SEMINAR REPORT

NUCLEAR
POWER

Submitted by: P.Santoshitha

Date: 01-02-2025
Roll no: 21CHB0A38
Subject: Seminar and Technical writing(CH1489)
Branch: Chemical Engineering
Degree: B Tech
Submitted to: Prof. Mohit Trivedi

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Table of contents
1: Introduction
2: What are the raw materials?
3: Nuclear chain reactions.
4: Nuclear reactor and its types and what happens
inside.
5: Process description of how a nuclear power plant
works.
6: Conclusion
7: References

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 ABSTRACT
Nuclear power is a significant energy source that harnesses the
energy released from nuclear fission, the process of splitting
atomic nuclei, typically of uranium or plutonium, to generate
electricity. This technology, first utilized commercially in the
1950s, offers a high-energy output with a relatively low fuel
volume compared to fossil fuels, making it an efficient option
for large-scale power generation. Nuclear power plants operate
by using the heat from fission to produce steam, which drives
turbines connected to generators, converting thermal energy
into electrical energy.
Globally, nuclear power accounts for about 10% of electricity
production, with countries like France relying heavily on it for
over 70% of their energy needs. Advancements like small
modular reactors (SMRs) and fusion research aim to address
some drawbacks, promising safer, more flexible, and potentially
limitless energy. Public perception, shaped by historical
incidents and proliferation fears, continues to influence its
adoption.

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 INTRODUCTION
Nuclear power represents a transformative approach to energy
production, tapping into the immense energy stored within
atomic nuclei to generate electricity. Unlike traditional fossil
fuels, which rely on chemical combustion, nuclear power
derives its energy from nuclear fission—the splitting of heavy
atomic nuclei, such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239. This
process releases a tremendous amount of heat, which is used
to produce steam that drives turbine generators, converting
thermal energy into electrical power. Since its commercial
inception in the mid-20th century, nuclear power has grown to
play a vital role in meeting global energy demands, offering a
high-energy yield from a relatively small amount of fuel.
The development of nuclear power emerged from scientific
breakthroughs in the early 20th century, notably following the
discovery of nuclear fission by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann
in 1938. This paved the way for the Manhattan Project during
World War II, which, while focused on weaponry, laid the
groundwork for peaceful applications. The first nuclear reactor
to generate electricity, the Experimental Breeder Reactor I,
went online in 1951 in the United States, marking the dawn of
the nuclear energy era. Today, nuclear power contributes
approximately 10% of the world’s electricity, with over 400
operational reactors across 30 countries.
Nuclear power’s appeal lies in its efficiency and low operational
carbon footprint, making it a contender in the shift toward
cleaner energy systems. However, its introduction has not been
without controversy. High-profile accidents, radioactive waste
disposal challenges, and the potential for nuclear proliferation
have fueled debates over its safety and sustainability. As
nations grapple with energy security and climate goals, nuclear
power remains a complex yet critical option, bridging the gap
between fossil fuel reliance and renewable energy scalability,
while pushing the boundaries of technological innovation.

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RAW MATERIALS /NUCLEAR FUEL ELEMENTS
Nuclear power relies on specific raw materials and processed
nuclear fuel to sustain the fission reactions that generate
energy. The primary raw material is uranium, a naturally
occurring element found in the Earth’s crust. Uranium ore,
typically mined from deposits in countries like Canada,
Australia, and Kazakhstan, contains about 0.7% uranium-235
(U-235), the isotope capable of sustaining a chain reaction. The
ore is extracted through open-pit or underground mining, then
milled and chemically processed into uranium oxide (U₃O₈),
commonly known as yellowcake.
Fuel Rods Filled With Pellets Are Grouped Into Fuel
Assemblies

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6
 Uranium Is Encased in Solid Ceramic
Pellet
To become nuclear fuel, yellowcake undergoes enrichment to
increase the U-235 concentration to 3-5% for most reactors.
This involves converting it to uranium hexafluoride (UF₆), a gas,
and using centrifuge technology to separate isotopes by
weight. The enriched UF₆ is then transformed into uranium
dioxide (UO₂) pellets, which are stacked into fuel rods and
assembled into bundles for reactor use. Plutonium, produced as
a byproduct in reactors from uranium-238, can also be recycled
as mixed oxide (MOX) fuel.
Thorium is another potential raw material, abundant in places
like India, though it requires conversion into fissile uranium-233
for use. Mining, enrichment, and fuel fabrication demand
precision and safety due to radioactivity, shaping nuclear
power’s complex supply chain.
NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS
A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released
in fission produce an additional fission in at least one further
nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces neutrons, and the
process repeats. If the process is controlled it is used for
nuclear power or if uncontrolled it is used for nuclear weapons.

