Other UPSC Titles

UPSC (PRELIMS & MAINS)

DSSSB PRT

ENVIRONMENT & DISASTER MANAGEMENT

For any Queries and

Feedback email:

[email protected]
1800 203 0577
 1

Table of Content Estuarine Wetland Ecosystem .................... 33

Chapter: 1 Environment, Habitat, And Mangroves .................................................. 35
Ecosystem ......................................................... 1 Importance of Wetlands ............................. 39
Environment.................................................. 1 Reasons for The Depletion of Wetlands ..... 39
Habitat .......................................................... 1 Measures to Protect Wetlands of India ...... 40
Ecosystem ..................................................... 2 Measures to Protect Global Wetlands........ 42
Components of An Ecosystem ...................... 2 Chapter: 8 Biodiversity and Loss of Biodiversity
Chapter: 2 Ecology - Principles and ......................................................................... 46
Organizations .................................................... 4 Terms Related to Biodiversity ..................... 46
Introduction .................................................. 4 Biodiversity of India .................................... 48
Levels of Organization In Ecology ................. 4 Biodiversity Hotspots .................................. 50
Principles of Ecology ..................................... 6 Loss of Biodiversity ..................................... 52
Chapter: 3 Functions of Ecosystem - Succession Causes Behind Biodiversity Loss ................. 54
& Homeostasis .................................................. 8
Consequences of Loss of Biodiversity ......... 60
Ecological Succession .................................... 8
Chapter: 9 Biodiversity Conservation ............. 64
Homeostasis in Ecosystem ............................ 9
In Situ Conservation .................................... 64
Chapter: 4 Functions of An Ecosystem - Trophic Ex-Situ Conservation ................................... 72
Levels............................................................... 11
National Initiatives ...................................... 73
Food Chain .................................................. 11
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ... 75
Food Web .................................................... 12
Other International Efforts ......................... 80
Ecological Pyramid ...................................... 12
Chapter: 10 Wildlife Conservation .................. 83
Chapter: 5 Bio-geo Chemical Cycling .............. 15
Regulating Trade in Wildlife ........................ 83
Types of Nutrient Cycles ............................. 15
Policies/Laws Concerning CITES In India ..... 87
Carbon Cycle (Gaseous Cycle) ..................... 15
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) .... 91
Nitrogen Cycle (Gaseous Cycle) .................. 16
International Union for The Conservation of
Methane Cycle (Gaseous Cycle) .................. 17
Nature ......................................................... 92
Phosphorus cycle (Sedimentary Cycle) ....... 19
Tiger Conservation and Project Tiger ......... 94
Sulphur Cycle (Mostly Sedimentary Cycle) . 20
Snow Leopard Conservation ....................... 98
Chapter: 6 Natural Ecosystems ....................... 22
Reintroduction of Cheetahs in India ......... 100
Terrestrial Ecosystems or Biomes ............... 22
Conservation of Lions................................ 101
Aquatic Ecosystems .................................... 27
Conservation of Elephants ........................ 103
Natural Ecosystem Services and Goods ...... 27
Conservation Initiatives for Asian Elephants
Chapter: 7 Wetland Ecosystem....................... 31 ................................................................... 104
Differences Between Wetlands and Lakes . 32
 2

Conservation of Great One-Horned Rhino 107 Water Pollution Control Measures ........... 174
Conservation of The Indian Dolphins........ 108 Water Pollution Control Measures ........... 175
Conservation of Indian Crocodile Species 110 Measures to Curb Marine Pollution ......... 176
Conservation of Turtles............................. 112 Chapter: 15 Plastic Pollution, Solid, Hazardous
Conservation of Indian Vultures ............... 114 And E-Waste.................................................. 179

Other National Efforts............................... 116 Plastic Pollution......................................... 179

International Efforts .................................. 119 The Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2022
................................................................... 181
Chapter: 11 India State of Forest Report 2021
(ISFR 2021) .................................................... 123 Hazardous Waste ...................................... 181

Forest Survey of India (FSI) ....................... 123 Regulating Hazardous Waste .................... 182

Major Terms/Definitions in ISFR ............... 124 Regulatory Measures by India .................. 185

Status of India’s Forest Resources In 2021 125 Electronic Waste (E-Waste) ...................... 187

National Forest Inventory ......................... 128 E-Waste Management Rules, 2016........... 188

Forest Types of India ................................. 129 Chapter: 16 Highly Polluting Industries (HPIs)
....................................................................... 190
Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020
................................................................... 131 Highly Polluting Industries (HPIs) In India . 190

National Forest Policy 1988 ...................... 132 Pollutants from HPIS ................................. 191

Afforestation Programmes ....................... 134 Chapter: 17 Land Degradation ...................... 196

Chapter: 12 Air pollution: causes and air Major Causes of Land Degradation........... 196
pollutants ...................................................... 137 Mining in Goa and Land Degradation ....... 199
Pollution .................................................... 137 Addressing Land Degradation ................... 200
Air Pollutants............................................. 138 UNEP Emissions Gap Report 2020 ............ 202
Radioactive Pollution ................................ 144 World Risk Index (WRI): ............................ 203
Chapter: 13 Air Pollution: Effects and Control Carbon Dioxide Fertilization: .................... 203
Measures....................................................... 147 Chapter: 18 Climate Change-Causes, Impact &
Effects of Air Pollution .............................. 147 Mitigation ...................................................... 204
Prevention and Control of Air Pollution ... 150 Climate Change (CC) And Global Warming204
Vehicle Scrappage Policy in India.............. 152 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) ........................ 204
Regulating Ozone-Depleting Substance ... 158 Carbon Footprint....................................... 210
Chapter: 14 Water Pollution: Causes, Effects, Climate Sensitivity ..................................... 211
Control Measures.......................................... 161 Impact of Global Warming ........................ 212
Water Pollution ......................................... 161 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Causes of Water Pollution ........................ 163 ................................................................... 222
Effects of Water Pollution ......................... 169
 3

Chapter: 18 International Environmental Natural Farming ........................................ 255

Conventions and Laws .................................. 224 Modern Agricultural Practices: ................. 256
UN Conference on Human Environment .. 224 Chapter: 21 Energy Sources, Renewable, Energy
UN Environment Programme (UNEP) ....... 224 Conservation ................................................. 258
UNCED/Earth Summit, Rio De Janeriro- The Conventional and Non-Conventional ....... 258
History of SDGs ......................................... 225 Solar Energy .............................................. 259
UNFCCC ..................................................... 226 Wind Energy .............................................. 261
Kyoto Protocol (COP-3; UNFCCC 1997)..... 227 Biofuel ....................................................... 262
UNFCCC Summits Post Kyoto .................... 229 Hydrogen Economy ................................... 264
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) Measures to Boost Renewable Energy ..... 266
................................................................... 229
Energy Conservation Measures ................ 267
Paris CCC 2015(COP 21; CMP 11).............. 230
Chapter: 22 Water Conservation .................. 270
COP 26 ....................................................... 233
Water Scarcity, Water Stress And Water Risk
COP 27 ....................................................... 236 ................................................................... 270
Others ....................................................... 237 Droughts.................................................... 274
Global Environment Facility (GEF): ........... 240 Chapter: 23 Major Species & Their Conservation
Financial Mechanisms Served by GEF: ...... 240 Status ............................................................ 276
Chapter: 19 National Environmental Legislation Mammals .................................................. 276
....................................................................... 241 Birds .......................................................... 282
Pollution Related Laws .............................. 241 Fish ............................................................ 286
Environment (Protection) Act Of 1986 ..... 242 Invasive Species ........................................ 292
Forest Rights and Forest Conservation ..... 243 Chapter: 24 Protected Area Network of India
Biodiversity Act 2002 ................................ 245 ....................................................................... 294
National Green Tribunal Act 2010 ............ 245 National Parks of India .............................. 294
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Rules ........ 246 Tiger Reserves of India .............................. 295
Blue Flag: Environmental Certification Description of NPs, TRs And Major WLs ... 295
Program..................................................... 247 Elephant Reserves Of India ....................... 315
Rules for Hazardous Microorganisms 1989 Ramsar Sites of India................................. 315
................................................................... 248
Biosphere Reserves ................................... 316
National Action Plan on Climate Change .. 248
Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS) Of India .. 317
Chapter: 20 Green Revolution and Sustainable
Agriculture .................................................... 252 Tiger, Leopard & Elephant Population by
State .......................................................... 318
Green Revolution ...................................... 252
DISASTER MANAGEMENT ............................. 320
Nutrient Management .............................. 253
Introduction .............................................. 320
Organic Farming ........................................ 253
 4

Disaster ..................................................... 320 Miscellaneous ........................................... 330

Classification of Disasters ......................... 320
Disaster Management Cycle ..................... 321
Disaster Management in India .................. 325
Financial Arrangements under National
Disaster Management Act, 2005 .............. 327
Other Plans and Policies ........................... 328
Evolution of Global Framework on Disaster
Management ............................................. 329
International Cooperation on Disaster
Management ............................................. 330
 1

Chapter: 1 Environment, Habitat, And Ecosystem

Environment o While living organisms contain organic matter,
Definition of Environment: The environment refers to the organic components also encompass non-living
surroundings and conditions in which living organisms organic material like humus (partially
exist. decomposed organic matter in soil) and organic
● It encompasses both the physical and biological pollutants.
elements of the world, providing the habitat and Habitat
resources necessary for life to thrive. Habitat Definition:
● The environment is not static but constantly changing ● A habitat refers to the specific physical location or
due to natural processes and human activities. environment where a particular species or community
Constituents of the Environment: of organisms lives, thrives, and carries out its life
● In a biological sense, the constituents of the processes.
environment refer to the various components that ● It encompasses the combination of abiotic (non-
make up the living conditions and habitat for living) and biotic (living) factors that together create
organisms. a suitable and distinctive place for organisms to
● These constituents are essential for the survival, inhabit.
growth, and reproduction of living organisms. Common Habitat Examples:
● Abiotic Factors: ● Coral Reefs: Home to a diverse range of marine life,
o Temperature including corals, fish, and other invertebrates.
o Light ● Tropical Rainforests: Teeming with an incredible
o Water variety of plant and animal species adapted to the
o Soil and Substrate warm, moist conditions.
● Biotic Factors: ● Deserts: Inhabited by specially adapted plants and
o Plants animals capable of withstanding extreme heat and
o Animals water scarcity.
o Microorganisms ● Polar Regions: Home to cold-adapted species like
o Interactions polar bears, penguins, and seals.
● Climate: Differences Between Habitat and Environment:
o Rainfall ● Definition:
o Seasonality ○ Habitat: Refers to the specific physical location
where an organism or species lives.
Biotic Components of the Environment ○ Environment: Encompasses a broader concept,
● The biotic components of the environment are the including all the external factors and conditions
living organisms that inhabit a particular ecosystem or (both biotic and abiotic) that surround and affect
region. an organism or species.
● These organisms interact with each other and their ● Range:
physical surroundings, forming complex and ○ Habitat: Focuses on the immediate living
interconnected ecosystems. conditions of an organism, including the physical
Biotic Components vs. Organic Components and biological characteristics of the place it calls
● Biotic Components: These are the living organisms home.
that interact within an ecosystem. ○ Environment: Encompasses a wider range of
o They include plants, animals, microorganisms, factors, including not only the habitat but also
and other forms of life. external influences like climate, pollution, and
● Organic Components: Organic components refer to human activities.
the carbon-based compounds found in the ● Abiotic and Biotic Factors:
environment. ○ Habitat: Includes both abiotic and biotic factors
but primarily emphasizes the conditions that
 2

support the life of a specific organism or group Classification of Ecosystems: Ecosystems can be
of organisms. classified based on various criteria:
○ Environment: Encompasses all abiotic and ● Terrestrial vs. Aquatic: Terrestrial ecosystems
biotic factors, including interactions between include land-based environments like forests,
different species and the physical surroundings. grasslands, and deserts, while aquatic ecosystems
● Specificity: encompass bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, and
○ Habitat: Describes a more localized and oceans.
specialized concept, such as a forest floor, a ● Natural vs. Artificial: Natural ecosystems have
freshwater pond, or a coral reef. developed without significant human influence,
○ Environment: Represents a broader, all- whereas artificial ecosystems, like agricultural fields
encompassing concept that can include multiple or urban parks, result from human activities.
habitats within a given area. ● Freshwater vs. Marine: Freshwater ecosystems
● Example: include habitats like rivers, lakes, and ponds, while
○ Habitat: The rocky crevices of a mountain where marine ecosystems are found in oceans and seas.
a particular species of goat lives. ● Biome-Based: Ecosystems can be grouped into
○ Environment: The entire mountain ecosystem, biomes, such as tropical rainforests, tundra, or deserts,
including the habitat of the goats, the climate, based on their climate and dominant vegetation.
other animal species, vegetation, and geological
features. Ecosystem vs. Environment vs. Ecology - Basic
● Example Differences:
○ Habitat of the Nilgiri tahr: The Nilgiri tahr, a ● Ecosystem: Focuses on the interactions among living
mountain-dwelling goat species, inhabits the organisms and their physical surroundings within a
rocky cliffs and shola grasslands of the Nilgiri defined boundary.
Mountains in southern India. This habitat offers ● Environment: Encompasses a broader concept,
refuge, forage, and protection from predators due including all external factors and conditions, both
to its steep and rugged terrain. living and non-living, that affect an organism or a
○ Environment of the Nilgiri Tahr: The tahr's system.
environment extends to the broader Western ● Ecology: The scientific study of the relationships
Ghats region. This complex ecosystem includes between organisms and their environments, including
the specific tahr habitat, diverse flora and fauna, the study of ecosystems.
influenced by unique climatic conditions and
geological features. Preservation of the Nilgiri Components of An Ecosystem
tahr necessitates safeguarding both its immediate Abiotic Components:
rocky crevice habitat and the entire Western ● Abiotic components are non-living factors that
Ghats environment to maintain the rich influence an ecosystem.
biodiversity and ecological balance of the area. ● Major abiotic limiting factors include:
Ecosystem o Light: Availability of sunlight affects
Ecosystem Definition: photosynthesis and determines the depth at
● An ecosystem is a self-contained, functional unit of which photosynthetic organisms can thrive in
nature where living organisms (biotic components) aquatic ecosystems.
interact with each other and their physical o Temperature: Temperature influences
surroundings (abiotic components). metabolic rates, affecting the activity and
● It encompasses the flow of energy and the cycling of distribution of organisms.
nutrients, resulting in the complex web of o Water: Water availability is crucial for terrestrial
relationships between organisms and their and aquatic ecosystems, influencing the types of
environment. organisms that can survive.
 3

o Soil: Soil composition, including pH, texture, o Nitrogen limitation can restrict the growth of
and nutrient content, affects plant growth in terrestrial autotrophs in nitrogen-poor
terrestrial ecosystems. ecosystems.
o Nutrients: The availability of essential nutrients Biotic Components:
(e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus) limits the growth of ● Biotic components are the living organisms within an
autotrophic organisms. ecosystem and can be categorized as follows:
o Autotrophs: Organisms capable of producing
Effects of Abiotic Components on Terrestrial their own food through processes like
Autotrophs: photosynthesis (e.g., plants, algae).
● Light: Light intensity and duration influence the rate o Heterotrophs: Organisms that obtain their
of photosynthesis in autotrophic plants. energy by consuming other organisms (e.g.,
o Low light levels can limit plant growth in herbivores, carnivores).
shaded areas of forests. o Macroconsumers: Large consumers, often
● Frost and Snow: Cold temperatures can damage plant higher in the food chain (e.g., apex predators like
tissues, disrupt water uptake, and affect nutrient lions).
availability. o Microconsumers: Small consumers, including
o Frost can be a limiting factor in high-altitude decomposers like bacteria and fungi that break
and polar ecosystems. down organic matter.
● Temperature: Temperature affects the rate of An ecosystem consists of both abiotic and biotic
chemical reactions in plant cells. components that interact and influence each other, shaping
o Extreme temperatures can stress plants and the dynamics and functioning of the ecosystem. Abiotic
reduce their growth and reproduction. factors can be limiting or enabling factors for the growth
● Nitrogen: Nitrogen availability in the soil is essential and distribution of organisms, while biotic components
for plant growth. represent the diverse array of living organisms within the
ecosystem.
 4

