is moved into and out of reactor by a pair of fuelling machines that is clamped to channels on north and south ends of the reactor. It consists of Head, which contains positioning the mechanisms for manipulating the fuel, a carriage for Head in line with any desired fuel channel, and numerous houses and eables, which supplies uid and electrieal services. A ram and associated mechanism is provided for pushing reactor fuel and handling plugs in the reactor channels. The ran operated by the hydraulic pressure of Heavy water. The fuelling machine is left in the vault when not in the use, unless maintenance operations are required on it The various plugs and fixe! handled by the fuelling machines are stored in the various chambers ofthe rotary magazine, The magazine has twelve chambers. Refuelling can be done in a number of channels during one refuelling session. 4, Dump Tank Just below the calandria and connected to it by a transition section and expansion joint is the dump tank, The purpose is to provide containment to the moderator when dumped through the S-shaped dump ports, In normal operation the tank will be empty and contain helium at 24 psi to support the moderator in the calandria, §. Coolant Channels. Coolant channels are placed inside the calandria channel with between them as an insulator, Coolantie. pressurized Heavy Wate paved through there coolant channels where bundles are placed and thus carry vary the heat generated there in. It is called PHT (Primary Heat Transfer) ‘The reason for using Heater Water as coolant is that its neutron capturing capacity is less than light water, Coolant channels are made up of Zr-2.5% Niobium. This materi: is having very Jot neutron absorption cross-section and good mechanical strength, In RAPS-2 all the coolant channels were replaced during 1994-98.6, Nuclear Fuel The fuel used in a PHWR type reactor is sintered natural uranium di-oxide in the form of small pellets. These pellets are kept in the zirealoy tubes and are 24 per tube, The tubes are known as pencils and 19 pencils make a complete fuel bundle, The pencils are held between end plates and zirealoy provide spacing between the tubes and zircaloy pads provide bearing action. This help mixing of the coolant flow with the sub channels between the elements, Fuel Bundle IRCAROY went witar Fig.-4.2 Fuel Bundle7. Steam Generators Hear energy generated! in the reactor is transported by the PHT heavy water to steany generators (boilers), Heat tnansfer takes place in steam generator from primary 10 secondary ordinary water in order to generate steam which in tum drives the turbine. Heavy water is flowing through tube side (primary side) of steam generator and the ordinary water is circulated through secondary siile (shell side} of steam generitor, Eich steam generator cornptises of ten hia pin lype heat excharigers and a common steam drum containing moisture separator. Each hair pin heat exchanger has 195 tubes, 10 mm dia. and the tube material is made af Monel. Hot heavy water from reactor outlet header enters in boiling leg of the heat exchanger and comes out through the pre-Heat leg, There is no provision for manual in service inspection for this type heat exchanger. In case any wbe leaks, titrated heavy water will come in secondary circuit, Manual sampling of steam and feed water will monitor any tube leak. Provision is being made to detect on line tube leak by N16, O19 activity monitor installed on blow down ling of steam generator, All sides of each of the ten heat exchanger shell sides forming the boiler are connected to a stearnwdriti thitough individual risers, Thete'are two legs it each steam generaiar. One is called preheat leg and the other is boiling leg, as shown. The pre-heated feed water of 1730C after HP heaters enters in the pre-heat leg of the steam generator and rises through baffle plates, The hot water after receiving heat from primary will go to the common steam drum through riser. ‘The water is citeulated from drum throuigh the down comer to the boiling leg, Boiling takes place oon the water surface of the drum and steam formation will be there above the drum water. The steam is withdrawn from steam generator through peerless type four bank top outlet moisture extractor. By removal of the end baffles from the Vih bank of the moisture extractor, provision for increasing the steam eapacity to 1.2 x 1OE6 kigfir. (3 x 106 tbh.) was made. The out let steam line from all four SGs in each side combined together form the main steam line for north and south side respectively. SG failures are usually tube leaks and tube sheet cladding defects. Selection of tube material volves variables such as good thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, the long term build- up of radiation fields etc. Tube material of SG is INCOLOY-800, Incolay 800 (Ni 35 Cr 23 Fe) is a relatively recent material for use in nuclear SGs and is reported to be highly corrosion resistant in water and steam services and has good resistance against stress corrosion crackingwith controlled water chemistry, low stress level etc. Incoloy 800 with a limited cobalt of 0.03% (max.) is a better material than Incone!