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The fission process is complicated by the fact that a given
nucleus undergoing fission may split in a variety of alternative
ways. Over 30 pairs are known. Following are some possible
ways of fission of Uranium nucleus

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NUCLEAR REACTOR
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear chain reactions
are initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, as
opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which the chain reaction occurs
in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled causing an
explosion.

SOME REACTOR TYPES:

1:PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR
• The pressurized water reactor accounts for almost two-
thirds of all capacity and is the only LWR used in some

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 countries, for example, France, the former Soviet Union,
and South Korea.

CANDU REACTOR:
• It consists of a heavy water filled vessel with many
pressure tubes inserted horizontally across it containing
the fuel (in contrast to most other reactors which hold the
fuel in the vertical direction).
• The coolant (also heavy water) passes through the
pressure tubes and into the steam generator, before being
returned to the reactor.

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BOILING WATER REACTOR:
• BWR is a light water nuclear reactor (LWR) used for the
generation of electrical power. It is the second most
common type of electricity- generating nuclear reactor
after the PWR, another LWR type.

GAS COOLED REACTOR:

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 • Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR) uses graphite as a neutron
moderator and CO2 or He as coolant.
• The GCR was able to use natural uranium as fuel, enabling
the countries that developed them to fabricate their own
fuel without relying on other countries for supplies of
enriched uranium.
• On the basis of fuel cladding material, two types
of GCRs are developed: (i) Magnox reactor by the UK, (ii)
UNGG reactors by France.
• In the UK, the Magnox are replaced by the advanced gas-
cooled reactor (AGR), an improved Generation II gas
cooled reactors. In France, the UNGG is replaced by the
pressurized water reactor (PWR).
• The newer AGRs use a slightly enriched UO2 clad with
stainless steel and CO2 gas as the coolant.
• Two key advantages of this design are: (i) higher operating
temperature with a higher thermal efficiency, and (ii) not
susceptible to accidents of the type possible with water
cooled/moderated reactors.

LIQUID METAL FAST BREEDER REACTOR:

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 • A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor capable of
generating more fissile material than it consumes. It uses
fast neutrons and needs no moderator. A liquid metal is
used as coolant.
• These devices are able to achieve this feat because their
neutron economy is high enough to breed more fissile fuel
than they use from fertile material like U238 or Th232.
• Breeders were at first considered attractive because of
their superior fuel economy compared to light water
reactors.
• LWRs largely run on fuel enriched to (3-4%), and
don't extract energy from U238, while by contrast uranium
breeder reactors mostly use U238/natural uranium as
their fuel, reducing the need and expense of enrichment
technology and further strengthening the potential of
deeming nuclear power as renewable energy.

• Pool type, in which the primary heat exchangers and

pumps are immersed in the reactor tank.
Loop type, in which the primary coolant is circulated
through primary heat exchangers outside the reactor tank
(but inside the biological shield due to radioactive Sodium in
the primary coolant.

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14
PROCESS DECRIPTION OF HOW A NUCLEAR POWER
PLANT WORKS

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

CONTROL RODS
 Control rods made of a material that absorbs neutrons are
inserted into the bundle using a mechanism that can rise
or lower the control rods.
 The control rods essentially contain neutron absorbers
like, boron, cadmium or indium.

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STEAM GENERATORS
 Steam generators are heat exchangers used to convert
water into steam from heat produced in a nuclear reactor
core.Either ordinary water or heavy water is used as the
coolant.

Components of a Steam Generator:

 Primary and Secondary Water Loops:

 Primary loop: The reactor coolant that circulates in

the core and transfers heat to the steam generator.
 Secondary loop: Water that is heated in the steam
generator and then turned into steam.

 Heat Exchanger:

 The core of the steam generator where the heat

transfer occurs from the primary loop to the
secondary loop. It ensures that the two water
systems do not mix but allows the thermal energy to
transfer.

 Steam Drum:

 A component that separates the steam from the

water in the secondary loop. It ensures that the
steam produced is of the right quality to drive the
turbine.
 Tubes:
 The primary loop water flows through thousands of
small tubes (in the heat exchanger), while secondary
loop water surrounds these tubes. This configuration
ensures efficient heat transfer while maintaining
separation between the two loops.