Chapter: 2 Ecology - Principles and Organizations

Introduction the animals leave behind in a certain area. The
The term "ecology" has its origins in the late 19th century. following details can be reliably obtained by pug
It was coined by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel, who mark analysis:
introduced the word "Okologie" in his work titled ● Identification of individual animals.
"Generelle Morphologie der Organismen" (General ● Presence of various species in a region.
Morphology of Organisms) in 1866. Haeckel derived the ● The presence of big cats (such tigers and lions).
term from the Greek words "oikos" (meaning "house" or ● Large cats' Sex Ratio and Age (Young or Adult).
"habitat") and "logia" (meaning "study" or "science"). ● Pugmarks can reveal a tiger's gender.
Thus, "ecology" literally means the "study of habitats" or
the "study of environments."
Community:
The dominating plant form is used to name communities.
Definition of Ecology:
For instance, grasses predominate in a grassland
Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between
community, which may also contain herbs, trees, etc.
living organisms (biotic components) and their physical
● Major Communities: These are sizable and largely
and biological environment (abiotic components). It seeks
autonomous. They are solely reliant on external solar
to understand how organisms interact with each other, how
energy. For instance, "Tropical evergreen forests."
they adapt to their surroundings, and how energy and
● Minor Communities: Also known as societies, these
matter flow through ecosystems. Ecology encompasses a
communities rely on their neighbour communities.
wide range of topics, from the behaviour of individual
They are auxiliary gatherings inside a larger
species to the functioning of entire ecosystems.
community. For instance, "A mat of lichen on a cow
dung pad."
Levels of Organization In Ecology Example: The oak trees, squirrels, and fungi living in a
Individual and species:
forest.
An organism is a distinct living thing that has the capacity
to operate or perform tasks on its own. A group of
Stable Community:
organisms called a species is made up of individuals who
In a stable community, productivity does not vary
are related and capable of exchanging genes through
significantly from year to year. It can withstand or bounce
interbreeding. They are designated by a Latin binomial,
back from sporadic disruptions (natural or man-made) and
such as Homo sapiens, and are regarded as the fundamental
alien species invasions.
unit of taxonomy. An individual is a single, distinct
organism of a particular species. Example: A single oak
tree in a forest. Examples of:
● Community: The oak trees, squirrels, and fungi
Population: living in a forest.
A group of interbreeding organisms of the same species o Major Community: The entire Amazon
that are present in a given location at a particular time Rainforest.
constitutes a population. Births and immigration can o Minor Community: The bird species in a
increase the population growth rate, whereas emigration specific region of the Amazon Rainforest.
and deaths can decrease it. Example: The oak tree species o Stable Community: Old-growth forests with a
(e.g., Quercus robur). consistent mix of species.

Pugmarks to Identify Populations Ecosystem:

● The population density of large, mobile animals, An ecosystem is made up of the habitats of various species,
such as tigers, leopards, lions, deer, etc., can be which typically overlap. A system-level activity, like the
assessed by counting the pugmarks (foot imprints) cycling of elements, emerges as a result of interactions
 5

between the organisms and their environment in an can be found on all of the northern hemisphere's
ecosystem. Example: A pond ecosystem with fish, plants, continents outside of their respective temperate zones.
sunlight, and water. Example: The temperate deciduous forest biome.
Ecotone:
● A zone of intersection or transition between two
biomes (diverse ecosystems) is known as an ecotone.
Ecological Niche: It is the site of the fusion of two
The term "niche" describes a species distinct functional communities. Mangrove forests, for instance, serve
purpose and place within its habitat or ecosystem. In as an ecotone between terrestrial and marine habitats.
nature, numerous species live in the same area but serve Other examples are estuaries (between freshwater and
distinct purposes: saltwater), marshland (between dry and wet), and
The following factors determine an organism's niches: grassland (between forest and desert).
a. habitat—where it lives;
b. food—what it consumes or decomposes; Features of An Ecotone:
c. reproductive—how and when it reproduces; ● An ecotone can be either wide (between a forest and a
d. physical and chemical—temperature, land form, land desert) or narrow (between a grassland and a forest).
slope, humidity, and other factors. In comparison to the nearby ecosystems, its conditions
Types of Ecological Niche: are intermediate. Thus, it is a tension-filled area.
● Fundamental Niche: The fundamental niche ● As we travel away from a community or ecosystem,
represents the full range of conditions and resources a the quantity and population density of the species
species can potentially use. within that community typically drop.
● Realized Niche: The realized niche is the actual range ● Ecotone regions (transitional zones) like mangroves,
of conditions and resources a species uses due to wetlands, estuaries, grasslands, etc., have far greater
competition and other factors. productivity than natural ecosystems like a forest
For the preservation of organisms, niche is crucial. ecosystem, ocean ecosystem, pond ecosystem,
Knowing the species' niche needs is important if we are to riverine ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc. A well-
conserve them in their natural habitat. developed ecotone contains some organisms that are
Niche vs. Habitat: entirely different from that of the adjoining
A species' habitat functions as its "address." As opposed communities. This is due to the presence of diverse
to this, a niche might be thought of as its "lifestyle and species from the nearby ecosystems in the ecotone.
profession" (i.e., actions and reactions unique to the Ecocline:
species). ● Ecocline is a zone of gradual but continuous change
● While many species share the same habitat, each from one ecosystem to another when there is no sharp
species has its own niche. No two species may occupy boundary between the two in terms of species
the same niche in the same habitat. This is a result of composition.
the competition between them, which lasts until one is ● It develops along the environmental gradient, which
eliminated. As an illustration, numerous species of includes progressive changes in abiotic parameters
insects that are pests of the same plant may coexist like altitude, temperature (thermocline), salinity
because they feed on various areas of it. (halocline), depth, etc.
Biome: Edge effect and edge species:
● A biome is a sizable, naturally occurring group of ● The number of species (biodiversity) and population
plants and animals that inhabits a significant habitat. density of particular species in an ecotone can
For instance, the tundra or rainforest biome. Because occasionally be significantly higher than in either
any biome can contain a range of habitats, biomes are community due to the more varied ecological traits
different from habitats. found in the ecotone. The species that are most
● Due to comparable climatic conditions, a biome's common or prolific in this area are referred to as edge
plants and animals share a number of traits and can be species. This phenomenon is known as the edge
found on other continents. Taiga forests, for instance, effect.
 6

● Birds are particularly susceptible to the edge effect in o A hyperthermophile is a creature that thrives in
terrestrial habitats. For instance, the ecotone between extremely hot settings (60 °C). They use their
the forest and the desert has a higher bird density. flapping ears to dissipate heat and keep the rest of
Biosphere: the body cool. For instance, deep-sea
● The lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere are all hydrothermal vents and hot springs have an
parts of the biosphere, which is the biological abundance of Archaebacteria.
component of the earth that supports life. It is made Eubacteria and Archaebacteria
up of all living things as well as the dead organic stuff The kingdom Monera, which includes the least organised
that they produce. Since adverse environmental unicellular prokaryotic (genetic material is not contained
conditions do not support life, the biosphere is absent within a membrane-bound nucleus) microorganisms on
at the North and South poles, the tallest mountains, and earth, includes archaebacteria (ancient bacteria), eubacteria
the deepest oceans. Spores of bacteria and fungi do (genuine bacteria), and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).
occasionally appear at altitudes beyond 8,000 metres, The ability of archaebacteria to survive in harsh
but they are biologically inactive and hence only environmental conditions is what sets them apart from
reflect dormant life. Example: All ecosystems on other Monera groupings. The formation of a protective,
Earth, from oceans to deserts, collectively form the lipid-linked cellular membrane by these creatures is
biosphere. facilitated by a unique protein, which is essential for
enduring highly salty areas (halophiles), hot springs and
Principles of Ecology acidic habitats (thermoacidophiles).
Ecosystem evolution is governed by specific principles: ● Physiological adaptations: These are changes in the
organism's internal functions. For example, a camel
Adaptation
can store water in its body to survive in the desert,
● Adaptation is the process by which organisms
while a polar bear has thick fur to keep it warm in the
undergo genetic changes that allow them to better
Arctic.
suit their environment, increasing their chances of
o When we are in the mountains, we need to breathe
survival and reproduction. It's a fundamental concept
more quickly. Our bodies adapt to the new
in ecology and evolution.
environment on the high mountain after a few
● Adaptations are important because they allow
days. Acclimatisation is the term used to describe
organisms to survive and reproduce in their
these modest adjustments made over brief periods
environment.
of time in an organism's body to address minor
There are many different types of adaptations. Some
issues brought on by changes in the environment.
examples include:
The body responds to reduced oxygen availability
● Morphological/Structural adaptations: These are
by producing more red blood cells, reducing
physical changes in the organism's body.
hemoglobin's ability to bind oxygen, and
o For example, a fish has gills to help it breathe in
breathing more quickly.
water, while a bird has wings to help it fly.
● Behavioural adaptations: These are changes in the
o To reduce water loss through transpiration, many
organism's behaviour. For example, a deer will run
desert plants have thick cuticles on their leaf
away from a predator, while a wolf will hunt in packs.
surfaces and deep pits for their stomata. Some
o Adaptations can be inherited or acquired.
desert plants, like Opuntia, have no leaves;
Inherited adaptations are passed down from
instead, they have spines instead of leaves to
parents to offspring. Acquired adaptations are
prevent transpiration. The flattened stems perform
changes that an organism makes during its
the photosynthetic process because there are
lifetime, such as building up a tolerance to a toxin.
fewer leaves on the plant, which reduces the area
o Desert lizards are physiologically incapable,
accessible for transpiration.
unlike mammals. When their body temperature
o In order to reduce heat loss, mammals from colder
dips, they bask in the sun and take in heat, but
regions typically have shorter limbs and ears.
when the outside temperature rises, they seek the
(Allen's Rule) Try to guess why an elephant has
shade. Some species have the ability to burrow
such large ears. since elephants don't perspire.
 7

under the ground in order to hide from the heat infest hawthorn fruit while the other focused more
above ground. on infesting apples.
o The two groups were unable to reproduce as a
Variation result of this host preference divergence. Flies
Changes in genetic makeup brought on by the insertion or who liked apples mated with other flies who also
deletion of particular genes cause variations. Variations liked apples, while flies that liked hawthorns
develop over time as a result of mutations, climatic married with other flies who also liked hawthorns.
changes, geographic barriers, etc. The variation within the o Their genetic makeup, host preferences, and
human species is represented by the differences in skin reproductive habits eventually diverged to the
colour, hair type (curly or straight), eye colour, and blood point that they could be classified as separate
type among various ethnic groups. species.
Adaptive Radiation: Mutation
● When the environment presents new challenges or ● New genes develop in a population as a result of
opens up new environmental niches, animals undergo mutation (a change in genetic material brought on
a process known as "adaptive radiation" in which by a mistake in DNA replication). Recombination,
they diverge from an ancestral species into numerous which occurs every generation in a sexually
different forms. reproducing population, is caused by meiosis and
Speciation fertilisation. Members of the same species therefore
New species emerge through a process called speciation, exhibit "variation" and are not all the same.
and speciation occurs as a result of evolution. Natural Selection
● Multiple populations make up a species. Geographical ● Darwin and Wallace's theorised mechanism is Natural
obstacles like mountains, oceans, rivers, etc. Selection. It is the method by which a species adjusts
frequently cause disparate communities to remain to its surroundings. Variations, such as genes that
apart. enable the organism to better adapt to its environment,
Allopatric speciation: are chosen through evolution. Natural selection causes
● Geographic isolation eventually results in speciation certain genes to reproduce more frequently in a
(also known as allopatric speciation or geographic population. Children who are adapted to their
speciation). After a considerable amount of time, the immediate environment are more likely to survive,
sub-populations undergo genetic drift and become mature into reproductive adults, and pass along
reproductively isolated (they no longer cross-breed). acceptable adaptations to their offspring.
o The sub-populations later become separate
Evolution
species since they are unable to interbreed even
● Evolution is the change that results in the
after the barrier is eliminated.
emergence of new species. The organism becomes
Sympatric speciation: more suited to the current environment as a result.
● There are no physical barriers that hinder populations
Natural selection, adaptability, variety, and other
of the same species from mating in sympatric
processes are all part of the evolution process. In 1859,
speciation. However, it appears that a new species
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace put forth a
spontaneously emerges, perhaps based on a different
convincing hypothesis of evolution. Neo-Darwinism
food supply or trait.
is the name given to this theory as it has been expanded
Rhagoletis pomonella, or the Apple Maggot Fly in light of genetics advancements.
● The apple maggot fly is a native of North America, and
it used to eat hawthorn tree fruit as its primary food Extinction
● An environmental change or biological competition is
source.
the main cause of extinctions. When a species cannot
o Some of these flies started to infest apple fruit
evolve quickly enough to adapt to its environment,
instead of hawthorn when European settlers
extinction occurs. The sixth mass extinction, known as
brought apple trees to North America.
the anthropogenic or human-induced extinction, is
o Over time, two separate populations of apple
currently taking place.
maggot flies appeared: one that continued to
 8

Chapter: 3 Functions of Ecosystem - Succession & Homeostasis

Ecological Succession Succession can be rapid in disturbed areas, but may
Ecosystems perform a variety of essential functions, take centuries or longer in other cases due to complex
including interactions among biotic and abiotic factors.
● Ecosystem development or Ecological succession Primary Succession
● Nutrient cycling ● Primary succession occurs in an entirely new or
● Energy flow via food chain previously lifeless habitat, such as a recently formed
● Homeostasis volcanic island, bare rock, or a glacial moraine.
● It starts with pioneer species, usually lichens and
Ecological succession mosses, that can colonize barren surfaces and begin
● It is the gradual process by which the composition of breaking down rock or soil formation.
a biological community changes over time, following ● Over a long period, these pioneer species create the
a disturbance or the establishment of a new habitat. It conditions necessary for more complex plants, such as
typically involves a sequence of different species or grasses, shrubs, and eventually trees, to establish
ecological communities replacing one another, themselves.
ultimately leading to a stable and mature ecosystem. ● Primary succession can take centuries or even
millennia to reach a climax community, as it involves
Stages in Ecological Succession the gradual development of both soil and a diverse
● Ecological succession is a process of gradual, ecosystem.
predictable change in the components & structure of Secondary Succession
an ecosystem over time. It typically involves several ● Secondary succession occurs in habitats that have
stages, including pioneer community, seral been disturbed or altered but still have some
communities, and climax community. remnants of soil and life, such as abandoned
● Pioneer Community: This is the initial stage of agricultural fields, burned forests, or areas recovering
succession, where hardy and adaptable species from a landslide.
(pioneers) colonize a barren or disturbed area. These ● It starts with pioneer species that are often annual
species can tolerate harsh conditions and may be the plants or grasses, which quickly colonize the area and
first to establish themselves. stabilize the soil.
● Seral Communities: These are intermediate stages of
succession. As pioneers alter the environment, it Difference between Primary and secondary succession
becomes more hospitable for other species. Seral ● Secondary succession generally occurs more rapidly
communities consist of a variety of plant and animal than primary succession because some soil and
species, each adapted to the changing conditions. organic matter remain, which accelerates the
● Climax Community: The climax community is the formation of suitable conditions for plant growth.
final, stable stage of succession. It represents the most
Autogenic & Allogenic Succession
mature and diverse ecosystem that can thrive in the
Autogenic and allogenic Succession:
given environmental conditions. Species in the climax ● Autogenic succession refers to change brought about
community are often in balance with each other and by the community's live members.
their environment. ● Allogenic succession refers to change brought about
by outside causes.
Succession is characterized by a few key features:
● The succession process in ecosystems leads to
Heterotrophic succession and autotrophic succession:
increased biodiversity and stability, as new species ● Autotrophic succession refers to succession in which
colonize and complex ecosystems become more the quantity of green plants is initially much higher,
stable. Pioneer species help build soil by breaking and heterotrophic succession refers to succession in
down rocks and organic matter, improving soil fertility which the quantity of heterotrophs is initially much
and allowing for diverse plant species growth. higher.
 9