-600 or Monel-400 due to its lower Ni content so far as cobalt release into the system is concerned. 4.1.2 MODERATOR SYSTEM The following are the parts of moderator system- 1. Calandria 2, Coolant Channel 3. Over Pressure Rupture Dise 4. Dump Tank 5. Expansion Joint 6, Dump Port 7, Maerator Pumps. 8, Heat Exchanger 9, Control Valves Heater water moderator is filled in ealandria serving the essential purpose of slowing down the fast neutrons as wells aetinig as heat sink in case of an emergency. For the cooling of moderator another eycle runs through heat exchangers where heat is transferred to process water system, The specification of 220 MWe No. of pumps: 05 Heat exchangers: 02 In Uni |&2 moderator is filled up to 98.6% and rest is filled with Helium gas, This proposal is necessary for shutdown of the plant.In Unit 3&4 maieratoris filled up to 100% of moderator as the shutdown mechanism igentitely different, It has got-primary shut off rods which gets inserted into calandria and absoris neutrons thus causing breakage of chain reaction, For this there are 14 shut off rods made up of Cadmium sandwiched in SS. Tt was seen that the fission cross-section for thermal neutrons is so much greater than the radioactive capture cross-section that the high fuel enrichinient, required in fast reactors, is: no longer necessary, In heterogeneous thermal reaetor systems, little orno enrichment is required The slowing down of fission neutrons to thermal energies takes place in two stages: Inelastic scattering by the heavier nuclei, such as U-238, which are already present ih the fel. During this stage the neutron energy is only reduced to-about 0.1 MeV and so, further slowing, down of the neutrons is required. Further slowing down of neutrons, below 0,1 MeV, occurs by elastic scattering of the neutrons by the lighter nuclei of the moderator, The basic requirements of moderators will now be discussed at greater length and the suitability of substances, as moderators, will be considered.Fig-4.3 Maderator System 4.2 STEAM TURBINE, Steam turbine is a rotating machine in which heat energy of steam is converted into mechanical energy. 4.2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF STEAM TURBINE The steam is caused to Pall im presstite in a passage or nozzle; due ta this fall in pressure a cértain amount of heat enetgy is converted into mechanical kinetic energy, and the steam is Set moving witha greater velocity. The rapidly moving particles of steam enter the moving part of the turbine and here suffers a change in direction of motion which gives rise to a change of momentum and therefore to a force. This constitutes the driving force of the machine.4.2.2 IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF TURBINE, L. The Nozzle This is the element in which the steam expands from a high pressure and a state of comparative rest to a lower pressure and 2 state of comparatively rapid mation, 2. The Blades or Deflector This is the element in which the stream of steam particles strikes and experience a change in momentum due to change in direction resulting in a tangential force for rotation of turbine, The blades are attached to the rotating clement of the machine, or rotor: whereas, in general the hozzles are attached to the stationary part of the turbine, which is usually termed the stator, casing or cylinder. 4.2.3 TYPES OF TURBINES 1. Impulse Turbine In this, steam is expanded in turbine nozzle and attains a high velocity, also complete expansion: of wm takes place in the nozzle & steam pressure during the flow of steam over turbine blades remains constant. The blades have symmetrical profile, 2, Reaction Turbine In this, only partial expansion takes place in nozzle and further expansion takes place as the steam flows over the rotor blades. 4.2.4 COMPOUNDING IN IMPULSE TURBI vE, Several problems erop up if the energy of s eam is converted in one step, ie in a single row of nozzle-blade combination. With all heat drop taking place in one row of nozzles, the steam velocity becomes very high and even supersonic velocity, The rotational speed of the turbine also becomes very high and impracticable which may result in failure of blades due to centrifugal force, So, inorder to convert the energy of steam within practical speed range, itisnecessary to convert it in séveral steps and thus reducing the velocity of steam and rotor speed to practical levels. In addition to above there will be a high leaving loss. Following are the various types of compounding, 1. Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine Like simple impulse turbine this has also only set of nozzles and entire steam pressure drop red in takes place there, The kinetic energy of high velocity steam issuing from nozzles is uti a number of moving row of blades with fixed blades in between them (instead of a single row of moving blades in simple impulse turbine). The role of the fixed guide blades is just to change the direction of steam jet and guide it to next row of moving blades. This type of turbine is also called Curtis turbine. 2. Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine This is basically a number of simple impulse turbines in series on the same shaft the exhaust of one steam turbine entering the nozzle of the next turbine, The total pressure drop of the steam does not take place in the first nozzle ring, but is divided equally between all of them. Steam is passed through the first nozale ring in whic! is only partially expanded. It then passes over the first moving blades wheel where most of its velocity is absorbed. From this obtained ring itexhausts into the next nozzle ring and is again partially expanded. The vel from the second nozzle ring is absorbed by the next wheel of moving blades. This process is repeated in the remaining rings until the whole of the pressure has been absorbed. This type of turbine aiso calied Rateau turbine after its inventor. 3, Pressure-velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine Pressure Velocity Compounding is a combination of both the previous methods and has the advantage of allowing a bigger pressure drop in each stage and so less stages are necessary. Hence, fora given pressure drop the turbine will be shorter, but the diameter of the turbine is, increased at cach stage to allow for the increasing volume of steam. This type was onee very popular, but it rarely used as eflicieney is quite low. 4.2.5 IMPULSE VS REACTION-PRESENT TRENDThe hard ahd fast distinction between the impulse reaction is becoming progressively less important: The trend is to have some percentage of reaction for an impuise turbine or to have some percentage of impulse for a reaction turbine. It can be mathematically proved that efficiency of reaction siage is greater than efficiency of impulse stage. A pressure difference exists across the reaction type moving blades, therefore, the changes of leakage of steam From around the blade is more in. reaction stage. The advantage of efficiency is off setby the inter stage leakage of steam which flows without doing useful work. Hence a reaction stage should be located in the low pressure region of turbine. There is a general nile to use a greater percentage of impulse on the HP end and greater percentage of reaction on the LP, cfd. The percentage of reaction progressively increases as we go towards L. P. end. In actual turbines it is common for the best festure of various types to be incorporated in one machine. For example, a turbine may have a velocity compounded (Curtis) first stage followed by pressure compounded impulse (Rateau) stages and at the low pressure end of the machine, reaction balding 4.3 CONDENSOR ‘The condenser has thousands of small tubes. On operation, Periodically, the tubes wnust be cleaned manually, During outages, the condenser cleaning systems inject sfnall balls during tubes may be non-destructively tested to determine if wear is occurring: Tube leakage cannot be tolerated because the chemicals, e.g. sodium and chlorides can concentrate in the reactor (if a BWR) or steam generator (if a PWR). 4.3.1 FUCTION 1. To provide lowest economic heat rejection temperature for the steam. Thus saving on steam required per unit of electricity. 2, To conyert exhaust steam to water for reuse thus saving on feed water requirement. 3. Deaeration of make-up water introduced in the condenser, 4. To form a convenient point for introducing make up water. a45. To provide means for venting sind draining of associated equipment of feed water system. 4.3.2 TYPES OF CONDENSER Condenser is basically a heat exchanger and hence can be af two Lypess 1. Direet Contact In this type, condensation of steam takes place by directly mixing exhaust steam arid eooling water. Requirement of cooling water is much less here compared to surface type. But cooling water quality should be equal to condensate quality 2, Surface Contact The condenser essentially consists of'a shell, which encloses the steam space. Tubes carrying cooling water pass through the steam space. The tubes are supplied cooling \Water from inlet water box on one side and discharged, after taking away heat from the steam, to the outlet water bos on the other side, Instead of one inlet and one outlet water boxes, there may be two or more pair of separate inlet- outlet water “boxes, each supplying cooling water to a separate bundle of tubes, This enables cleaning and maintenance, of part of the tubes while turbine can be kept running on a reduced load.eaten sox maton Bos Fig-4.4 Condenser 4.3.3 MATERIALS FOR CONDENSER TUBES Selection of tube material depends mainly on the quality of cooling water and the cost. Copper bearing alloys are preferred as copper has very high heat transfer coefficient, But as copper has very little mechanical strength; it has to be ced by alloying with other metals. Copper alloys are basically of three eategori 1, Brasses 2. Cuprousenickel 3. Bronzes Stain! steel tubes have also been used and has good corrosion resistance though heat transfer co-efficient is quite lower than the copper alloys. Because of high cost, stainless steel is used only where water is highly corrosive, Some sea side power plants are also using Titanium despite high cost, because of high corrosive environment. Now a days Monel materialpreferred as one of the high corrosion resistant material in RAPS 3& 4, Cu-Ni alloy (70-30) is used as material for condenser tubes. 