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  STEAM TURBINE
 A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts
thermal energy from pressurized steam, and
converts it into useful mechanical energy and
Various high-performance alloys and superalloys
have been used for steam generator tubing.
 Components of a Steam Turbine:
 Blades:
 The blades of the turbine are specially designed to
capture the energy from the high-velocity steam. As
steam flows through the turbine, it pushes against
the blades, causing them to spin.
 Rotor:
 The rotor is the rotating part of the turbine that is
connected to the turbine blades. The rotor is
connected to the generator, so when the turbine
spins, the rotor spins the generator as well.
 Stator:
 The stator is a stationary component that helps
direct the flow of steam to the turbine blades. It also
functions to guide and control the steam’s pressure
and temperature as it moves through the turbine.
 Casing:
 The casing of the turbine surrounds the rotor and
stator and serves to protect and contain the
components. It also helps manage the flow of steam
through the turbine.
 Steam Inlet and Exhaust:
 The inlet is where the high-pressure steam enters
the turbine, and the exhaust is where the steam
exits after it has passed through the turbine blades
and lost much of its pressure.

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  Types of Steam Turbines in Nuclear Power
Plants:
 Single-Stage Turbine:
 In a simple design, steam is expanded through a
single set of blades in one stage. This is more
common in small or older systems but is less
efficient than more complex turbines.
 Multi-Stage Turbine:
 In modern nuclear power plants, multi-stage
turbines are used. These turbines are designed with
several stages, where steam is gradually expanded
and cooled as it passes through multiple sets of
blades.
 This design maximizes the energy extracted from
the steam and enhances efficiency.
 Reheat Turbine:
 In some nuclear power plants, the steam may
pass through a reheat system, where steam is
reheated after partially expanding in the
turbine. This reheat process boosts the
efficiency of the turbine system.
COOLANT PUMP
 The coolant pump pressurizes the coolant to pressures of
the orderof 155bar.The pressure of the coolant loop is
maintained almost constant with the help of the pump and
a pressurizer unit.
 Function and Purpose of the Coolant Pump:
 Heat Removal:
 In a nuclear reactor, nuclear fission produces
enormous amounts of heat. This heat needs to
be transferred away from the reactor core to
prevent overheating and potential damage.

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  The coolant (which is typically water, but may
also be other fluids like gas or liquid metal
depending on the reactor type) absorbs this
heat from the reactor core and carries it away to
either a steam generator (in the case of a
pressurized water reactor) or directly to a heat
exchanger or condenser (in some reactor types).
 The coolant pump ensures the continuous
circulation of the coolant throughout the
primary loop, allowing it to remove the heat
from the reactor core effectively.
 Maintaining Pressure:
 In a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), the
coolant is kept under high pressure to prevent it from
boiling, even at temperatures exceeding 300°C
(572°F). The coolant pump helps maintain the
necessary pressure in the reactor loop by circulating
the coolant at the required flow rate.
 In boiling water reactors (BWRs), the coolant
directly turns into steam in the reactor core, and
pumps are used in the secondary loop to maintain
steam flow, although the core itself is not pressurized
as in a PWR.
 Reactor Coolant Circulation:
 The coolant pump ensures that coolant circulates
through the reactor pressure vessel, absorbing
heat from the nuclear fuel and moving it toward the
heat exchanger or steam generator.
 It helps maintain an even temperature across the
reactor core to prevent hot spots and ensure uniform
cooling, which is crucial for the safe operation of the
reactor.
 Types of Coolant Pumps:
 Primary Coolant Pumps (for the primary loop):

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  These pumps circulate the coolant within the primary
loop of the reactor. The coolant here typically stays
under high pressure and is used to carry heat away
from the reactor core.
 In a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), the
primary coolant pump is usually a motor-driven
centrifugal pump that circulates the water around
the reactor vessel, ensuring the heat generated in
the reactor is removed efficiently.
 Secondary Coolant Pumps (for the secondary loop, e.g.,
in steam generation):
 In reactors where the heat from the primary loop is
transferred to a secondary loop (such as in PWRs or
in some types of fast breeder reactors), the
secondary coolant pumps circulate water through the
steam generator or heat exchanger.
 These pumps ensure that the heat carried by the
primary loop is transferred effectively into steam to
drive the turbines.
 Emergency Coolant Pumps:
In the event of a loss of normal cooling (due to power
failure or malfunction), emergency coolant pumps or
backup pumps may be activated. These pumps ensure
that cooling continues even if the primary pump fails.
 Design and Operation of Coolant Pumps:
 Centrifugal Pumps:
Most coolant pumps in nuclear power plants are
centrifugal pumps, which use rotational energy to
impart velocity to the coolant and create pressure to
circulate it. These pumps are commonly motor-driven and
are designed to operate reliably for long periods in a harsh
environment.
 Multistage Pumps:

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 In high-pressure environments, like those in Pressurized
Water Reactors, multistage centrifugal pumps are
used to provide the necessary flow and pressure. These
pumps consist of multiple impellers arranged in stages to
achieve the desired pressure.
 Design Considerations:
 Coolant pumps must be highly reliable and able to
operate continuously without failure. They are
typically designed to operate under extreme
conditions, such as high pressure and temperature,
and must be resistant to corrosion and radiation
exposure.
 In addition, redundancy is built into the design, with
backup pumps in place to ensure that cooling
continues in case of a malfunction or failure.
 Variable Speed:
Some modern plants use variable speed pumps, where
the flow of coolant can be adjusted depending on the
reactor's power level. This helps optimize energy use and
improve overall efficiency.
FEED PUMP
 Steam coming out of the turbine, flows through the
condenser for condensation and recirculate for the
next cycle of operation.
 The feed pump circulates the condensed water in the
working fluid loop.
 Function and Purpose of the Feed Pump:
 Supplying Feedwater to the Steam Generator:
 The primary role of the feed pump is to supply water
(feedwater) at high pressure to the steam
generator (in Pressurized Water Reactors, PWR) or
directly to the reactor pressure vessel (in Boiling
Water Reactors, BWR).

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  This water is necessary because, after being used to
produce steam in the turbine, the steam needs to be
condensed back into liquid water and pumped back
to the reactor to continue the cycle.
 Maintaining Reactor Pressure and Flow:
 In Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs), where the
coolant (water) in the primary loop is kept under high
pressure, the feedwater must also be pumped into
the secondary loop at a high pressure to match the
pressure in the steam generator.
 In Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs), feedwater is
directly injected into the reactor pressure vessel and
converted into steam in the core.

 Pre-heating the Feedwater:
The feedwater is typically pre-heated by passing it
through heat exchangers before it enters the steam
generator or reactor pressure vessel. The feed pump
ensures a continuous flow of water at the correct pressure
and temperature for efficient steam production.
 Types of Feed Pumps in Nuclear Power Plants:
 Main Feedwater Pump:
This is the primary pump used to supply feedwater to the
steam generator or reactor vessel. It is designed to handle
large volumes of water at high pressure and flow rates.
 Motor-driven centrifugal pumps are commonly used
for this purpose, designed for reliability and high
efficiency.
 Booster or Auxiliary Feedwater Pump:
These are secondary feed pumps used to provide
additional feedwater supply in case the main pump fails or
to maintain adequate pressure if needed. They are

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 generally activated during startup or during a failure of the
main feed pump.
 Auxiliary feedwater systems can also be used to
provide emergency cooling to the reactor in the event of a
significant incident, like a loss of coolant accident (LOCA).
 Feedwater Pump for Residual Heat Removal:
In some reactors, a feedwater system is used to remove
residual heat when the reactor is shut down. These pumps
ensure that even in shutdown conditions, the plant can
safely manage residual heat and continue cooling.

Working of the Feed Pump in a Nuclear Power Plant:

 Water Supply:
The feedwater is typically sourced from a condensate
system, where water from the condenser (which
condenses steam back into water) is purified and prepared
for re-entry into the reactor or steam generator.
 Pumping Process:
The feed pump draws water from the condensate system
and pumps it to the steam generator or reactor pressure
vessel at high pressure. In a PWR, the water is pumped
into the steam generator, where it is heated by the
reactor’s primary loop.In a BWR, the feedwater is directly
injected into the reactor core where it is heated and
converted into steam.
 Pressure Management:
Feedwater is pumped into the steam generator or reactor
vessel under high pressure to ensure that it remains in the

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 liquid phase as it enters. If the feedwater were to enter at
a lower pressure, it could begin to vaporize prematurely,
reducing the efficiency of the reactor's steam generation.
 Preheating:
The feedwater is typically preheated as it passes through
a series of feedwater heaters. These heaters use heat
from the exhaust steam or the reactor's waste heat to
increase the feedwater’s temperature before it enters the
steam generator, improving thermal efficiency.
 Feedback and Control:
The feedwater system is carefully controlled based on the
power output of the reactor and the steam production
requirements. Sensors and automated control systems
adjust the flow and pressure of the feedwater as needed
to maintain optimal conditions in the reactor and steam
generation systems.