Succession in Plants ● Homeostasis is a fundamental concept in biology and

● Plant succession can indeed be categorized into physiology. It refers to the body's ability to maintain
various types based on the environmental conditions a stable and balanced internal environment despite
and habitat characteristics. external changes.
● Xerarch Succession: Xerarch succession refers to ● This stability is crucial for the proper functioning of
plant succession in dry or xeric environments. cells, tissues, and organs in living organisms.
Example: on a bare rock. Regulate
● Hydrarch succession: Plant succession that occurs in ● Some organisms can achieve homeostasis through
wet or aquatic habitats. physiological mechanisms (sweating to cool the body,
● Both the hydrarch and xerarch successions result in increasing metabolism to keep the body warm, etc.)
mesic water conditions, which are neither excessively and occasionally through behavioural mechanisms
dry (for the xeric) nor excessively wet (for the hydric). (animals moving to the shade of a tree to escape the
● Eventually, the xerophytic environment changes into a summer heat), which ensure an even body temperature
mesophytic habitat, which needs only a small amount and constant osmotic concentration.
of water. ● This regulation (thermoregulation and
Succession in Water osmoregulation) is in fact possible in all bird and
● Succession in water, also known as hydrarch mammal species, as well as a very small number of
succession, is the process of ecological change that lower vertebrate and invertebrate taxa.
occurs in aquatic environments. ● Mammals can survive whether they are in the Sahara
● It typically begins with pioneer species like algae and Desert or Antarctica thanks to their capacity to keep
submerged plants and progresses to emergent plants, their body temperature consistent.
leading to the gradual transformation of a water body ● On the other hand, plants lack these mechanisms for
into terrestrial habitat due to sediment deposition and regulating their internal temperatures. Consequently,
organic matter accumulation their range is quite limited.
Conform
● These are organisms that allow their internal
Homeostasis in Ecosystem
physiological conditions to conform or closely match
● In ecology, homeostasis refers to the ability of an
the external environmental conditions.
ecosystem to maintain a relatively stable and balanced
internal environment despite external fluctuations or ● These organisms do not actively expend energy to
regulate their internal environment but instead
disturbances. This ability of ecosystem of self-
passively adjust to the conditions of their
regulation is homeostasis.
surroundings.
● For instance, in a pond ecology, if zooplankton
populations rise, they would devour more Conformers have not evolved to become regulators
phytoplankton, which will make food scarce for them. ● Conformers are often contrasted with "regulators,"
The population of phytoplankton grows when the which are organisms that actively expend energy to
maintain stable internal conditions regardless of
quantity of zooplankton decreases due to hunger. After
external environmental variations.
a while, zooplankton population size likewise rises,
● Regulators have evolved mechanisms to control their
and this cycle repeats at all trophic levels of the food
chain. internal environment and are typically found in more
● An ecosystem's stability in a homeostatic system is unpredictable or extreme habitats.
maintained through a negative feedback mechanism
Thermoregulation is energetically expensive for small
brought on by the limiting resource, in this case the
organisms because small organisms have a relatively larger
lack of food, which causes an increase in one element
to result in a drop in another and vice versa. However, surface area compared to their volume.
not everything in an ecosystem is stable, and the ● This means they have more body surface area through
which heat can be gained or lost. In cold environments
homeostatic capacity of eco-systems is not limitless.
such as polar regions, small organisms lose heat more
Homeostasis
rapidly to their surroundings because they have a
greater surface area for heat exchange.
 10

Migrate ● Some plant seeds undergo seed dormancy, a form of

● Thousands of birds, including waterfowl and waders diapause (a stage of suspended development) where
from Siberia, migrate to the Keoladeo National Park germination is delayed until specific environmental
(Bharatpur) during the winter months to escape harsh conditions, such as adequate moisture or temperature,
conditions in their breeding grounds. are met.
● The park provides essential habitat and food resources ● Brown bears, may enter a less deep state of torpor
for these migratory birds during this period. during the winter but are still considered hibernators.
Suspend Hibernation (winter sleep)is a fascinating adaptation
● In suspended stage the spores of bacteria, fungi, and that helps bears, as well as other hibernating animals,
lower plants exist in a state of reduced metabolic survive challenging environmental conditions
activity, often encased in protective structures. It ● Some desert frogs and toads aestivate by burrowing
Allows them to survive adverse environmental underground and forming a protective cocoon around
conditions, such as extreme temperatures, desiccation themselves. Certain species of tortoises, desert snails,
(drying out), or lack of nutrients, until conditions and insects also undergo aestivation.
become more favourable for growth and reproduction.
 11

Chapter: 4 Functions of An Ecosystem - Trophic Levels

An ecosystem's energy flow is represented by trophic Detritus Food Chain
levels (the word trophe meaning nourishment). The place ● The organic matter of dead and decomposing animal
an organism holds in a food chain determines its trophic and plant corpses from the grazing food chain is where
level. From producers to the following trophic level, the detritus food chain begins. Detrivores or
energy travels in a unidirectional manner. decomposers are creatures that feed on dead organic
● As energy is lost as heat at each trophic level, the stuff or detritus. Detrivores are eaten by predators.
energy level falls starting at the lowest trophic level. ● The grazing food chain is the main pathway for energy
At each trophic level, there is a considerable energy flow in an aquatic ecosystem. In contrast, a far greater
loss. As a result, there are often no more than four to proportion of energy moves via the grazing food chain
five trophic levels (beyond this, the energy required to than through the detritus food chain in a terrestrial
support an organism is extremely low). ecosystem.
Trophic Levels Humus
● Detritus is broken down into simpler inorganic
Autotrophs Green plants (Producers)
compounds by bacterial and fungi enzymes,
creating humus. The catabolic process is known as
Heterotrophs Herbivores (Primary Consumers)
that. When soil decomposes, humification and
Carnivores (Secondary consumers) mineralization take place. A dark-coloured,
amorphous (formless), substance termed humus
Top Carnivore (Tertiary and that is very resistant to microbial action and
Quaternary Consumers) decomposes at a very slow rate is produced as a
result of humification. The humus is further broken
down by some bacteria, and the mining process
The trophic level interaction includes 3 concepts:
releases inorganic nutrients. Because humus is
● Food Chain
colloidal in nature, warm, wet environments
● Food Web
encourage decomposition, but cold temperatures
● Ecological Pyramids
and anaerobiosis (lack of oxygen) prevent
decomposition, causing an accumulation of organic
Food Chain matter and causing soils to become acidic (taiga
The term "food chain" refers to the flow of energy from
climate).
producers through a number of species at each level of
Shilajit: A Powerful Ayurvedic Medicine of Humus
the tropics with frequent eating and being eaten links. For
Origin
instance, grasses, grasshoppers, frogs, snakes, and eagles.
● Shilajit is one such herbo-mineral or Rasaoushadhi,
Grazing food chains and detritus food chains are the two
which is frequently referred to as the "Destroyer of
different kinds of food chains.
Weakness" by Ayurvedic practitioners. Shilajit has
Grazing Food Chain been an essential part of healing for generations.
● The grazing food chain is made up of the consumers ● Shilajit is a remarkable resinous material that
who are the first link in the food chain and who use resembles tar and is neither entirely plant- or
plants or parts of plants as food. For instance, in a animal-derived. Shilajit is a form of mineral pitch
terrestrial ecosystem, a snake will eat a lizard, which that naturally emanates from Himalayan rocks
will then eat a caterpillar, which will then eat a snake, between 1000 and 5000 metres above sea level. It
and so on. In an aquatic ecosystem, phytoplankton is composed of humus and partially degraded
(primary producers) are eaten by zooplankton, which plant matter.
fishes eat, and pelicans (birds) eat fishes.
 12

Food Web however, neither benefits from nor is negatively

A food web is composed of numerous connected food impacted by this connection.
chains. All potential paths for energy flow in an ecosystem ● The coexistence of trees and epiphytic plants is
are represented by a food web. The subsequent branches in another illustration of commensalisms.
the chain will be impacted if any of the intermediate food Mutualism (+/+):
chains are eliminated. The majority of species in an Mutualism is an interaction where both species benefit.
ecosystem have access to many food sources through a ● Example: The relationship between bees and
food web, which boosts their chances of surviving. flowering plants. Bees receive nectar as food, while
they aid in pollination, benefiting the plants.
Types of Biotic Interaction in A Food Web
● Sea anemones affix themselves to the hermit crabs'
Types of Biotic interactions in a Food Web:
shells in order to move about and find fresh meals. The
● Ecological interactions between different species can
anemone uses its stinging cells to give the hermit crab
be categorized into various types, including
camouflage and safety.
amensalism, antibiosis,competition, commensalism,
● Some mutualisms are so intimate that the interacting
mutualism, neutralism, predation, and parasitism.
species are completely dependent on one another in
These interactions can be represented using symbols
order to exist. Symbiosis is the term used to describe
to indicate whether they have a neutral (0), positive
such tight relationships (examples include coral and
(+), or negative (-) effect on the participating species
zooxanthellae).
Amensalism (-/0):
Neutralism (0/0):
● Amensalism is a type of interaction where one species
● Neutralism is an interaction where neither species is
is harmed (negative) while the other is unaffected
affected.
(neutral).
● Example: Two species of trees in a forest that do not
● Example: The release of allelopathic chemicals by
interact in any significant way.
some plants inhibits the growth of nearby plants
Predation (+/-):
without any benefit to the allelopathic plant.
● Predation is an interaction where one species
● A huge tree provides shade for a little plant, slowing
(predator) benefits (positive) by capturing and
its growth. The big tree is unaffected by the little plant.
consuming another species (prey) that is harmed
● Antibiosis: Fungus that cause bread mould Penicillin,
(negative).
an antibiotic chemical produced by Penicillium,
● Example: A lion (predator) hunting and killing a
prevents the development of numerous bacteria.
gazelle (prey) for food.
Competition (-/-):
Parasitism (+/-):
● Competition is an interaction in which both species are
● Parasitism is an interaction where one species
negatively affected as they compete for limited
(parasite) benefits (positive) at the expense of another
resources.
species (host) that is harmed (negative).
● Example: Lions and hyenas in the African savanna
● Example: Fleas infesting a dog (host), where the fleas
both compete for prey, which can lead to decreased
benefit by feeding on the dog's blood while causing
hunting success for both.
irritation and harm to the dog.
Commensalism (0/+):
● Human parasites like roundworms, tapeworms,
● Commensalism is an interaction where one species
bacteria, fungi, and viruses are quite frequent.
benefits (positive) while the other is neither helped nor
Despite the fact that the female mosquito requires our
harmed (neutral).
blood for reproduction, she is not regarded as a parasite.
● Example: Barnacles attaching themselves to the shells
Why? Since it doesn't reside on the host.
of turtles. The barnacles benefit from increased
exposure to food particles while the turtles are not
significantly affected. Ecological Pyramid
● Sharks frequently become attached by suckers. This An ecological pyramid is a pyramidal representation of
enables the suckers to benefit from defence, a free ride, the trophic levels of various creatures depending on their
and a supper from the shark's leftovers. The shark, ecological location (from producer to final consumer). The
pyramid is made up of numerous horizontal bars that
 13

represent various trophic levels. Each bar's length reflects this situation has a tiny base and an inverted shape
the total number of organisms, biomass, or energy present since the consumer biomass is always greater than the
in an ecosystem at each trophic level. The pyramid's base producer biomass.
is made up of the producers, while its peak is made up of Pyramid of Energy
the top carnivore. Between them are other consumer ● Comparing the functional roles of the trophic levels in
trophic levels. an ecosystem is best done using the energy pyramid.
● There are three types of ecological pyramids: The quantity of energy at each trophic level and the
1. The number pyramid; amount lost when moving to another trophic level are
2. the biomass pyramid; and represented by an energy pyramid. As a result, the
3. the energy or production pyramid. pyramid is always upward and has a substantial energy
Pyramid of Number base at its base.
The population (total number of individuals) of various ● Ecological Efficiency: The efficiency with which
species at each trophic level is represented as a pyramid of energy is transmitted from one trophic level to the
numbers. The pyramid of numbers may not always be next is referred to as ecological efficiency. The grazing
straight and may even be fully inverted, depending on its food chain has a maximum number of trophic levels
size. The trophic structure of an ecosystem is not entirely due to the 10% law, which states that only 10% of the
defined by the pyramid of numbers because it is energy in each trophic level gets transferred from the
exceedingly difficult to count all the creatures. lower trophic level to the higher trophic level.
Upright Pyramid of Numbers ● At each trophic level, a portion of the available energy
● As you move up the trophic levels of this pyramid, is lost by respiration or utilised up by metabolism.
fewer people are present. The pond environment and Additionally, a portion of the energy is lost throughout
grassland ecosystem both have this form of pyramid. each transformation.
● Inverted Pyramid of Numbers Explanation
● With each higher trophic level in this pyramid, there ● Assume that on a given day, an ecosystem receives
are more people present. Like the ecosystem of trees. 1000 calories of light energy, some of which is
Pyramid of Biomass reflected back into space. Only a small part of the
● Pyramid of Biomass: The dry weight of each creature energy taken is used by green plants, and of that, some
inhabiting each trophic level is often measured in is expended during respiration. As a result, only 100
order to calculate the pyramid of biomass. As a result calories are stored as energy-rich compounds.
of weighing every type of creature at a trophic level, ● A deer consumes a plant that has 100 calories of
the size disparity issue is solved. dietary energy, but only uses 10 of those calories for
● The standing crop is the amount of living matter digestion and storage. Even less energy is gained by a
present at any given time at each trophic level. The lion that consumes the deer. So, from sunlight to
mass of living things (biomass), or the quantity in a producer to herbivore to carnivore, useful energy
given area, is used to measure the standing crop. diminishes. The energy pyramid will always be
● The majority of terrestrial ecosystems have an upright upright as a result.
pyramidal structure with a big base of primary ● The phenomena of biological magnification, or the
producers and a smaller trophic level perched on top. tendency for harmful compounds to gradually
The basal trophic level, or producers (autotrophs), accumulate at higher trophic levels, is explained by
has the highest biomass. The least quantity of the energy pyramid.
biomass is found at the top trophic level. Limitations of Ecological Pyramids
Inverted Pyramid of Biomass The same species cannot be considered to belong to two or
● In many aquatic habitats, the biomass pyramid may more trophic levels in ecological pyramids. It consists of a
take on an inverted structure in contrast to terrestrial straightforward food chain, which is uncommon in nature
ecosystems. (In comparison, a pyramid of numbers for and does not allow for a food web. Furthermore, while
the aquatic ecology stands vertical). This is due to the playing a crucial role in the environment, saprophytes—
fact that the producers are little phytoplankton, which plants, fungi, or microorganisms—are not given any place
multiply and grow quickly. The biomass pyramid in in ecological pyramids.
 14

Biomagnification - Pollutants And Trophic through catabolism (the breakdown of complex

Level compounds in living organisms) or excretion.
In an ecosystem, pollutants flow up and down the trophic ● Even though the quantities of the pollutant in the
levels. In addition to moving through the different trophic environment are not great, the danger of
levels, persistent pollutants (non-degradable pollutants) bioaccumulation is considerable due to the long-
also stay in that trophic level for an extremely long time lasting nature of persistent organic pollutants like
because detrivores cannot break them down. DDT.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, also known as ● Biomagnification: The term "biomagnification"
perfluorochlorides, are the most harmful long-lasting non- describes the gradual bioaccumulation (increase in
degradable pollutants. concentration) that occurs at each tropical level over
time. The pollutant must be biologically long-lived
These contaminants are transported by: (long-lived) and soluble in fats rather than water for
1. Bioaccumulation biomagnification to take place. Example DDT. The
2. Biomagnification organism will excrete the contaminant if it is water
soluble. Fat-soluble pollutants are maintained for a
● Bioaccumulation: In an organism, contaminants, very long period. Therefore, it is customary to
poisons (chronic poisoning), or other substances calculate the amount of contaminants present in the
gradually build up. It happens when the pace of fatty tissues of creatures like fish. Because female
substance accumulation is faster than the rate of mammals produce milk with a lot of fat, it is examined
substance elimination from the body of the organism for contaminants.
 15