4.3.4 TECNICAL SPECIFICATION OF CONDENSER 1. Type : Surface condenser 2. No. of Pass : Single 3. Heat load at MCR (Keal/hr.) 24AS2 x 10-8 4. Effective heat transfer area 219,300 m2 5. Cooling water flow (m? /hr,) 55,740, 6. Design cooling water inlet temperature (°C) 233 7. Design shell pressure [ky/em? (z)] 220 8. Design water box pressure [kg/em? (g)] 22.0 9, Design Temp, - shell (°C) +100 10. Design Temp. « water box ("C) 100 I. Design code: HEI & ASME See. VII Div.-1 12. Tube Material SL. steel TP 7161 13. Tube outside dia./ thickness 22.225 mm : 0.711 mm 14, Effective length between tube sheess 13.5 m 15, Hot well capacities (m? ) Normal level 247.0 Higher level 258.0 Lower level us 44 DEAERATOR Adeacrator is a deviee that is widely used for the removal of oxygen and other dissolved gases from the feed water to steam-generating boilers. In_partieular,idissotved oxygen in boiler feed waters will cause serious corrosion damage in steam systeins by attaching to the walis of metal piping and other metallic equipment and forming oxides (rust). Dissolved carbon le combines with water to form carbor acid that causes further corrosion. Most deaeratars are designed to remove oxygen down to levels of 7 ppb by weight (1,005 ci’/L) or less as well as essentially eliminating carbon dioxide. 44,1 FUNCTIONS. The presence of certain gases like Oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia, dissolved in water is harmful because of their corrosive attack on metals, particularly at clevated, temperatures, Thus in modem high-pressure boiler, to prevention intemal corrosion, the feed water should be free, as far as practicible, fall dissolved gases, especially oxygen. This is achieved by embodying into the fled system a deaerating unit, apart from this; « deaerator alsa serves the following funetions: 1. Heating incoming feed water, 2. To act as a reservoir to provide a sucklen or instantaneous demand 4.4.2 PRINCIPLE OF DEAERATION L. The sob lity of any gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. This holds within clase limits for any gas which does not react electrically with the solvent. 2. Solubility of gases decreases with increase ini solition temperature and or decrease in pressure, 4.4.3 ATYPICAL DEAERATOR A constant pressure denerator, pegged at 7 kg/ cm? (abs.) és provided in turbine regenerative cycle to provide properly deaerated feed Water for boiler, limiting gases (mainly oxygen) to 0,005 cellitre. It is a direct contact type heater combined with feed storage tank of adequate ‘capacity, 28The heating steam is normally supplied from turbine erections but during starting and low load operation the steam is supplied from auxiliary source. The deacrator comprises of two chambers: 1. Deaerating column 2, Feed storage tank, Deaerating column is a spray cum tray type cylindrical vessel of horizontal construction with dished ends welded to it. The tray stack is designed to ensure maximum contact time as well i of condensate 10 achieve efficient deaeration, The deaerating column is as optimum serut mounted on the feed storage tank is fabricated from boiler quality stect plates. Manholes are provided on deaerating column as well as on feed storage tank for inspeetion and maintenance. The feed water is admitted at the top of the deaerating column and flows downwards through the spray valves and trays, the trays are designed to expose to the maximum water surface for efficient scrubbing to affect the liberation of the associated gases, Steam enters from the underneath of the tray and flows in counter direction af condensate, While flowing upward through the trays, serubbing and heating is done: Thus the liberated gases move upwards along, with the steam, Steam gets condensed above the trays and in tum heats the condensate. Liberated gases escape to atmosphere from the orifice opening meant for it. This opening is provided with a number of deflectors to minimize the loss of steam, In some deaerator designs, a vent condenser is also located above the deaerator. A portion of feed water is first passed through the vent condenser before it enters the deaerator. This water is heated by remaining steam after steam has passed through the deaerator, Thus only gases escape to atmosphere. 44.4 DEAERATOR SPECIFICATION L Type : Spray-Cum-Tray 2. Design Code ASME sec VIII Div. - 1 3. Design Temperature +6 kg/em? (g) and full vacuum 165°C3. Condensate flow rate at MCR 1017735.5 kyhe. 6, Extraction steam flow MCR 5791.0 kyhr 7. Condensate out let temperature at MCR 5 186.8°C 8, Capacity of denerator storage Tank at normal Level 235m2 9. Dissolved oxygen in Effluent Feed water : 0.005 ce/litre 10, Steam dumping condition £0,68C 1. Deaerator Outside diameter + 2.60m_ ‘Overall length 9,000 ‘Thickness 16.00mm Material 2SA 515/516Gr No. of spray nozzles 210 12. Storage tank Outside diameter 4.0m ‘Thickness 0m Overall length 223350. mm Material :SAS15/516Gr 4.5 DRAIN COOLER This isa shell and tube heat exchanger using the main condensate as cooling water, The main condensate passes through the tube side and the drains from the LP heaters pass on the shell side, give away the heat to the main condensate before being drained to the condenser hot well 4.6 FEED WATER HEATERA feed waiter heater is 4 power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered to ‘steam gencrating boiler. Preheating the feed water reduces the irreversibility’s involved in rhis reduces plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when steam generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the syst the feed water is introduced back into the Steam eycle 4.6.1 HIGH PRESSURE FEED WATER HEATER The structural design oF high-presstire (HP) feed water heaters are determined by twolmain needs: 1. To contain the:steam and HP feed water at the appropriate eyele conditions. 