 CONDENSER
 Condenser is a device or unit which is used to
condense vapor into liquid.
 The objective of the condenser are to reduce the
turbine exhaust pressure to increase the efficiency
and to recover high quality feed water in the form of
condensate & feed back it to the steam generator
without any further treatment.
 Function and Purpose of the Condenser:
 Steam Cooling:
 After steam is used to drive the turbine (which
generates electricity), it exits the turbine at a lower
pressure and temperature.
 The condenser cools this exhaust steam and
converts it back into water. This is done by
transferring the heat from the steam to a separate

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 cooling medium (typically cooling water from an
external source such as a river, lake, or cooling
tower).
 Maintaining Pressure:
 The condenser creates a low-pressure
environment at the turbine’s exhaust, allowing the
steam to expand more fully in the turbine, which
increases the efficiency of the steam cycle.
 By maintaining low pressure in the condenser, the
plant can operate at higher efficiencies, as it
maximizes the energy extracted from the steam
before it exits the turbine.
 Water Recovery:
 The condensed steam (now water) is then sent to
the feedwater pump where it is pumped back into
the steam generator or reactor to be reheated and
turned back into steam.
 This closed-loop cycle ensures that the water is
continuously reused, minimizing the need for
external water sources.

 Types of Condensers:
 Shell and Tube Condenser:
 This is the most common type of condenser used in
nuclear power plants.
 In a shell and tube condenser, tubes run through a
large cylindrical shell. The steam flows over the
outside of the tubes while cooling water flows inside
the tubes.
 Heat from the steam is transferred through the tube
walls to the cooling water inside, causing the steam
to condense back into water.
 Air-Cooled Condenser:

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  In some plants, particularly in dry or arid regions
where water is scarce, an air-cooled condenser
may be used.
 Instead of cooling water, air is used to condense the
steam. Large fans blow air over heat exchangers
where the steam is cooled and condensed.
 Direct Contact Condenser:
 This type of condenser directly mixes the steam with
the cooling water. The steam condenses into the
water and is subsequently treated and recycled.
 This type of system is less common and is typically
used in specific conditions where the steam and
water can be mixed safely.
 Working of the Condenser in a Nuclear Power Plant:
 Exhaust Steam Entering the Condenser:
After the steam has passed through the turbine, it enters
the condenser at low pressure.
 Heat Transfer:
The condenser contains a cooling medium (usually
water) that absorbs the heat from the exhaust steam. This
can be from natural sources like rivers, lakes, or cooling
towers or can be air in air-cooled condensers.
 The heat from the steam is transferred through a
heat exchanger system (such as tubes) and into the
cooling water. As the steam cools down, it condenses
into liquid water.
 Condensation Process:
The cooling water removes heat from the exhaust steam,
lowering the temperature and causing the steam to
change phase from gas to liquid. This is the
condensation process.
 Discharge of Cooling Water:

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 The now-warmed cooling water is typically discharged into
a cooling tower or an external water body. In cooling
towers, this water is cooled through evaporation and can
be reused.
 Return of Condensed Water:
The condensed water, now in a liquid state, is pumped
back into the feedwater system where it can be
reheated in the steam generator and turned back into
steam for the turbine.
COOLING TOWER
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer
process waste heat to the atmosphere.Water circulating
through the condenser is taken to the cooling tower for
cooling and reuse
 Function and Purpose of the Cooling Tower:
 Heat Rejection:
 The primary purpose of the cooling tower is to reject
excess heat generated during the nuclear fission
process and carried by the steam through the turbine
and condenser.
 The condenser uses water to cool down the exhaust
steam and condense it back into liquid form. This
cooling water, after absorbing heat from the steam,
becomes warm and needs to be cooled down before
it can be reused in the cycle.
 Water Cooling:
 The cooling tower facilitates the cooling of this warm
water by transferring heat to the atmosphere,
typically through evaporation.
 The warm water is pumped into the cooling tower,
where it is cooled by contact with ambient air before
being returned to the plant to be reused in the
cooling cycle.