Chapter: 5 Bio-geo Chemical Cycling

Energy is lost as heat forever in terms of the usefulness of They dissolve into salt beds, silts, and limestone. They
the system. On the other hand, nutrients of food matter rejoin the cycle after weathering.
never get used up. They can be recycled again and again
indefinitely. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and There are numerous types of sedimentary cycles.
phosphorus as elements and compounds make up 97% of ● Because they contain substantial pools in both the
the mass of our bodies and are more than 95% of the mass Earth's crust and the atmosphere, cycles like the
of all living. Biogeochemical cycling is the movement of sulphur cycle are a mix of the gaseous and sedimentary
chemical elements and compounds between living cycles. Other cycles, like the phosphorus cycle, do not
organisms, the atmosphere, and the Earth's crust. have a major gaseous pool; the element is liberated
These cycles are essential for life on Earth, as they provide from rock and deposited in both shallow and deep sea
the nutrients that organisms need to survive and reproduce. sediments.
These biogeochemical cycles are interconnected, and the ● Biological and nonbiological processes are involved in
availability of one element can influence the cycling of the gaseous and sedimentary cycles. Both cycles are
others. Human activities can have a negative impact on powered by the movement of energy through the
biogeochemical cycles. For example, the burning of fossil ecosystem and are linked to the water cycle. Water
fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which transports elements and other components throughout
contributes to climate change. The use of fertilizers can the ecosystem. Biogeochemical cycles would stop if
lead to the runoff of nitrogen and phosphorus into water did not cycle.
waterways, which can cause algal blooms and other ● Although the biogeochemical cycles of the numerous
environmental problems. fundamental elements required by autotrophs and
heterotrophs differ in detail, all biogeochemical cycles
Types of Nutrient Cycles have a basic structure from the perspective of the
● Biogeochemical cycles are classified into two types: ecosystem. They have three fundamental components
gaseous and sedimentary. The principal source of in common: inputs, internal cycling, and outputs.
nutrient input into the ecosystem is the basis for this
classification. The atmosphere and the seas are the Carbon Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)
primary nutrient reservoirs in gaseous cycles. The carbon cycle is a fundamental ecological process that
● As a result, gaseous cycles are clearly worldwide. describes the movement of carbon through various
Nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide are the three reservoirs or "sinks" in the Earth's ecosystems. It
most vital gases for life. These three gases dominate involves both biotic (living organisms) and abiotic (non-
the Earth's atmosphere in steady amounts of 78 living) components and plays a critical role in regulating
percent, 21%, and 0.03 percent, respectively. the Earth's climate and supporting life.
● The main pool in sedimentary cycles is soil, rocks, and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
minerals. Mineral elements required by living The carbon cycle begins with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
organisms are derived mostly from inorganic sources. Earth's atmosphere.
Salts dissolved in soil water or lakes, streams, and CO2 is a greenhouse gas that plays a crucial role in
oceans are examples of available forms. The mineral trapping heat from the sun, which helps maintain the
cycle varies depending on the element, but it planet's temperature suitable for life.
fundamentally consists of two phases: the rock phase Photosynthesis:
and the salt solution phase. Weathering removes ● Plants, algae, and certain bacteria undergo
mineral salts from the Earth's crust. The soluble salts photosynthesis, a process in which they use sunlight,
are then absorbed into the water cycle. The salts water, and CO2 to produce glucose (a sugar) and
migrate through the soil with water, eventually oxygen (O2).
reaching the seas, where they remain eternally. ● This process converts atmospheric CO2 into organic
Sedimentation returns other salts to the Earth's crust. carbon compounds, such as carbohydrates, in the form
of plant biomass.
 16

Primary Production: with far-reaching ecological and environmental

● Primary producers (plants and phytoplankton) store consequences.
carbon in their tissues as they grow. ● The carbon cycle is a dynamic and interconnected
● This carbon is transferred up the food chain when process, with carbon constantly moving between
herbivores consume plants and carnivores consume various reservoirs. Understanding and managing this
herbivores. cycle is crucial for mitigating climate change and
Respiration: maintaining the health of Earth's ecosystems. Efforts
● All living organisms, including plants and animals, to reduce carbon emissions and enhance carbon
respire, releasing CO2 back into the atmosphere. sequestration are key strategies for addressing the
● During respiration, organic carbon compounds are challenges of a changing climate.
broken down to release energy, and CO2 is produced
as a metabolic byproduct. Nitrogen Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)
Decomposition: Atmospheric Nitrogen (N2):
● Dead plant and animal matter, as well as waste ● The nitrogen cycle begins with nitrogen gas (N2) in
materials, are broken down by decomposers such as the Earth's atmosphere, which makes up about 78%
bacteria and fungi. of the air we breathe.
● This decomposition process releases CO2 into the Nitrogen Fixation:
atmosphere as organic matter is broken down. ● Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are responsible for converting
Fossil Fuel Combustion: atmospheric N2 into ammonia (NH3) or ammonium
● Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels (coal, ions (NH4+), which are biologically accessible forms
oil, and natural gas), release large amounts of CO2 into of nitrogen.
the atmosphere. ● Role of Microorganisms (Bacteria and Blue-Green
● This contributes to the increase in atmospheric CO2 Algae) in Nitrogen Fixation: Microorganisms, such
concentrations, leading to the greenhouse effect and as bacteria and blue-green algae, play a crucial role in
global warming. nitrogen fixation. They convert atmospheric nitrogen
Carbon Sequestration: gas (N2) into ammonia (NH3) or other nitrogen
● Some carbon is sequestered or stored for long periods compounds usable by plants. This process enriches the
in various reservoirs. Examples include: soil with essential nutrients, promoting plant growth
● Geological carbon sequestration: Carbon can be and overall ecosystem productivity.
stored underground in geological formations, such as ● Nitrogen Fixation by Industrial Processes
depleted oil and gas reservoirs. (Fertilizer Factories):
● Ocean carbon sequestration: The world's oceans act Industrial processes, notably in fertilizer factories,
as a significant carbon sink, absorbing CO2 from the perform artificial nitrogen fixation. Through the
atmosphere. Haber-Bosch process, atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is
Carbon Exchange with Terrestrial and Oceanic converted into ammonia (NH3). These synthetic
Systems: fertilizers enhance agricultural productivity by
● Carbon is exchanged between terrestrial ecosystems providing plants with accessible nitrogen nutrients,
(forests, soils, wetlands) and the world's oceans. thus supporting food production on a large scale.
● Terrestrial ecosystems can store carbon in plant ● Nitrogen Fixation by Atmospheric Phenomena
biomass and soil organic matter, while oceans absorb (Thunder and Lightning):
and release CO2 based on temperature and ocean Atmospheric phenomena, particularly thunder and
circulation patterns. lightning, contribute to a limited extent to nitrogen
Human Impact: fixation. The high energy of lightning strikes can
● Human activities, such as deforestation, land use convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into nitric oxide
changes, and the burning of fossil fuels, have disrupted (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which eventually
the natural balance of the carbon cycle. wash down as nitrate (NO3-) in rainfall, providing a
● Increased CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere small natural source of fixed nitrogen for ecosystems.
contribute to climate change and ocean acidification, Examples of nitrogen-fixing bacteria include:
 17

1. Free-Living Bacteria: These bacteria live industrial contexts is essential for reducing its
independently in the soil and include species like environmental impacts and ensuring its sustainable
Azotobacter and Clostridium. use.
2. Symbiotic Bacteria: These form mutualistic
relationships with certain plants. For instance, Methane Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)
Rhizobium bacteria work with leguminous plants like The methane cycle, also known as the gaseous cycle of
peas and beans, while Frankia associates with some methane, refers to the natural processes that regulate the
non-leguminous plants like alders. distribution and concentration of methane (CH4) in the
Nitrification: Earth's atmosphere and its cycling through various
● Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia (NH3) or environmental compartments, including the atmosphere,
ammonium ions (NH4+) into nitrite (NO2-) and then terrestrial ecosystems, and aquatic systems. Methane is a
into nitrate (NO3-). potent greenhouse gas that plays a significant role in
The key nitrifying bacteria involved are: climate change because of its high global warming
● Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria (AOB): These potential.
bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite. Examples include
Nitrosomonas and Nitrosococcus. The methane cycle involves several key processes:
● Nitrite-Oxidizing Bacteria (NOB): These bacteria Methane Emission Sources:
further convert nitrite to nitrate. A well-known NOB ● Natural Sources: Methane is emitted into the
is Nitrobacter. atmosphere from various natural sources, including
● Assimilation: Plants and phytoplankton assimilate wetlands, forests, oceans, and geological sources
nitrogen from the environment in the form of nitrate (Example: Seepage from oil and gas reservoirs).
(NO3-), ammonium ions (NH4+), or ammonia (NH3). ● Anthropogenic Sources: Human activities also
They use this nitrogen to build proteins, DNA, and contribute to methane emissions, such as agriculture
other essential molecules. (rice paddies, livestock), fossil fuel production and
Denitrification: use, landfills, and wastewater treatment.
● Denitrifying bacteria play a crucial role in returning Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, and its emissions
nitrogen to the atmosphere by converting nitrate result from various human activities.
(NO3-) and nitrite (NO2-) into gaseous nitrogen ● Enteric Fermentation (Ruminant Digestion): - 27%
compounds, primarily nitrogen gas (N2), and Livestock, primarily cattle, produce methane during
sometimes nitrous oxide (N2O). digestion due to enteric fermentation in their
● Denitrification occurs in anaerobic (oxygen-depleted) stomachs.
environments, such as waterlogged soils and ● Fossil Fuel Production and Use: - 20%
sediments. Extraction, transportation, and use of fossil fuels, such
● Denitrifying bacteria include species like as natural gas and oil, release methane into the
Pseudomonas and Paracoccus. atmosphere.
● Human Impact: Human activities, including ● Rice Cultivation: - 12%
agriculture, industrial processes, and the use of Anaerobic conditions in flooded rice fields lead to
synthetic fertilizers, have significantly altered the methane emissions, a byproduct of microbial activity.
nitrogen cycle. ● Landfills: - 11%
● Excessive nitrogen runoff from agriculture can Decomposition of organic waste in landfills generates
lead to water pollution and ecological problems. methane when organic matter breaks down
● The release of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from anaerobically.
combustion sources contributes to air pollution ● Biomass Burning: - 9%
and acid rain. The combustion of biomass, including wood and crop
● These bacteria play crucial roles in the gaseous phase residues, produces methane emissions.
of the nitrogen cycle, facilitating the conversion of ● Manure Management: - 8%
nitrogen from one form to another and influencing the
availability of nitrogen for plants and other organisms
in ecosystems. Managing nitrogen in agricultural and
 18

Methane is released during the storage and impact on global warming and climate change. Reducing
management of livestock manure, such as in lagoons methane emissions is a key part of climate policy and
and pits. environmental stewardship.
● Wastewater Treatment: - 4% Natural Source of Methane Emissions
Anaerobic conditions in sewage treatment systems Methane is a potent greenhouse gas that can be emitted
contribute to methane emissions. from various natural sources. These natural sources of
● Other Sources: - 9% methane emissions include:
Various other activities, including energy production, ● Wetlands: Natural wetlands, such as marshes and
leaks in natural gas infrastructure, and wetland swamps, are significant sources of methane emissions.
emissions, collectively account for the remaining Microbial activity in waterlogged, oxygen-deprived
methane emissions. soils produces methane as a byproduct.
Methane Oxidation: ● Termites: Termites are known to produce methane as
● Methane is oxidized (broken down) in the atmosphere a result of their digestive processes. This methane is
by hydroxyl radicals (OH) and other reactive species. released into the atmosphere when termites expel gas
This oxidation process converts methane into carbon during their routine activities.
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). This is one of the ● Natural Seepage: Methane can naturally seep out of
primary mechanisms by which methane is removed the Earth's crust in some areas. These seepages are
from the atmosphere and contributes to the regulation often found in geological formations that contain
of its concentration. methane, such as coal beds and oil and gas reservoirs.
Methane Transport: ● Permafrost: As permafrost in the Arctic and other
● Methane can be transported through the atmosphere cold regions thaws due to climate change, organic
over regional and global scales. It can remain in the matter trapped in the frozen ground can decompose,
atmosphere for about a decade, during which it can releasing methane into the atmosphere.
have a significant impact on climate. ● Oceans: Methane can be produced in marine
Methane Sinks: environments through a process called
● Methane is removed from the atmosphere and stored methanogenesis. Microbes in the seabed generate
in sinks, which can be both natural and anthropogenic. methane, which can then escape into the water and
Some of the key sinks include: potentially reach the atmosphere.
● Soil Uptake: Microbial activity in soils can consume ● Paddy fields: When paddy fields are flooded,
and store methane. anaerobic conditions in the waterlogged soils lead to
● Hydroxyl Radical Reaction: As mentioned earlier, microbial methane production. This methane can be
OH radicals react with methane in the atmosphere. released into the atmosphere.
● Methane Hydrates: Methane can be trapped in solid ● Wildfires: Natural and human-induced wildfires can
form (hydrates) within certain geological formations, release methane stored in vegetation and soil into the
particularly in deep ocean sediments. atmosphere.
● Biological Uptake: Some microorganisms in aquatic ● Volcanoes: Some volcanoes emit methane as a part of
environments can consume methane. their gas emissions, although this source is relatively
● Anthropogenic Sinks: Techniques such as flaring and small compared to other natural sources.
combustion in oil and gas production can reduce ● Tundra Ecosystems: Like permafrost, tundra
methane emissions. ecosystems in cold regions can release methane as the
The methane cycle is an important component of the global ground thaws and microbial activity increases.
carbon cycle and has implications for climate change.
Methane is considered a more potent greenhouse gas It's important to note that while these are natural sources of
than carbon dioxide in the short term, although it has a methane emissions, human activities, especially related to
shorter atmospheric lifetime. Thus, understanding the agriculture, fossil fuel production, and waste management,
processes involved in the methane cycle and managing are the primary drivers of increased methane
methane emissions is critical for climate mitigation efforts. concentrations in the atmosphere. Reducing anthropogenic
Efforts to reduce methane emissions, both from natural methane emissions is crucial in mitigating climate change,
sources and human activities, are crucial for minimizing its
 19

as methane is a potent greenhouse gas with a much higher ● Livestock Manure Management: Improper handling
short-term warming potential than carbon dioxide. and storage of livestock manure can lead to methane
Human Source of Methane Emissions emissions. Methane can be released from manure
Human activities are significant contributors to methane lagoons and during manure application to fields.
emissions, and they have a substantial impact on the ● Fracking (Hydraulic Fracturing): The hydraulic
concentration of methane in the Earth's atmosphere. Some fracturing process in natural gas extraction can release
of the primary human sources of methane emissions methane if not properly managed. Leakages from
include: fracking operations contribute to methane emissions.
● Energy Production and Use: Methane is released ● Leakage from Natural Gas Infrastructure: Aging
during the extraction, production, and transportation or poorly maintained natural gas infrastructure can
of fossil fuels, such as natural gas and oil. Leaks and result in methane leaks, which are a significant source
venting from oil and natural gas infrastructure, of emissions.
including wells, pipelines, and storage facilities, are Efforts to reduce anthropogenic methane emissions often
major sources of methane emissions. focus on improving technology and infrastructure,
● Agriculture: Agricultural activities are a major source implementing methane capture and utilization systems, and
of methane emissions, particularly from livestock and promoting sustainable agricultural and land management
rice cultivation. Cattle and other ruminant animals practices. Reducing methane emissions is an important
produce methane during digestion through a process strategy for mitigating climate change, given methane's
called enteric fermentation. Additionally, flooded high global warming potential over shorter timescales
paddy fields create anaerobic conditions in which compared to carbon dioxide.
methane-producing microbes thrive. MethaneSAT: A Game-Changing Environmental
● Landfills and Waste Management: Landfills are a Satellite
source of methane emissions as organic waste ● MethaneSAT is an innovative environmental
decomposes in anaerobic conditions. Proper landfill satellite mission designed to monitor and
management, including methane capture and measure methane emissions, a potent
utilization, can reduce these emissions. greenhouse gas contributing to climate change.
● Wastewater Treatment: Anaerobic conditions in ● The primary objective of MethaneSAT is to
wastewater treatment facilities can lead to methane enhance our understanding of methane sources,
production as organic matter is broken down. Methane identify leaks, and hold polluters accountable,
capture and utilization systems can help mitigate ultimately aiding in emissions reduction efforts.
emissions from these sources. ● MethaneSAT employs advanced remote sensing
● Biomass Burning: The burning of organic materials, technology to provide high-resolution data on
such as wood, crop residues, and forest debris, releases methane concentrations, enabling precise
methane and other greenhouse gases into the tracking and measurement of emissions.
atmosphere. This occurs in various contexts, including ● By detecting and mitigating methane leaks from
wildfires and the use of biomass for cooking and various sources, including the energy sector,
heating. agriculture, and natural sources, MethaneSAT
● Coal Mining: Methane is often released during coal plays a crucial role in combatting climate
mining operations due to the presence of methane in change and promoting a sustainable future.
coal seams. Ventilation systems and capture
techniques are employed to mitigate emissions in Phosphorus cycle (Sedimentary Cycle)
underground mines. ● Phosphorus is found in trace levels in the atmosphere.
● Rice Cultivation: While rice cultivation was As a result, the phosphorus cycle can only partially
mentioned as a natural source of methane emissions, follow the water (hydrological) cycle—from land to
human agricultural practices, including water sea. Because phosphorus lost in this manner is not
management and irrigation, can influence methane restored to the ecosystem via the biogeochemical
emissions from rice fields. cycle, phosphorus is in limited supply under natural
conditions.
 20