2, To provide the heat transfer surface to raise the feed- water temperature by the specified amount. 2, Construction The heater has both integral drain cooling and de-superheating sections, The DE supetheating séction is placed on the outlet end af the U-tubes in order that the incoming super- heater steam ‘can raise the feed water near to or above the saturation temperature of the body pressure before it leaves the heater. The drain cooling section is placed at the inlet end af the tubes to allow the outgoing drains to be cooled to as near to the incorning feed water temperature as needed. Steam enters the de-superheating section and is reduced in temperature by transtorring its heat to the feed water to within 27°C of the temperature of saturation of the condensing section pressure, The steam then flows to the condensing section, where it leaves as water at saturation temperature to enter the drain cooling section. A water seal is mainiained at the inlet to the drain cooling seetion by a level contro! system to prevention loss of prime in the section, tn the drain codling section, the condensate is cooled to the dfain outlet temperature and then discharged to the next lowest pressire heater, Each section within the heater is provided with baffles to ensure flow seross the outside of the tubes by the heating medium, As the heating steam is condensed in the heater, non-condensable gases are released, Unless corvecily vented these would rapidly blanket the heat transfer surface‘and would impair the heater thermall perforinance. To remove these gases, vents connected to the:condenser are provided at strategic points throughout the heater tube-nest Fig-4.5 High Pressure Feed Water Heater 4.6.2 LOW PRESSURE FEED WATER HEATER 1. Functional needs Because LP heater extraction points are normally on the LP turbine cylinders, the superheat (even on the highest-pressure LP heaier) does not justify the provision of de-superheating section within the heaters. Drain eodling section can be provided but the conplication and the eost of a drain level control system can seldom be justified, It is usual practice to have the LP heaters and to provide a dra cooler upstream of the lowest pressure heater to recaver some of the heat in the drains, 2. Construction. ‘The construction of vertical and horizontal LP heaters is very imilar, The following descriptions are for horizontal heaters but any significant points of dissimilarity between horizontal and vertical heaters are included, ‘The maximum head that the condenser extraction pump can generate occurs at the'no flow confition and is sometimes called the ‘elased valve head’, The LP heaters ate designed on the feed water side to withstand the extraction pump ‘closed valve head’. The general form of the RRLP heater is similar to HP heaters but, because the feed water side pressure is modest, the water header can be of cylindrical design with a dished end. The shell side pressures are also modest, so again the shell is cylindrical in section with a welded dished end. A fixed and a sliding foot are provided to support the heater. The shell, tube plate and water headers are all made of mild steel, An all-welded constructi is used and it is accepted that in the unlikely event of access being required to the heater internals, the shell will have to be removed by cutting close to the back of the tube plate. The tubes are roller-expanded into the tube plate, The tubes of LP heaters may be of 70/30 brass or stainless steel as dictated by steam temperature or boiler feed water chemistry requirements. Brass, cupronickel may be used in LP heaters where the steam temperature is not greater than 150°C, above this temperature stainless steel is used. Fig.-4.6 Law Pressure Feed Water Heater 3B4.7 PUMPS: In RAPS, maitily pumps are categorized into-five groups 4.7.1 MODERATOR CIRCULATING PUMP. Heavy water used as moderatar inside the Calendria gets heated up due to neutron moderation and capture, attenuation of gamma radiation as well as due to tunsfer of heat from other reactor components in contact. This heat is transported to: moderator system heat exchanger outside of the core where it is transferred to Active L.P. process water system which in ‘tum. transfers this heat to the induced draft cooling system. Cireulation of moderator through moderator heat exchangers is accomplished by moderator pumps. These pumps are installed at 95m elevation in Reactor Building. 