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  Water Conservation:
The cooling tower helps recycle water within the plant.
The amount of water that is consumed is much lower than
in a direct water discharge system, as the cooling tower
operates on a closed-loop system where only a small
amount of water is lost through evaporation.
 Types of Cooling Towers Used in Nuclear Power
Plants:
 Wet Cooling Towers (Evaporative Cooling Towers):
 Wet cooling towers are the most common type of
cooling towers in nuclear power plants. They use both air
and water to cool down the warm water. The warm water
is distributed over a large surface area inside the cooling
tower, and ambient air is drawn in through vents.
 As the warm water comes into contact with the
cooler air, part of the water evaporates, carrying
away heat and reducing the water temperature. The
remaining cooled water is then returned to the plant
for reuse.
 Wet cooling towers are highly efficient and commonly
used in large nuclear plants because of their
effectiveness in removing large amounts of heat.
 Dry Cooling Towers:
In dry cooling towers, no water is evaporated. Instead,
the cooling process is achieved by passing air over heat
exchangers to transfer the heat from the water into the
air.
 Dry cooling towers are used in areas where water is
scarce or in regions where environmental concerns
(such as thermal pollution) require minimizing water
usage.
 They are less efficient than wet cooling towers
because they rely solely on air for cooling, which
limits the amount of heat that can be rejected.
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  Hybrid Cooling Towers:
 Hybrid cooling towers combine both wet and dry
cooling principles. These towers use wet cooling during
times when more cooling is needed (like in hotter weather)
and dry cooling during cooler weather or when water
resources are limited.
 Hybrid systems offer a compromise between
efficiency and water conservation.
 Working of a Wet Cooling Tower in a Nuclear Power
Plant:
 Warm Water from the Condenser:
After the steam has passed through the turbine and been
cooled in the condenser, the now-warm water is pumped
from the condenser to the cooling tower.
 Heat Exchange Process:
 Inside the cooling tower, the warm water is
distributed over a large surface area of heat
exchange surfaces (like fill material, which increases
the surface area for better heat transfer).
 As this water flows over the fill material, ambient air
is drawn into the tower through vents (often by large
fans at the top).
 The warm water mixes with the cooler air, and part of
the water evaporates into the air, carrying away
heat.
 Cooling the Water:
As the evaporative process occurs, the remaining water
loses heat and cools down.
The air that has absorbed the heat is vented out at the top
of the tower, while the cooled water is collected at the
bottom of the cooling tower and pumped back to the
plant.

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  Water Evaporation:
During the cooling process, a small amount of water is lost
to evaporation. This water is typically replaced with fresh
water from a nearby source, such as a river, lake, or
reservoir.
 Return to the Plant:
The now-cooled water is pumped back into the plant,
where it is reused in the cooling cycle. This ensures that
the nuclear plant can continue to operate efficiently.

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CONCLUSION:
Nuclear power remains a polarizing yet pivotal energy source in
2025, balancing immense potential with significant challenges.
Harnessing nuclear fission, it generates electricity by splitting
atomic nuclei, typically uranium, offering a low-carbon
alternative to fossil fuels. This makes it a vital player in
combating climate change, producing reliable, large-scale
energy with minimal greenhouse gas emissions.
However, its drawbacks are substantial. Safety risks,
underscored by historical disasters—Chernobyl (1986) and
Fukushima (2011)—highlight the catastrophic potential of
radiation leaks. Economically, nuclear plants demand high
upfront costs and decades-long timelines for construction and
decommissioning, often making them less agile than rapidly
advancing, cheaper renewables. Public perception, shaped by
past accidents, further complicates its expansion.
Emerging technologies, such as small modular reactors (SMRs),
promise safer, more flexible designs, potentially revitalizing
nuclear’s role. Yet, its future depends on overcoming these
hurdles through innovation, robust regulation, and public trust.
In conclusion, nuclear power is neither a panacea nor obsolete
—it’s a complex, high-stakes option in the global energy mix.
While it can bridge the gap to a low-carbon future, its viability
rests on balancing benefits against risks and costs, ensuring it
evolves alongside cleaner, safer alternatives.

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 EASAC. 2014. EASAC Report 23—Management of spent

nuclear fuel and its
waste. http://www.easac.eu/energy/reports-and-
statements/detail-view/article/management-o.html.
 EFDA. 2012. Fusion electricity. A roadmap to the
realization of fusion
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