● The fast proliferation of algae in water receiving are modest, yet the huge volume of water results in a
significant discharges of phosphorus-rich wastes significant global pool of phosphorus. The organic
emphasises the natural shortage of phosphorus in phosphorus in surface waters is decomposed and
aquatic ecosystems. mineralized (internally cycled) in days, and the great
● Phosphorus is mostly stored in rock and natural majority of phosphorus taken up in primary production
phosphate deposits. Weathering, leaching, erosion, is decomposed and mineralized (internally cycled) in
and mining release phosphorus from these rocks and surface waters. Approximately 2 1012 g P/YR, on the
minerals for use as agricultural fertilisers. The other hand, gets deposited in ocean sediments or
weathering of calcium phosphate minerals provides carried to deep seas. Organic phosphorus transformed
nearly all of the phosphorus in terrestrial ecosystems. into inorganic, soluble forms in deep waters is
Only a small portion of total phosphorus is available unavailable to phytoplankton in surface waters until
to plants in most soils. The internal cycling of carried by upwelling. Over time, elevating and
phosphorus form organic to inorganic forms (nutrient subsequent weathering return this phosphorus to the
cycling) is the fundamental process regulating active cycle.
phosphorus availability for net primary output. Some
of the phosphorus available in terrestrial ecosystems Sulphur Cycle (Mostly Sedimentary
escapes and is exported to lakes and seas.
● More than half of the phosphorus zooplankton excrete
Cycle)
● The sulphur cycle has both sedimentary and gaseous
is inorganic phosphate, which is taken up by
phases.
phytoplankton.
● The sulphur cycle is a biogeochemical cycle that
● The remaining phosphorus in aquatic ecosystems
primarily occurs in sedimentary environments,
exists in organic compounds that may be used by
involving the movement and transformation of sulphur
bacteria, which fail to regenerate much dissolved
in various forms. Unlike the nitrogen and carbon
inorganic phosphate. Bacteria are consumed by the
cycles, which involve significant gaseous phases, the
microbial grazers, which then excrete the phosphate
sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary. Here's a detailed
they ingest. Part of the phosphate is deposited in
overview of the sulphur cycle:
shallow sediments and part in deep water.
Sulphur Minerals and Rocks:
● In the process of ocean upwelling, the movement of
● The sulphur cycle begins with sulphur minerals and
deep waters to the surface brings some phosphates
rocks in the Earth's crust. These minerals contain
from the dark depths to shallow waters, where light is
sulphur in various forms, such as sulphides (e.g.,
available to drive photosynthesis. These phosphates
pyrite) and sulphates (e.g., gypsum).
are taken up by phytoplankton.
● Weathering processes, including physical and
● Part of the phosphorus contained in the bodies of
chemical weathering, break down these minerals,
plants and animals sinks to the bottom and is deposited
releasing sulphur compounds into the environment.
in the sediments. As a result, surface waters may
Sulphur in Soils:
become depleted of phosphorus, and the deep waters
● Sulphur compounds released from rocks and minerals
become saturated. Much of this phosphorus becomes
become part of the soil.
locked up for long periods of time in the hypolimnion
● Sulphur can also enter soils through atmospheric
and bottom sediments, and some is returned to the
deposition in the form of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and
surface waters by upwelling.
sulphate aerosols from volcanic eruptions and
● Although airborne transport of phosphorus in soil dust
industrial emissions.
and sea spray is on the order of 1 1012 g P/YR, the
Plant Uptake:
global phosphorus cycle is unique among the major
● Plants absorb sulphur from the soil in the form of
biogeochemical cycles in that it lacks a large
sulphate ions (SO4^2-).
atmospheric component.
● Sulphur is an essential nutrient for plants, playing a
● Rivers transfer around 21 1012 g P/YR to the oceans,
role in the synthesis of amino acids, proteins, and other
but only about 10% of that quantity is available for net
sulphur-containing compounds.
primary productivity. The remainder settles in
Assimilation by Organisms:
sediments. Phosphorus concentrations in ocean waters
 21

● Sulphur is transferred through the food web as ● The release of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and hydrogen
herbivores consume plants and carnivores consume sulphide (H2S) into the atmosphere can lead to acid
herbivores. rain and air pollution.
● Microorganisms, especially sulphur bacteria, play a ● Efforts to reduce sulphur emissions, such as the use of
significant role in the cycling of sulphur. Sulphur cleaner fuels and technologies, have mitigated some of
bacteria can perform sulphur transformations, such as these environmental issues.
sulphur reduction and oxidation. Sulphur in Sediments:
Sulphur Compounds in Aquatic Ecosystems: ● Sulphur can accumulate in sedimentary deposits over
● Sulphur compounds can enter aquatic ecosystems geological time scales.
through runoff from terrestrial environments and ● These sedimentary sulphur deposits can eventually
atmospheric deposition. become accessible for weathering and re-enter the
● In aquatic systems, sulphur can cycle between cycle.
sediments, water columns, and organisms. ● The sulphur cycle is crucial for the formation of
● Sulphate-reducing bacteria are essential in anaerobic sulphur-containing compounds in living organisms,
sediments, where they convert sulphate into hydrogen the regulation of atmospheric chemistry, and the
sulphide (H2S). overall health of ecosystems. Proper management of
Volcanic Activity: sulphur emissions is essential for minimizing
● Volcanic eruptions release sulphur dioxide (SO2) and environmental impacts such as acid rain and air
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) into the atmosphere, pollution.
contributing to atmospheric sulphur.
● These emissions can lead to the formation of sulphate
aerosols, which can affect climate and atmospheric
chemistry.
Human Impact:
● Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil
fuels and industrial processes, have significantly
altered the sulphur cycle.
 22

Chapter: 6 Natural Ecosystems

A group of plants and animals that can work together as life cycle is completed. The tundra region is home to a
a unit and retain their individuality is referred to as a variety of animals, including reindeer, arctic fox,
natural ecosystem. Ecosystems fall into two primary wolves, muskox, polar bears, lemmings, arctic hares,
categories: 1) Ecosystems on land; and 2) ecosystems in and arctic willow. Amphibians and reptiles are hardly
the sea. present. The majority of animals live lengthy lives; for
instance, an arctic willow can live for 150 to 300 years.
Terrestrial Ecosystems or Biomes Thick epidermal hair or fur and cuticles shield them
The biosphere's terrestrial component can be divided into from cold. To prevent heat loss from the surface,
vast areas known as biomes. Each biome is unique. They mammals have big bodies and short tails and ears.
have a unique soil type, vegetation, animal life, and climate Taiga/Boreal Biome
(mostly in terms of temperature and precipitation). Among all forest ecosystems, boreal (Taiga) forests have
Major Biomes the lowest production. This is primarily due to the
Tundra inclement weather and the thin, deplorable soils known as
● Arctic and Alpine Tundra Biome podzols. Because cold climates slow down the weathering
Forest of rocks and the decomposition of conifer leaf litter,
● Taiga or Boreal Biome (Evergreen Coniferous podzols are extremely deficient in humus. Because of the
forests) low humus level and generally acidic soils caused by the
● Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe slow decomposition of organic matter, it is not nutrient-
– British Type Climate) rich. The major vegetation is an evergreen coniferous
● Temperate Rainforest Biome forest with species including spruce, fir, and pine. Conifers
● Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, do not shed their leaves frequently. Conifers thrive in sub-
South Eastern USA Arctic climates and require little precipitation. The
● Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf, bear, red fox,
Climate) squirrel, and amphibians like Hyla and Rana are among the
● Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate) creatures that may be found in this area.
● Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome Podzols
● Tropical Rain Forest Biome A coniferous or boreal biome's typical soils are called
Grassland podzols. The soil's top layer is extremely thin and sits on
● Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome top of a sandy or loamy subsurface that is devoid of
● Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome (Tropical organic matter (lost as a result of nutrients being
Shrublands and Grasslands) leached to the bottom layers). The soils are highly
Desert drained and have little moisture content. Others suffer from
● Tropical and Mid Latitude Desert Biome inadequate drainage and shallow root zones as a result of
subsurface cementation.
Tundra Biome
● A low pH makes the problem worse. The excessive
Arctic and alpine tundra are the two varieties. High
leaching (loss) of alkaline (basic) matter, which, if
mountains above the tree line have alpine tundra.
present, would neutralise the organic acids of the
Examples include the Himalayas, the Andes, the Alps, etc.
increasing litter, is the cause of the low pH (acidic).
● Because of permafrost, which occurs when the earth is
As a result, most Podzols make poor agricultural
entirely frozen for at least two consecutive years, there
soils. Their main purpose is grazing.
are no trees in the tundra. Lichens, the lowest kind of
flora, are sporadic on bare rocks and are similar to Temperate Deciduous Biome
mosses. Reindeer can only forage on reindeer moss, In the temperate zones of the Northern and Southern
which is only found in coastal lowlands. Hemispheres, there exist temperate deciduous woods. They
● Birds move north in the summer to feed on the have four different seasons, including hot, rainy summers
countless insects that emerge when the snow thaws. and chilly, dry winters. To conserve water for the winter,
The fortunate time of the year is when an insect's short the trees in these woods shed their leaves in the autumn.
 23

● Temperate deciduous woods have a varied range of ● Bison, antelope, prairie dogs, wolves, foxes, raccoons,
plant and animal life, making them very diverse badgers, snakes, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, and
ecosystems. Many different animals, including birds, spiders are among the animals that can be found there.
mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, can find food and Temperate Deciduous Biome
shelter among the trees. With their assistance in (Mediterranean)
filtering runoff and rainwater, trees also contribute ● The hot, dry summers and moderate, wet winters are
significantly to the water cycle. the hallmarks of the temperate deciduous biome,
Examples: sometimes referred to as the Mediterranean biome.
● Trees: Oak, Maple, Birch, Beech, Elm, Hickory, and The Mediterranean region, as well as portions of
Chestnut. California, Chile, Australia, and South Africa, are
● Animals: Deer, bears, wolves, foxes, rabbits, home to this biome.
songbirds, amphibians, and reptiles are just a few ● Plants: tulip tree, dogwood, redbud, rhododendron,
examples. azalea, oak, maple, beech, birch, aspen, hickory, and
Temperate Rainforest Biome walnut
● Climate: Year-round rainfall is abundant and ● Animals include deer, rabbits, squirrels, wolves, bears,
temperatures in temperate rainforests are moderate. In coyotes, raccoons, opossums, skunks, songbirds,
the summer, temperatures typically vary from 50 to 60 reptiles, amphibians, and insects.
degrees Fahrenheit, while in the winter, they drop to Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon
30 to 40 degrees. There are between 40 and 100 inches
Climate)
of rain on average each year. ● Climate: The warm, humid climate of tropical
Examples of species: deciduous biomes has a distinct dry season. The
● Plants: sword fern, Sitka spruce, redwood, Douglas typical temperature is between 20 and 30 °C (68 and
fir, and moss 86 °F). The yearly rainfall ranges from 700 to 2000
● Animals: a hummingbird, salamander, frog, snake, mm (28 to 79 inches), however the monsoon season
lizard, beetle, butterfly, mosquito, bear, wolf, elk, sees the heaviest rainfall.
eagle, hawk, and owl. ● Tropical deciduous biomes have a dominant tree
Subtropical Deciduous Biome species that sheds its leaves throughout the dry
Subtropical areas with four different seasons are home to season. This is a method of water conservation. The
deciduous woods. They are distinguished by trees with species of teak, sal, neem, and mango trees are a few
an autumn leaf loss and a spring leaf regrowth cycle. common ones. There are also bushes, grasses, and
This is a response to the harsh, dry winters these woodlands wildflowers in this biome.
endure. ● Elephants, tigers, leopards, monkeys, deer, wild boars,
● Plants: Oak trees, Maple trees, Birch trees, Beech pangolins, Indian foxes, jackals, and wolves are
trees, Hickory trees, Dogwood trees, Rhododendrons, examples of mammals.
Azaleas, Ferns, and Mosses. ● Birds include hornbills, egrets, herons, parakeets,
● Animals: White-tailed deer, black bears, red foxes, pheasants, peacocks, and herons.
grey wolves, Eastern cottontail rabbits, Fox squirrels, ● Reptiles include turtles, crocodiles, lizards, and
Grey squirrels, wild turkeys, Cardinals, Blue Jays, and snakes.
Woodpeckers. ● Amphibians include salamanders, toads, and frogs.
Steppe/Temperate Grassland Biome Savannah or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome
● Climate: The semiarid steppes feature hot summers ● The hot, dry environment of savannas has a wet
and chilly winters. The annual amount of rainfall is season. With a few trees and shrubs, the vegetation is
moderate, averaging 25 to 50 centimetres (10 to 20 largely made up of grasses.
inches). ● Plants: Elephant grass, guinea grass, baobab trees,
● Grass predominates in steppe vegetation; there are few and acacia trees.
trees or bushes. ● Animals: Wildebeest, gazelles, warthogs, lions,
● Blue grama, buffalo grass, purple needlegrass, galleta, elephants, giraffes, zebras, rhinoceroses, cheetahs, and
yarrow, hyssop, and milkweed are examples of plants. vultures.
 24

Managed Fires Rejuvenates Savannah: ● High biodiversity: Over half of all known plant and
● By removing dead and dying plant matter, managed animal species are found in tropical rainforests, which
burns are used to revitalise savannas. This can help to are home to a broad range of different flora and
reduce the risk of wildfires and encourage the animals. The warm, muggy weather and copious
establishment of new plants. Additionally, fires aid in rainfall are partly blame for this high biodiversity.
preventing the spread of pests and alien species. Plants:
● Since savannas are naturally prone to fire, many plants ● Trees: strangler fig trees, rubber trees, mahogany
and animals have developed fire resistance. For trees, kapok trees, and orchids
instance, certain trees have thick bark that shields ● Shrubs: ferns, lianas, mosses, and bromeliads
them from fire damage, while some grasses have seeds ● Vines: Epiphytes, including ferns and orchids
that can reappear after a fire. Animals:
● Typically, managed fires are started in the dry season ● Mammals: kinkajous, sloths, jaguars, ocelots, tapirs,
when there is less of a chance for wildfires. monkeys, and apes
Firefighters put out the fires by using fire breaks and ● Birds: hummingbirds, parrots, toucans, and macaws
other strategies to stop them from getting out of ● Snakes, lizards, and crocodiles are reptiles.
control. ● Frogs, salamanders, and other amphibians
Savannas can gain from controlled fires in a number of ● Butterflies, moths, beetles, ants, and other insects
ways, including: Epiphytes:
● Fires eliminate dead and dying plant matter, which ● Epiphytes are plants that grow on other plants without
releases nutrients into the soil and promotes better drawing their nutrition from the host plant. They
plant growth. This may aid in enhancing the growth of can be seen growing on trees, branches, and even other
young plants. epiphytes in tropical rainforests, where they are quite
● Fires can contribute to the reduction of savanna's fuel prevalent.
load, which can lessen the likelihood and severity of ● Epiphytes are able to endure in the rainforest
wildfires. environment because to a variety of adaptations. For
● Pest and invasive species control: Fires can aid in the instance, many epiphytes have unique roots that
prevention of the spread of insects and invasive enable them to take in nutrients and water from the air
species like ticks and mosquitoes. as well as from decomposing leaves and other organic
● A better environment for wildlife: Fires are essential matter that builds up on the branches where they grow.
to the habitat of many savanna animals. For instance, Additionally, certain epiphytes have thick, waxy
some animals graze on the newly sprung plants that leaves that aid in minimising water loss.
develop after a fire, and some birds build their nests in Examples of epiphytes that can be found in the tropical
the charred grasses. rainforest habitat are as follows:
Tropical Rainforest Biome ● Orchids: With more than 25,000 species currently
● High annual rainfall: The average annual rainfall in recognised by science, orchids are the most varied
tropical rainforests ranges from 50 to 260 inches. For group of epiphytes. Orchids come in a huge range of
the local flora and animals to survive, there must be a hues and forms, and many are prized for their exquisite
lot of rain. blooms.
● Warm climate: Tropical rainforests experience warm ● Bromeliads: Another widespread group of epiphytes
weather all year long, with typical highs of 70 to 85 is the bromeliad. They have large, fleshy leaves that
degrees Fahrenheit. A broad diversity of plants and may contain water in the shape of a cup. As a result,
animals can live in this warm climate. bromeliads can gather nutrients from the air and
● Dense vegetation: A variety of plants, including trees, rainwater.
shrubs, vines, and epiphytes, can be found in tropical ● Ferns: In the tropical rainforest, ferns are a common
rainforests. Because of the vegetation's extreme epiphyte. Their large, feathery leaves are perfectly
density, a canopy frequently forms that prevents designed to soaking up sunshine.
sunlight from reaching the forest floor. ● Mosses and lichens: In the tropical rainforest, mosses
and lichens, which are tiny, non-vascular plants, are
frequently seen growing on trees and rocks. Both the
 25