4.7.2 PRIMARY HEAT TRANSPORT CIRCULATING PUMP Primary Circulating Pumps (PCPs) are located at the downstream of each steam generator and pump and coolant into the respective reactor inlet header, These are vertically mounted centrifugal pump, Pump easing at 114.6 in Elevation and motor top touches 121.20 ni Elevation. PHT pumps circulate heavy water through the reactor and steam generators; hence direclly affect the availability of the station, The pumps are on the downstream side of the Rach of the steam generators and thus located at a point of lowest temperature in the circuit PHT pumps equipped with a My wheel located at the motor top. The energy stored in the fly wheel keeps the pump operating for 2 minutes afler loss of power and with the specified slowing down rate, the coolant flow inadequate at all times, Natural gravity circulation (Thermos phoning) starts afler the pump comes to rest and this will suffice to remove about 6% of the full power. The actual heat input to the coolant after the pump in down is approximately 6% of full power, 4.7.3 BOILER FEED PUMP There (3) ios, 50°% boiler Feed pumps 4321-P+1003, 1004 & 1005 each of capacity 716 MRihe Jocated in the Turbine Building ground floor take suction from the deaerator storage tank by means of independent suction lines of size 380 mm. The pump common discharge passes through the HP heater No, 6 located on the mezzanine floor to the roof of the DG building Where it Bifurcaies into Four headers-going to four Steam generates.4.7.4 CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMP Condensate extraction pumps are normally multistage, vertical, centrifugal pumps. They are generally required to operate on minimum net positive suction head NPSH. The condensate pumps operate on few inches of suction submergence. A vent line connects the hot well, from where the condensate pumps take suction with the condenser. This equalizes the vapour pressure of condenser and hot well. No. of stages in the pump is determined by the discharge pressure required for the condensate cyele, In 220 MW unit, two condensate extraction pumps, each having 100% capacity, are provided for pumping the condensate to deacrator. 4.8 COOLING TOWERS Mainly there are two types of cooling towers: - IDCT : Induct Draft Cooling Towers NDCT: Natural Draft Cooling Towers The main purpose of these cooling towers is to bring down the temperature of circu Thi the DM water, This DM water condenses the steam, Hence the application of cooling towers 1 wallet, ight water that circulates through the heat exchanger and carried away the heat generated by enhances the efficiency of the plant. Following is the description of the types of cooling towers: « 48.1 IDCT As the name indicates it requires induced draft for cooling the active process water. Big fans are used to produce the draft, The active water is used in Reactor Building to cool various process equipment et. 4.82 NDCT ‘The inductive water that is used to condense water is further cooled by natural draft. They are 150M. high with hyperbolic shape atomizing action. a5Chapter-5 ZONE CLASSIFICATION Depending on contamination level the entire plant is divided into four zones, This classification is as follows: 20) > zero contamination (admin. buildings, official bt ZONE2 — > zero contamination (shop floors) ZONE3 > little contamination (service buildings) ZONE4 — > very high contamination (reactor building) 5.1 METHODS OF MEASURING DOSE For measuring dose absorbed by a person, devices known as dosimeters are used. Generally, there are two types of dosimeters these are: 5.1.1 Direct Reading Dosimeters (DRD) This device measures the dose directly and is used for day to day dose control. It is a pen shaped device and lenses are fitted on both the ends. On bigger lens, a scale is marked which directly about the dose absorbed, For reading the DRD it is so held that the bigger lens should face is used in Third and Fourth te the light source and it is seen from the smaller lens. This dosim Zone only. 2 Thermo Luminescence dosimeter (TLD) This is.a badge type device and is used to dose absorbed during one month’s time, TLD badge consists ofa TLD CARD loaded ina CASSETTE, ‘The dose measured by TLD is based on the phenomenon of THERMOLUMINISCENSE. TLD cassette has a dual metallic filter and an open window to distinguish between doses received due to different type of radi ion (alpha, beta & gamma) and provides energy dependence correction, Personal data such as Name, TLD No., Service months etc. are written on it. The person has to wear his TLD badge at his chest the TLD card is sent to the TLD level when entering the operating island, After one mo laboratory where the absorbed dose is measured, 36Chapter-6 RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT 6.1 GENERAL, Operation of a nuclear facility like nuclear power station inevitably leads to the production of Jow level radioactive wastes which are collected segregated to select best processing method, and conditioned for either interim site storage or for disposal, The design of facilities is such that the average public exposure from radioactive materials at the exclusion boundary is small fraction of the recommended AERB limits. The radioactive wastes produced at the site may belong to one of the following categories: Spent Fucl, Solid Wastes, Liquid Wastes & Gascous Wastes. Spent fuel is stored in a pool of water until it is ready for shipping for reprocessing at special facilities. 