cycling of nutrients and the breakdown of organic Amazon rainforest, like the jaguar and the giant river
matter depend on them. otter, are at risk from poaching.
Importance of Rainforests: ● The Amazon rainforest must be preserved because it
20% of the oxygen on earth is produced by rainforests. is essential to the health of the global environment.
● Rainforests can sequester a significant amount of the The Amazon rainforest supports wildlife, cleans the
carbon emitted by human activity. water, and controls climate. The inhabitants of the
● Precipitation: The rainforests produce between 50% Amazon rainforest also reap a variety of financial
and 75% of their precipitation through advantages from it.
evapotranspiration. Effects of Rainforest Deforestation:
● Source of numerous rivers: The majority of the ● Climate change: By absorbing carbon dioxide from
world's largest rivers originate in rainforests. The the atmosphere, rainforests play a critical role in
Mekong, Congo (Zaire), and Amazon are a few controlling the world's climate. This carbon dioxide is
significant rivers that are supplied by the rainforests. released back into the atmosphere when rainforests are
● Biodiversity: There are approximately 30 million destroyed, causing climate change.
different types of plants and animals in rainforests. ● Water cycle disruption: By releasing water vapour
That is at least two-thirds of the plant species on the into the atmosphere, rain forests play a significant part
planet and half of the animal species. in the water cycle. When this water vapour condenses,
● Commercial Agriculture: Rainforests provide an it becomes rain, replenishing water resources. This
environment that is favourable for growing water cycle is disturbed when rainforests are
commercial crops like coffee, cocoa (chocolate), palm, destroyed, resulting in droughts and floods.
rubber, etc. (all of which need between 100 and 200 ● Biodiversity loss: Rainforests are home to a diverse
cm of rainfall annually). range of plants and animals, many of which are unique
● Indigenous communities: For thousands of years, to that region on Earth. These plants and animals are
many indigenous people have coexisted peacefully lost when rainforests are destroyed, which contributes
with the rainforest, relying on it for food, shelter, to the decline in biodiversity.
medicines, and daily needs. farming (slash-and-burn
farming). In order to prevent soil erosion, rainforests have extensive
Amazon Rainforest: root systems. When rainforests are eliminated, this soil is
● The Amazon rainforest, which spans an area of more more susceptible to wind and rain erosion, which can result
than 5.5 million square kilometres, is the largest in landslides and mudslides.
rainforest in the world. Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Indigenous people displacement: A large number of
Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and indigenous peoples depend on rainforests for their way of
Venezuela are among the nine South American nations life. These indigenous peoples are frequently uprooted and
that it crosses. compelled to relocate when rainforests are destroyed, and
There are several threats to the Amazon rainforest, they may experience discrimination and hardship when
including: they do.
● Deforestation is the process of removing forests to Amazon Rainforest: Threats - Frequent Fires
make way for industrial mining or other land uses. The The Amazon Rainforest, often referred to as the "Lungs of
greatest danger to the Amazon jungle is deforestation. the Earth," faces numerous threats, with frequent fires
● Climate change: The Amazon rainforest is getting being one of the most pressing concerns. This section
hotter and drier as a result of climate change. As a delves into the challenges posed by these recurring fires in
result, the rainforest is becoming more susceptible to the Amazon.
pests and wildfires. 1. Natural Fires vs. Human-Induced Fires
● Another danger to the Amazon jungle is mining for ● Natural Fires: The Amazon has a natural fire regime,
commodities like gold and iron ore. Deforestation, where fires occur sporadically as a part of the
water pollution, and other environmental harm can all ecosystem's evolution. These fires are typically of low
be brought on by mining. intensity and play a role in maintaining ecological
● Poaching: The illegal taking of animals is known as balance.
poaching. Many of the threatened species in the
 26

● Human-Induced Fires: A significant portion of fires essential for the long-term preservation of the
in the Amazon is ignited by human activities, such as Amazon.
deforestation, land clearance for agriculture, and Frequent fires in the Amazon Rainforest pose a severe
illegal logging. These fires are often uncontrolled and threat to both local ecosystems and the global environment.
more destructive. Addressing this issue requires a multifaceted approach that
2. Worsening Deforestation includes policy reforms, enforcement of environmental
● Linked to Fires: Deforestation often precedes and regulations, and sustainable land management practices,
accompanies fires in the Amazon. As more land is while also considering the vital role of indigenous
cleared for agricultural and industrial purposes, the communities in safeguarding this critical ecosystem.
likelihood of fires increases. Desert Biome
● Loss of Biodiversity: Deforestation and associated One of the driest biomes on Earth is the desert. Less than
fires result in the loss of critical habitats, threatening 10 inches of rain fall on deserts annually, and some deserts
the Amazon's rich biodiversity, including many experience years without rain. Every continent outside
endangered species. Europe has a desert, and they make up around one-fifth of
3. Air Pollution and Health Risks the planet's area.
● Smoke and Haze: The extensive fires release massive Desert biome characteristics
amounts of smoke and haze, affecting air quality not ● Low precipitation: There is hardly any rain or snow
only in the Amazon but also in neighbouring regions in deserts.
and even distant cities. ● Extreme temperatures: Deserts can have daytime
● Health Impacts: Prolonged exposure to air pollution highs and nighttime lows.
from Amazon fires can lead to respiratory and ● Plant life is sparse since it has adapted to the dry
cardiovascular problems, especially for vulnerable conditions of the desert environment. Their leaves are
populations. frequently tiny or wax-coated to prevent water loss,
4. Carbon Emissions and Climate Impact and they have deep roots to access water.
● Carbon Release: The burning of Amazon forests ● Wildlife with specific adaptations: Animals in the
releases vast amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the desert environment are also able to survive in the arid
atmosphere, contributing to global greenhouse gas circumstances. They might avoid the heat of the day
emissions and exacerbating climate change. by being nocturnal, or they might have unique
● Feedback Loop: Increased fires and deforestation can characteristics that allow them to preserve water.
create a feedback loop, where the Amazon's capacity The four primary types of deserts are as follows:
to sequester carbon is diminished, potentially ● Deserts that are hot and dry: These are the deserts
accelerating climate change. that are hot and dry on Earth. They can be found in
5. Policy and Enforcement Challenges places like Asia's Arabian Desert and Africa's Sahara
● Illegal Logging and Land Grabbing: Weak Desert.
enforcement of environmental regulations and laws ● Semi-arid deserts: While receiving a little more
allows illegal logging and land grabbing, which can precipitation than hot and dry deserts, these deserts are
escalate fire risks. nonetheless extremely dry. They can be discovered in
● Indigenous Rights: Protecting the rights of places like the Patagonian Desert in South America
indigenous peoples who are often the stewards of the and the Great Basin Desert in North America.
Amazon can be challenging, as their land is vulnerable ● Deserts occurring along coastlines are referred to as
to encroachment and deforestation. coastal deserts. Despite getting very little rain, they are
6. Global Cooperation and Conservation Efforts frequently misty. They can be found in places like the
● International Efforts: Addressing the issue of fires in Namib Desert in Africa and the Atacama Desert in
the Amazon requires international collaboration and South America.
funding to support conservation initiatives and ● Cold deserts: These deserts can be found in polar
sustainable land use practices. regions or at high elevations. They are extremely dry
● Indigenous Involvement: Empowering indigenous and chilly. They can be found in places like the Arctic
communities to protect and manage their territories is Desert in North America and the Gobi Desert in Asia.
 27

Cacti, succulents, grasses, shrubs, and trees Animals surrounding water. Plants won't be able to generate enough
include camels, lizards, snakes, scorpions, birds, and food to sustain the ecosystem if the photic zone is too
insects. shallow.
● Aphotic zone: The aphotic zone is the water layer
Aquatic Ecosystems underneath the photic zone when insufficient sunshine
Aquatic ecosystems are groups of plants and animals that prevents photosynthesis from taking place.
live in bodies of water. Decomposers, which disassemble dead organisms and
They are divided into two categories: replenish the ecosystem with nutrients, live in the
1. Freshwater ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes, and aphotic zone. The environment will get polluted if the
ponds, aphotic zone is too deep since there won't be enough
2. Marine ecosystems, such as oceans, estuaries, and decomposers to completely decompose all of the dead
mangroves. Based on salinity, they are divided into the creatures.
following categories: ● Dissolved oxygen: The majority of aquatic creatures
● Freshwater ecosystems: Freshwater is land- depend on this gas for living. Pollution and turbidity
based water that is constantly cycling and has a can lower the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water,
low salt concentration (always less than 5 ppt). which has a negative impact on ecosystem
Freshwater ecosystems come in two varieties: 1) productivity.
Ecosystems of static/still water (Lentic), such as ● Temperature: Water-based organisms' rates of
ponds, lakes, bogs, and swamps. 2) Ecosystems metabolism are impacted by temperature. Organisms
with flowing water (Lotic), such as springs, will be less productive if the water is too cold or too
streams, rivers, etc. hot since they won't be able to function properly.
● Marine ecosystems: any bodies of water with a
salinity level that is 35 parts per trillion (ppt) or When a lake or pond freezes over and the oxygen levels
higher, or that is at least as salty as saltwater. For in the water below the ice drop, a phenomena known as
instance, open oceans and shallow seas. winterkill takes place. This could occur if there is a thick
● Brackish water environments, which include layer of snow on the ice, which would block sunlight from
estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps, and penetrating the water and thwart photosynthesis. The
mangrove forests, are water bodies with a salt oxygen content of the water will drop without
content of 5 to 35 ppt. photosynthesis, which will cause fish and other aquatic
animals to suffocate and perish.
Aquatic Organisms
1. Neuston: Microscopic organisms living on the water
surface (Example: water strider) Natural Ecosystem Services and Goods
2. Periphyton: Microscopic organisms attached to Natural ecosystem services: The advantages that come
submerged surfaces (Example: algae on rocks) from ecosystems for people. These services might be
3. Plankton: Microscopic organisms that drift in the direct, like providing food and water, or indirect, like
water (Example: phytoplankton and zooplankton) controlling the climate and purifying the water.
4. Nekton: Free-swimming organisms (Example: fish, ● Natural ecosystem goods: Material things that
squid, dolphins) humans can see and touch, such food, wood, and
5. Benthos: Organisms that live on or in the bottom of healing herbs, that come from ecosystems.
the water body (Example: crabs, sea stars, coral). The following broad categories can be used to group
ecological services:
Factors Limiting the Productivity
● Cultural: Recreation, travel, etc
Photosynthesis, the process through which plants make
● Provisioning : Includes things like food, water for
food, using sunlight. Plant productivity may be hampered
drinking, genetic resources, herbal remedies, and
by turbidity (water's cloudiness), which can lower the
biomass energy. Crops, raw commodities, and other
amount of sunlight that reaches them.
economic factors.
The layer of water known as the photic zone has enough
● Regulating: Climatic stability, carbon sequestration,
sunlight to support photosynthesis. The photic zone's depth
decomposition, detoxification, healthy biodiversity,
changes according on the sun's angle and the purity of the
 28

lowering the danger of extreme weather occurrences, better knowledge of the economic worth of
etc. ecosystems.
● Ecological: Soil creation and rejuvenation, nutrient The Economics of Ecosystems And
cycling, toxicity breakdown, flood protection, etc.) Biodiversity (TEEB)
Quantifying the Economic Value of Natural A global programme called The Economics of
Ecosystems Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) aims to "make
● Making an accurate assessment of the economic worth nature's values visible." Its fundamental goal is to
of natural ecosystems is difficult, but it is necessary in incorporate ecosystem services and biodiversity values at
order to manage and conserve them. Calculating the all levels of decision-making.
value of the commodities and services an ecosystem ● TEEB pursues this objective by employing a
offers is one method for determining the ecosystem's methodical approach to valuation that aids decision-
economic value. makers in:
● By taking into account the value of the timber, ● Recognise the variety of advantages that ecosystems
fuelwood, and other goods that a forest ecosystem and biodiversity offer.
generates as well as the value of the ecosystem ● Showcase your ideals through your business decisions
services that it offers, including carbon sequestration, ● Whenever possible, include these values into your
water filtering, and flood control, one can evaluate the decision-making.
worth of a forest ecosystem. Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)
● Calculating the cost of replacing the services an ● A conservation strategy known as "Payment for
ecosystem provides is another technique to Ecosystem Services" (PES) uses incentives to
determine its economic value. By estimating the cost encourage communities and landowners to provide
of building and operating a water treatment facility ecosystem services including clean water, carbon
that could offer the same level of service, for instance, sequestration, and biodiversity preservation. PES
one can estimate the cost of replacing the water programmes can take many different shapes, but they
filtering services that a forest ecosystem provides. all essentially entail a monetary payment being made
Economic values of natural ecosystems that can be from a buyer (like a government agency or private
measured: firm) to a seller (like a landowner or community) in
● It has been calculated that the value of the global exchange for the provision of a particular ecosystem
ecosystem services provided by rainforests ranges function.
from $16 trillion to $52 trillion annually. According ● PES programmes can be used to address a variety of
to estimates, coral reef ecosystem services are worth environmental issues, such as deforestation, water
between $375 billion and $9.9 trillion annually. The pollution, and climate change. They can also be
Amazon rainforest's ecosystem services are thought to employed to aid in the reduction of poverty and
be worth between $2.2 trillion and $3.4 trillion sustainable development.
annually.
● It is crucial to remember that these are only About PES schemes:
estimations and that the true economic worth of ● There are currently more than 1,000 PES systems in
natural ecosystems is probably substantially higher. existence in more than 70 countries, and PES
This is due to the fact that many of the services offered programmes are getting more and more widespread
by natural ecosystems, such as the aesthetic value of a around the world.
forest or the spiritual value of a sacred place, are ● PES programmes have a proven track record of
challenging to measure. promoting environmental advantages. The
● Despite the difficulties, it is crucial to estimate the International Union for Conservation of Nature
economic worth of natural ecosystems in order to (IUCN) reported, for instance, that PES programmes
make sensible management and protection choices. have been successful in reducing deforestation,
We can better appreciate the significance of enhancing water quality, and boosting carbon
conserving natural ecosystems and make more sequestration.
informed resource allocation decisions if we have a
 29

● PES programmes may also have good social and ● Water Filtration: Seagrass leaves and roots trap
economic effects. For instance, a research by the sediments and filter pollutants from the water,
World Resources Institute (WRI) concluded that PES improving water quality in coastal areas.
programmes have improved rural communities' ● Support for Biodiversity: Seagrass ecosystems
livelihoods and decreased poverty. enhance biodiversity by providing food and habitat for
Examples: various species, including sea turtles, manatees, and
● The Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) dugongs.
programme in Costa Rica One of the world's oldest Importance of Seagrass:
and most effective PES programmes, this programme ● Seagrass ecosystems are of immense ecological and
was first introduced in 1997. Forests offer a range of economic importance. They contribute to fisheries,
ecosystem services, including as carbon sequestration, protect coastlines, and play a role in climate regulation
water filtering, and biodiversity preservation, and the by sequestering carbon.
programme pays landowners to conserve them. Threats to Seagrass:
● The Sloping Land Conversion Programme in China Several factors threaten seagrass ecosystems,
The largest PES project in the world, this programme including:
was introduced in 1999. Programme participants ● Coastal Development: Urbanization and coastal
receive payments for converting sloped agricultural development can lead to habitat destruction and
land to woodland or grassland. This contributes to pollution, negatively impacting seagrass beds.
better water quality and less soil erosion. ● Pollution: Runoff from agriculture, industrial
● The Programme for the Payment of Hydrological activities, and sewage can introduce pollutants and
Environmental Services (PSH) in Mexico This nutrients into coastal waters, causing eutrophication.
initiative, which was started in 2000, pays landowners ● Boat Traffic and Anchoring: Boat propellers can
in Mexico City's upper watersheds to preserve the damage seagrass beds, and anchors can uproot
forests and other natural areas that provide the city seagrasses.
with clean water. ● Climate Change: Rising sea temperatures, ocean
● PES programmes hold great promise for tackling acidification, and sea-level rise due to climate change
environmental issues and promoting sustainable can affect seagrass growth and survival.
development. To ensure that PES programmes are Eutrophication:
efficient and fair, it is crucial to carefully plan and ● Eutrophication is the process by which a water body
implement them. becomes overly enriched with nutrients, primarily
Ecosystem Services by Seagrass nitrogen and phosphorus. This nutrient overload can
Ecosystem Services by Seagrass: result from human activities like agricultural runoff,
Seagrass meadows are valuable coastal ecosystems that sewage discharge, and the use of fertilizers.
provide various ecosystem services, including: Eutrophication can have several negative impacts on
● Habitat and Nursery Grounds: Seagrass meadows seagrass ecosystems:
serve as critical habitats for a wide range of marine ● Algae Blooms: Excessive nutrients can lead to
organisms, including fish, invertebrates, and juvenile algal blooms, which reduce light penetration in
species. Many commercially important fish species the water. This reduced light availability hinders
use seagrass beds as nursery areas. seagrass growth because seagrasses require
● Coastal Stabilization: The extensive root systems of sufficient light for photosynthesis.
seagrasses help stabilize sediments along coastlines, ● Dissolved Oxygen Depletion: Algal blooms and
reducing erosion and maintaining water clarity. subsequent decomposition can lead to a decrease
● Carbon Sequestration: Seagrasses capture and store in dissolved oxygen levels, which can be harmful
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping mitigate to seagrasses and other marine life.
climate change. They are highly efficient at Ecosystem Services by Seaweed
sequestering carbon, which is stored in their tissues Seaweed Cultivation's Potential in India:
and sediments. ● Seaweed cultivation in India has significant potential
for economic and environmental benefits. Seaweeds
 30

can be used for various purposes, including food, ● Regulatory Framework: Clear and supportive
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and biofuels. India's long regulations and policies for seaweed farming need to
coastline and diverse marine environments make it be established.
suitable for seaweed cultivation. Seaweed farming can ● Market Development: Developing a market for
generate income for coastal communities, provide an seaweed-based products is crucial for the economic
alternative livelihood for fishermen, and help improve viability of seaweed farming.
coastal ecosystem health through nutrient removal. ● Environmental Concerns: Sustainable seaweed
Challenges to Seaweed Harvesting in India: cultivation practices must be adopted to minimize
While seaweed cultivation has potential, several potential environmental impacts.
challenges must be addressed: ● Technology and Training: Adequate training and
● Lack of Awareness and Infrastructure: Limited technology transfer to local communities are
awareness and infrastructure for seaweed farming necessary for successful seaweed cultivation.
exist in India, which hinders its development.
 31

Chapter: 7 Wetland Ecosystem

Wetlands are regions where water plays a major role in 1. Chilika Lake - Odisha
regulating the environment and the plant and animal life 2. Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary) -
that goes along with it. They happen where the land's water Rajasthan
table is at or close to the surface or where there is a thin 3. Sundarbans - West Bengal
layer of water covering the ground. 4. Loktak Lake - Manipur
The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for 5. Wular Lake - Jammu and Kashmir
the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. The 6. Dal Lake - Jammu and Kashmir
Convention defines wetlands as: 7. Vembanad - Kerala
8. Pulicat Lake - Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
"Areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether 9. Rann of Kutch - Gujarat
natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with 10. Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary - Tamil
water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, Nadu
including areas of marine water the depth of which at 11. Deepor Beel - Assam
low tide does not exceed six metres". 12. Sambhar Lake - Rajasthan
13. Bhojtal (Upper Lake) - Madhya Pradesh
Characteristics of Wetlands 14. Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary - Gujarat
Wetlands have the following characteristics: 15. Pong Dam Lake - Himachal Pradesh
● Water presence: Wetlands contain water, either 16. Ashtamudi Lake - Kerala
continuously or intermittently. The water could be 17. Kolleru Lake - Andhra Pradesh
salty, brackish, or fresh. 18. Ujani Dam - Maharashtra
● Wetlands have hydric soils, which are soils that have 19. Tso Moriri - Ladakh
been waterlogged or submerged for so long that 20. Tso Kar - Ladakh
anaerobic (oxygen-depleted) conditions have
developed. Wetlands and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
● Hydrophytic vegetation: Plants that have adapted to 1. Biodiversity Preservation:
life in damp or flooded environments make up the ● Wetlands contribute to SDG 15 (Life on Land) by
hydrophytic vegetation seen in wetlands. serving as vital habitats for diverse flora and fauna.
Their protection helps conserve species and
Different Wetlands ecosystems, promoting biodiversity.
There are numerous varieties of wetlands, but a few of the 2. Climate Change Mitigation:
most prevalent ones are as follows: ● Underpinning SDG 13 (Climate Action), wetlands
1. Marshes: Marshes are wetlands where herbaceous store carbon and regulate climate by acting as carbon
(non-woody) plants predominate. sinks, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and
2. Swamps: Swamps are wetlands where plants and mitigating climate change impacts.
bushes predominate. 3. Water Resource Management:
3. Bogs: Peat moss growth creates these acidic marshes ● Wetlands align with SDG 6 (Clean Water and
known as bogs. Sanitation) by enhancing water quality, regulating
4. Fens: Alkaline wetlands that are created by water flow, and supporting sustainable water supply,
groundwater seepage are known as fens. thus addressing water-related challenges.
5. Estuaries: Estuaries are wetlands where saltwater 4. Livelihoods and Local Communities:
from the ocean and freshwater from rivers mix. ● Wetlands support SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 8
(Decent Work and Economic Growth) by providing
India is home to a diverse range of wetlands, and many of livelihood opportunities, food security, and economic
them are distributed across different states and union benefits to local communities.
territories. List of some of the important wetlands in India 5. Disaster Risk Reduction:
and the states or union territories where they are located:
 32

● In line with SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Hydrophytic plants, Phytoplankton and
Communities), wetlands reduce disaster risks by Dominant
such as grasses, algae.
acting as natural buffers against floods and storms, Producers
reeds, and sedges.
safeguarding human settlements.
Detritus-based food Grazer-based food
Wetland conservation is integral to achieving multiple
chain, with chain, with
SDGs, emphasizing their vital role in sustainable Food chain
microorganisms phytoplankton and
development.
playing a key role. algae at the base.
Differences Between Wetlands and Lakes
Wetlands are Lakes can vary in
Characteristics Wetlands Lakes
generally very productivity,
Can be formed by Formed by natural productive depending on a
natural or human processes, such as Productivity ecosystems. number of factors,
processes, such as glacial activity, such as nutrient
Origin
flooding, damming, volcanic eruptions, availability and
or coastal erosion. or tectonic water depth.
movements.
Wetlands can be Lakes can also be
Generally slower Generally faster oligotrophic oligotrophic,
than lakes, due to than wetlands, due (nutrient-poor), mesotrophic, or
Water the presence of to the lack of mesotrophic eutrophic.
Trophic status
turnover vegetation and obstructions and (moderately
other obstructions. the greater depth of nutrient-rich), or
the water column. eutrophic (nutrient-
Water levels can Water levels are rich).
fluctuate less likely to Wetlands play an Lakes can also
significantly, fluctuate important role in play a role in flood
Water level
depending on the significantly, flood control by control, but their
changes
season and although they may absorbing and effectiveness
precipitation be affected by storing depends on a
patterns. droughts or floods. Flood control floodwaters. number of factors,
Thermal Thermal such as the size and
stratification can stratification is depth of the lake
occur in wetlands, common in lakes, and the location of
but it is less especially deep the lake relative to
Thermal common than in lakes. the floodplain.
stratification lakes, due to the Wetlands can be Lakes can also be
shallower depth of used to treat used to treat
the water column wastewater and wastewater and
and the presence of agricultural runoff agricultural runoff,
vegetation. by removing but their
Vertical mixing is Vertical mixing is Waste pollutants and effectiveness
generally more generally more treatment sediments. depends on a
limited in wetlands pronounced in number of factors,
Vertical such as the size and
than in lakes, due to lakes, especially
mixing depth of the lake
the presence of deep lakes.
vegetation and and the type of
other obstructions. pollutants present.
 33

Differences Between Oligotrophic and Eutrophic lakes like tides, waves, and the influx of salt water. Estuaries are
Oligotrophic lake Eutrophic lake among the most productive natural environments in the
Characteristics world because of the high quantities of nutrients that are
produced by the mixing of freshwater and saltwater in the
A lake with low A lake with high water column and sediment. The majority of current
Definition nutrient levels and nutrient levels and estuaries were created during the Holocene epoch when
high water clarity. low water clarity. valleys that had been carved by rivers or glaciers were
Low nutrient levels High nutrient flooded as a result of the sea level rising around 10,000–
(such as nitrogen levels, low water 12,000 years ago.
and phosphorus), clarity, low
Water Estuary Formation
high water clarity, oxygen levels,
parameters Geological processes that result in the formation of
high oxygen levels, high chlorophyll
low chlorophyll levels. estuaries include:
levels. ● River flooding: During a flood, a river may deposit
silt in the river valley's lower reaches, creating a delta.
Phytoplankton and Phytoplankton
The delta may develop into an estuary over time.
Primary algae, but in and algae, in very
● Glacial activity: Glaciers that melt can sometimes
producers relatively low high numbers.
leave behind deep valleys that are flooded with water.
numbers.
Estuaries can develop in these valleys, especially if
Primary Relatively low. Very high. they are close to the shore.
productivity Estuaries can develop as a result of tectonic activity, which
Fish, zooplankton, Fish, can cause the land to sink. In coastal regions that are
and other aquatic zooplankton, and vulnerable to earthquakes and other geological dangers,
Consumers organisms. other aquatic this is particularly prevalent.
organisms, but in Differences Between Lagoon and Estuary
higher numbers.
Present, but in Present in very Characteristics Lagoon Estuary
relatively low high numbers,
Microbes A shallow coastal A partially
numbers. especially
body of water enclosed coastal
decomposers.
separated from the body of water with
sea by a barrier such one or more rivers
Definition
Estuarine Wetland Ecosystem as a coral reef or or streams flowing
Ecosystems known as estuarine wetland ecosystems sandbar. into it, and with a
develop where rivers, streams, and the ocean converge. free connection to
Their brackish waters, which are a blend of fresh and salt the open sea.
water, are what distinguish them. Some of the world's
Lagoons are formed Estuaries are
most productive ecosystems are estuarine wetlands, and
by a variety of formed by a
they offer both people and the environment a number of
geological variety of
significant advantages.
processes, such as geological
Formation barrier island processes, such as
Estuary Definition
formation, volcanic river flooding,
A coastal body of brackish water that is partially contained,
activity, and glacial activity,
has one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and has a
tectonic activity. and tectonic
free connection to the open sea is called an estuary.
activity.
Estuaries are an example of an ecotone since they are
areas where river ecosystems and ocean environments
meet. Estuaries are affected by fluvial impacts such flows
of freshwater and sediment as well as marine influences
 34

Lagoons can have a Estuaries have landward winds, the extensive mangrove trees on an
variety of salinities, brackish water, estuary's seaward side serve as a barrier to slow the wind's
depending on the which is a mixture progress through the coastal environment.
amount of of fresh and salt ● The estuary region experiences significant levels of
freshwater input water. clay and alluvium precipitation due to exposure to
Salinity saline water, which precipitates fine alluvium quickly.
from rivers and
streams and the Estuaries store and recycle nutrients, trap sediment,
amount of saltwater and operate as a barrier between coastal catchments
input from the and the marine environment. Mangroves serve as a
ocean. filter, capturing suspended mud and sand transported
by rivers that results in delta forms around estuaries.
Water flow in Water flow in
They serve as a natural water filter and additionally
lagoons is generally estuaries is
absorb, trap, and detoxify contaminants.
slower than in generally faster
Economic Importance:
Water flow estuaries. than in lagoons,
With roughly 60% of the world's population residing along
due to the presence
estuaries and the shore, estuaries are the most densely
of tides and
populated locations on earth. Estuaries are abundant in
currents.
natural resources, especially fisheries, thanks to their
Lagoons are Estuaries are wetlands, creeks, lagoons, mangroves, and seagrass beds.
generally less generally more They are perfect places for the construction of ports and
Productivity
productive than productive than harbours since they are deep and well protected from
estuaries. lagoons. maritime incursions.
Chilika Lake Hooghly River Estuarine Vegetation
(Odisha), Pulicat Estuary (West Estuaries are subject to significant salinity changes. Only a
Lake (Tamil Nadu), Bengal), Godavari few types of osmoregulatory plants and animals that have
Examples in Vembanad Lake River Estuary evolved to the brackish estuary waters thrive in estuaries.
India (Kerala) (Andhra Pradesh), The distribution (diversity and density) of organisms
Krishna River depends on salinity and flooding.
Estuary (Andhra Because river flow, tidal range, and sediment distribution
Pradesh) are constantly changing, estuaries are dynamic productive
ecosystems. As a result, they sustain a variety of habitats,
Great Barrier Reef Chesapeake Bay
including mudflats, seagrass, mangroves, and salt marshes.
Lagoon (Australia), Estuary (United
● Many land-based or terrestrial plants and animals,
Examples in Venice Lagoon States), Thames
including wood storks, pelicans, coniferous and
the world (Italy), Black Sea Estuary (United
deciduous trees, and butterflies, call these places
Lagoon (Ukraine) Kingdom), Seine
home. Sea turtles, sea lions, sea catfish, salt grasses,
Estuary (France)
seagrass, bulrush, and other unusual aquatic plants and
animals can be found in estuaries.
Importance of Estuaries ● Diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae, and blue-green
Ecological Importance: algae make up the estuarine phytoplankton. Algae and
Estuaries, or coastal wetlands, create an ecological seagrass are found closer to the coast. There are
transition zone between riverine and ocean environments. mangrove forests close to the river and delta mouths.
Due to the mixing of freshwater and saline water zones
Indian Estuarine Ecosystem
where marine species from both ecosystems interact, they 14 major, 44 medium, and 162 minor rivers flow through
are the most productive water bodies in the world (more several estuaries in India before emptying into the sea. The
prolific than other wetlands). east coast of India is home to the majority of its largest
A tranquil haven from the open sea, an estuary offers little estuaries. On the west coast, however, the estuaries are
wave movement, making it perfect for the survival of many smaller.
aquatic species. During cyclones and high-velocity
 35

Estuarine seaports in India: ● Eutrophication: The excess input of nutrients from