6.2 SOLID RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Solid radioactive waste in segregated into three general categories based on contact dose. Category -1 wastes.: Largely originates Pron ¢ clothing, contaminated metal parts and miscellaneous items as it may contain a0 radioactivity. This waste will be collected in unshielded standard drums. Category-II & II Wastes.: filter cartridges and ion exchanges resins Typically, this waste has an unshielded radiation field greater than | R/hr. on contact. These require additional shielding and greater precautions than for Category-1 during transportation, handling and storage operation. 6.3 LIQUID RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM The Liquid Radioactive Waste Management System provides for collection, storage, sampling and necessary treatment and dispersal of any Fiquid waste produced by the station, The system is designed to control the release of radiouetivi 0 the liquid effluent streams so that radiations dose to members of the public is within those stipulated by the regulatory board, This systemhandles radioactive wastes that are carried in liquid streams from the laundry active floor drains, decontamination centre and Electrical laboratories. 6.4 GASEOUS RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM An extensive ventilation system collects potentially active exhaust air from such areas as the Reactor Building, the spent fuel handling and storage area, the decontamination centre and the heavy water management area, ‘The active and potentially active exhaust air and gases are all routed to 4 gaseous effluent exhaust duct. This exhaust flow is monitored for noble gases, tritium, iodine and active particulate before being released, Facilities for filtration are provided. Signals from the iodine, wide range beta-gamma and particulate monitors are recorded in the control centre, Tritium monitoring is carried out by laboratory analysis.Chapter-6 RADIATION SAFETY In a Nuclear reactor the Radiation is produced in following ways: Directly in fission reaction By decay of fission products Following types of radiations are encountered: Alpha radiation Beta radiation Gamma radiation Neutron radiation Out of the above types of radiations Alpha radiation is practically zero, whereas Beta and Gamma radiation fields may be present almost everywhere inside the reactor building and in negligible amount even outside the reactor building. Neutron radiations are mainly present inside the reactor vault. It is worth noting that the secondary and steam cyele ete, are completely separate from the nuclear systems and are therefore not of the plant i.e, feed water supposed to be and neither they are to carry any sort of radioactive particle and therefore free of contamination and radiation. It is also worth noting that all radiations are emitted from. the nucleolus of every radioactive nuclide which will always have a tendency to become stable 1% ral bye ns through disintegration, Following methodologies are used to control the exposure to the radiation and therefore receive of the radiation dose. Administrative Control Zoning Technique Design Control Operation ContralMaintenance and house keeping Exposure to any kind of radiation can be controlled by an individual by following methods: L, Distance Shielding Decay (Time to Decay) 40CONCLUSION The practical training at RALP.S. has proved to be quite faithful, It proved an opportunity for encounter with such huge components like 220MW generators, turbines, transformers and switchyards ete, ‘The way various units are linked and the way working of whole plantis controled make the students realize that engineering is not just leaming the structure description and working of various ‘machines, but the greater partis of planning, proper management. It also provides an opportunity to lear technology used at proper place and time can save a lot of labour for example almost all the controls are computerized because in running condition no any person can enter in the reactor building. But there are few factors that require special mention, Training is not carried out into its tree spirit, 1 is recommended that there should be some projects specially meant for students where the presence of authorities should be ensured. There should be strict monitoring of the performance of students and system of grading be improved on the basis ofthe work done, However, training has proved to be quite faithful. It has allowed as an opportunity to get an exposure of the practical implementation to theoretical fndamental. 4lBIBLIOGRAPHY [1]. Nuclear Training Centre(NTC), RAWATBHATA [2]. NPCIL Rawatbhata Manual [3]. www. powershow.com/search/presentations/npcil [4], https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atuclear_Power_Carporation_of_ndia [5], bttps/www.npeil.nic.in/main/AboutUs.aspx