1. Kolkata (Hooghly River estuary) agriculture and other human activities can lead to
2. Haldia (Hooghly River estuary) eutrophication, causing algal blooms, reduced oxygen
3. Paradip (Mahanadi River estuary) levels, and changes in the composition of estuarine
4. Visakhapatnam (Godavari River estuary) communities.
5. Chennai (Cooum River estuary) ● Dredging and Channelization: Dredging and
6. Tuticorin (Vaigai River estuary) channelization for shipping and navigation can disrupt
7. Kochi (Periyar River estuary) sediment dynamics and water flow patterns, affecting
8. Mumbai (Ulhas River estuary) the natural functioning of estuaries.
9. Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (Nhava Sheva, Thane ● Oil Spills and Contaminants: Accidental oil spills
Creek estuary) and the release of contaminants from vessels can have
10. Kandla (Kutch Gulf) severe and long-lasting impacts on estuarine
11. Mangalore (Gurupura River estuary) ecosystems and wildlife.
● Aquaculture Practices: Some forms of aquaculture,
Estuarine tourist attraction spots in India: such as shrimp farming, can lead to habitat destruction
1. Chilika Lake (Odisha) and water quality degradation in estuarine areas.
2. Pulicat Lake (Tamil Nadu)
3. Vembanad Lake (Kerala) Mangroves
4. Sundarbans National Park (West Bengal) Mangroves are trees and shrubs that develop in intertidal
5. Bhitarkanika National Park (Odisha) zones, or the areas between land and the sea that are
6. Pichavaram Mangrove Forest (Tamil Nadu) submerged and exposed to the elements by the tides.
7. Sunderbans National Park Bangladesh (Bangladesh) They are widespread throughout the world's tropical and
subtropical climates and are crucial to the health of coastal
Threats Faced by The Estuarine Ecosystem ecosystems.
● Pollution: Pollution from industrial discharges, Mangroves have a variety of adaptations that help them
agricultural runoff, and untreated sewage can survive and prosper in their particular ecosystem. For
introduce various pollutants, including heavy metals, instance, they have unique roots that allow them to still be
chemicals, and nutrients, into estuarine waters, able to breathe while submerged in water. Additionally,
affecting water quality and aquatic life. mangroves have thick, waxy leaves that aid in minimising
● Habitat Destruction: Coastal development, including water loss.
the construction of ports, harbours, and infrastructure,
often leads to habitat destruction and loss of critical Favourable soil and environment for mangroves
estuarine areas. Mangroves favour warm, muddy soils for growth. They
● Mangrove Deforestation: Mangroves, a vital also require access to both fresh and saltwater, as well as
component of estuarine ecosystems, are often cleared lots of sunlight. Mangroves are frequently found in coastal
for aquaculture, urban expansion, and agriculture, lagoons, deltas, and estuaries.
leading to habitat loss and reduced coastal protection.
● Overfishing: Overfishing in estuarine areas can Formation of mangroves
disrupt the balance of the food chain and negatively Water or animals can spread mangrove seeds. A seed will
impact fish populations, which are often vital for both germinate and send roots down when it lands in a
ecological and economic reasons. favourable environment. The seedling's roots expand
● Invasive Species: The introduction of non-native swiftly and aid in securing it in the mud. The seedling
species into estuaries can outcompete native species, subsequently starts to develop into a tree.
disrupt ecosystems, and alter the natural balance. Mangroves can grow into dense forests that have numerous
● Climate Change: Rising sea levels, ocean positive effects on coastal ecosystems. Mangrove trees
acidification, and increased temperatures due to provide home for a variety of wildlife, protect shorelines
climate change can alter the physical and chemical from erosion, and filter pollutants from the sea.
conditions of estuarine ecosystems.
 36

Adaptive Mechanism of Mangroves Symbiotic Relationships: Mangroves often form

Mangroves are highly adaptive ecosystems found in mutualistic associations with mycorrhizal fungi that aid in
coastal areas, particularly in India. These unique habitats nutrient uptake and improve tolerance to stress.
have developed various adaptive mechanisms to thrive in Example: Rhizophora and Avicennia species often form
challenging conditions, including fluctuating salinity, mycorrhizal associations.
waterlogging, and high tides. Tolerance to High Radiation: Mangroves can endure
● Salt Exclusion: Mangroves actively exclude salt from high levels of solar radiation and intense sunlight, thanks
their roots, preventing excessive salt from entering to adaptations in their leaf structures.
their tissues. Example: Sonneratia apetala (fire-flame bush) has thick
● Example: Avicennia marina (grey mangrove) has leaves that protect against excess radiation.
specialized salt glands on its leaves to excrete excess These adaptive mechanisms enable mangroves to colonize
salt. and thrive in the harsh and dynamic coastal environments
● Vivipary: Mangroves often have viviparous seeds that of India and other regions. They are essential ecosystems
germinate while still attached to the parent tree. This that provide numerous benefits, including habitat for
adaptation helps seeds avoid predation and facilitates wildlife, coastal protection, and carbon sequestration.
rapid establishment in waterlogged soils. Mangroves in India
● Example: Rhizophora species exhibit vivipary, such In India's coastal ecosystems, mangroves are crucial. The
as Rhizophora mucronata. Sundarbans mangroves, as well as other prominent
● Aerial Roots: Mangroves develop various types of mangroves on the east coast, mangroves on the west coast,
aerial roots (e.g., pneumatophores, prop roots) that and the unusual practise of Kharai camels swimming to
allow them to obtain oxygen in waterlogged soils. mangrove islands, are described in depth below.
● Example: Rhizophora and Avicennia species often
have distinctive aerial root systems. Sundarban Mangroves:
● Tolerance to Anoxia: Mangroves can endure periods The largest mangrove forest in the world, the Sundarbans,
of waterlogged and oxygen-depleted soils by is situated in the delta region of Bangladesh and India. It is
employing aeration and the metabolic adaptations of situated in the southernmost region of West Bengal, India.
roots. It has been declared a World Heritage Site by
● Example: Rhizophora apiculata exhibits root UNESCO.
adaptations for anoxic conditions. ● Biodiversity: The Bengal tiger, countless bird species,
● Salt Tolerance: Mangroves have mechanisms to and innumerable aquatic invertebrates are just a few
tolerate and sequester salt in vacuoles or excrete it examples of the Sundarbans' abundant biodiversity.
through specialized salt glands. The critically endangered Irrawaddy dolphin calls it
● Example: Aegiceras corniculatum (river mangrove) is home.
known for its salt tolerance. o The only mangrove forest where tigers can be
● Halophytic Leaf Structures: Mangroves have found is in the Sundarbans delta (India and
evolved special leaf structures to cope with high salt Bangladesh). There are 400 or more tigers in the
concentrations, such as succulence and salt glands. Sundarbans, of which 88 are in the Indian portion.
● Example: Excoecaria agallocha (blinding tree) has o The Royal Bengal tiger (EN), saltwater crocodile
salt-secreting glands on its leaves. (LC), river terrapin, olive ridley turtle (VU),
● Desalination by Roots: Some mangrove species are Ganges river dolphin (EN), hawksbill turtle,
capable of desalinating seawater through their roots to mangrove horseshoe crab, etc. are among the
obtain fresh water for essential functions. major fauna of the Sundarbans.
● Example: Avicennia marina is known for its o With its enormous network of tidal canals,
desalination capabilities. mudflats, and tidal islands, the Sundarbans is
● Nutrient Efficiency: Mangroves are efficient in using unique.
nutrients, even in nutrient-poor conditions.
● Example: Ceriops decandra (yellow mangrove) can
efficiently take up nutrients from poor substrates.
 37

Major mangroves on the east coast include: subtropical and tropical coastal environments.
● Odisha's Bhitarkanika Mangroves are renowned for Mangroves do not exist outside the subtropics for
their saltwater crocodile population and variety of bird the following main reasons:
species. ● Mangroves are extremely sensitive to cold
● Pichavaram Mangroves- Pichavaram is a town in temperatures and are unable to withstand freezing
Tamil Nadu known for its complicated system of conditions. Mangroves occurring in subtropical and
canals and backwaters. tropical climates have developed special adaptations
● Mangroves in the Mahanadi River delta in Odisha are that allow them to tolerate warm and temperate
known as the Mahanadi Delta Mangroves, and they conditions.
are an essential part of the aquatic ecosystem. ● Frost Damage: Mangroves can suffer significant
Major mangroves on the west coast are: damage from even brief exposure to subfreezing
● Mumbai Mangroves: Mangrove ecosystems may be conditions, including the freezing and rupture of plant
found in Thane Creek and the other areas along cells. Mangrove trees may die as a result, and the
Mumbai's coastline. These mangroves are crucial for ecosystem as a whole may collapse.
preventing flooding in the city and act as fish ● Mangrove plants do not possess the physiological
nurseries. adaptations required to withstand and recover from
● Goa Mangroves: The Mandovi and Zuari estuaries frost damage. Mangroves lack these mechanisms, in
are just two of the state of Goa's many mangrove contrast to many temperate tree species that can
habitats. These mangroves are essential for preventing withstand severe winters by losing leaves or going
erosion along Goa's coastline. dormant.
Kharai Camels - India’s Swimming Camels: ● Mangroves are usually found in coastal areas with
● Kharai Camels Swim to Mangrove Islands: The warm, tropical climates. Warm Coastal Regions Have
Gujarati region of Kachchh is home to the rare breed a Limited Distribution. Their survival depends on the
of camels known as the Kharai. They are renowned for particular environmental factors, which include warm
their ability to navigate tidal conditions and are temperatures, regular tidal influences, and brackish
designed to swim in seawater. water. Outside of subtropical areas, these conditions
● The indigenous Maldhari community herds the Kharai are rare.
camels to the mangrove islands every year during the ● Competition from Temperate Species: In temperate
monsoon season in search of food and fresh water. regions, mangroves compete with temperate tree
To get to the islands, where they graze on the abundant species that can outcompete them since they are better
mangrove flora, these camels swim across the tidal creeks. adapted to the cold.
Global Status of Mangrove Cover ● Ocean Currents and Geographic Isolation: Ocean
In 113 nations, mostly in tropical and subtropical areas, currents and geographic isolation have an impact on
mangrove forests occupy 14.79 million hectares (1% of where mangroves are found. In some areas, cold water
tropical forests), according to the FAO's Global Forest currents may prevent the development of mangrove
Resource Assessment, 2020. South East Asia (5.55 million communities.
ha) has the biggest mangrove area, followed by Africa, the Importance of Mangroves
Americas, and Oceania (1.30 million ha). They serve as a riparian buffer and serve to trap pollutants,
● Only four nations were believed to contain more than such as heavy metal toxins, for coastal protection. They
40% of the world's mangroves: Indonesia (19%), improve the way that nutrients are naturally recycled.
Brazil (9%), Nigeria (7%) and Mexico (6%). In India, A crucial carbon sink are mangroves.
there are 4,992 Sq km of mangroves, or 0.15% of the ● The coastal areas are shielded from tsunamis, storm
nation's total land area (ISFR, 2021). surges (caused by cyclones), and soil erosion because
Why do mangroves not exist outside of the subtropics? to their intricate root systems, which are particularly
● The main reason mangroves are not found outside of effective at diffusing the energy of the sea waves.
subtropical areas is that they are sensitive to cold ● Mangroves decrease monsoonal tidal floods and
temperatures and freezing conditions. These lessen the inundation of coastal lowlands. They also
ecosystems were developed to survive in the particular
 38

operate as a zone of land accretion by promoting Threats to Mangroves

sediment deposition. ● Deforestation and Habitat Conversion: An
● Mangroves serve as natural barriers that lessen the illustration is the clearing of mangroves for
effects of tsunamis, storm surges, and coastal erosion. infrastructure, agriculture, and aquaculture projects.
They shield infrastructure and coastal populations ● Pollution: An illustration would be the discharge of
from the catastrophic effects of natural disasters. industrial effluents, sewage, and agricultural runoff
● Mangroves are one of the world's richest sources of that contain contaminants and nutrients that harm and
biodiversity, acting as a haven for numerous fish, bird, degrade mangrove habitats.
crab, and mollusc species. Many marine animals ● Climate change : Climate change, for instance, can
depend on them as vital nesting and breeding habitats. impact the physical and chemical characteristics of
● Mangroves are extremely effective in absorbing and mangrove habitats by raising sea levels, raising
storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which temperatures, and causing ocean acidification.
makes them important for preventing climate change. ● Fish populations, which are frequently crucial for both
Their heavy vegetation and saturated soils store carbon ecological and commercial reasons, can be badly
for a very long time. impacted by overfishing and other unsustainable and
● Water Quality Improvement: Mangroves improve excessive fishing methods.
water quality in coastal areas and sustain healthy ● Mangroves are desirable for agriculture because they
marine ecosystems by filtering contaminants, trapping are nutrient-rich. They are also perfect for
sediments, and removing excess nutrients from the mariculture, which is the production of food in an
water. enclosed sea setting. As a result, mangrove forests
● Support for Fisheries: Mangroves act as nests for a covering thousands of hectares have been removed in
variety of fish species, making a considerable order to grow crops, create salt ponds, and
contribution to both commercial and subsistence commercially produce prawns and other species.
fisheries. The sheltering mangrove roots provide the ● The artificial ponds' prawns and other species are fed
juvenile fish with a home and a plenty of food. with particular diets that frequently contain chemicals.
● Resources for medicine: Traditional medical systems These substances get into the food chain.
use different types of mangroves because they offer ● Eutrophication, which is brought about by an
medicinal qualities. They contain substances that abundance of nutrients from food and animals,
could be used in pharmacology. damages the surrounding marine environments by
● Livelihoods and Coastal Communities: Through reducing oxygen levels.
fishing, aquaculture, and the collection of forest ● Examples of invasive species include the introduction
products, mangrove ecosystems support the of non-native species that outcompete and supplant
livelihoods of millions of people. These resources are native mangrove species, upsetting the natural
essential for the survival of coastal communities. equilibrium.
● Stabilisation: Mangroves aid in stabilising sediments ● Illegal cutting of mangrove trees for the manufacture
along coastlines, which reduces erosion and shields of charcoal, wood, and other items is an example of
valuable agricultural land and property from the illegal logging and charcoal manufacturing.
invasion of the sea. ● Accidental oil spills and the release of toxins from
● Tourism and recreation: Tourists, birdwatchers, and machinery, industries, and shipping, for instance, can
nature lovers are drawn to mangrove forests. They have detrimental and long-lasting effects on mangrove
support regional economies by presenting chances for ecosystems and animals.
ecotourism and leisure pursuits. ● Tourist and Recreational Activities: As an
● Education: Mangroves are essential for illustration, unchecked tourist and recreational
environmental education, scientific study, and activities can result in the destruction of habitats,
conservation initiatives. They provide knowledge on trampling of delicate vegetation, and sporadically
ecological and biodiversity processes, the effects of disturbed species.
climate change, and sustainable management ● Lack of Awareness and Inadequate Conservation
techniques. Measures: For instance, inadequate conservation
measures and a lack of information about the
 39

importance of mangroves both contribute to the ● Agriculture: One of the main threats to wetlands is
deterioration of these ecosystems. agriculture. Wetlands lose their capacity to hold water
and filter pollutants when they are drained for
MISTI for Mangroves: agricultural use. Flooding, water pollution, and habitat
Mangrove Integrated Sustainable Technology Initiative loss may result from this.
(MISTI) is a comprehensive approach to conserve and ● Development: Wetlands are frequently transformed
sustainably manage mangrove ecosystems, crucial coastal for domestic, business, and industrial uses. Wetlands
habitats. may be destroyed or degraded as a result of this
● Conservation: MISTI focuses on the preservation of development, which will lessen the value they may
mangrove forests, protecting them from deforestation, add.
pollution, and land-use changes. It encourages the ● Contamination: Wetlands are susceptible to
establishment of protected areas and sustainable contamination from many different causes, such as
management practices. industrial pollution, sewage pollution, and agricultural
● Restoration: This initiative includes efforts to restore runoff. Wetlands can be harmed by pollution, which
damaged or degraded mangrove areas through also lowers their output.
reforestation and habitat restoration projects. ● Climate change: Wetlands are being impacted by
● Sustainable Use: MISTI promotes the responsible use climate change in a variety of ways, including
of mangrove resources by local communities, increasing sea levels, altered temperature and
emphasizing sustainable fishing, eco-tourism, and precipitation patterns, and stronger storms. These
non-destructive practices. effects can harm wetlands and lessen their capacity to
● Education and Awareness: Public awareness offer significant advantages.
campaigns and educational programs are integral to ● Overfishing: Overfishing can reduce fish populations,
MISTI, ensuring that communities understand the which can harm wetland ecosystems.
importance of mangroves and their role in coastal ● Invasive species: Invasive plant and animal species
ecosystems. can outcompete native species for resources, which
MISTI is vital for preserving the ecological and socio- can harm wetland ecosystems.
economic value of mangroves. ● Dams and levees: These structures can obstruct the
water's natural flow and result in the disappearance of
Importance of Wetlands wetlands.
● Wetlands provide habitat for aquatic plants and
animals, as well as several native and migratory bird
Mitigation of Wetland Destruction
species. Legislation and Policy Development:
● They are an essential resource for long-term tourism. ● Implement and enforce strong wetland protection laws
● They provide water purification and sediment and and policies at the national, regional, and local levels.
nutrient filtration from surface water. They aid in Ensure that these laws include clear definitions of
nutrient recycling, groundwater recharge, and local wetlands, procedures for permitting and regulating
climate stability. They play an important function in activities in and around wetlands, and penalties for
flood reduction by regulating the rate of runoff. violations.
● They protect shorelines from erosion and Wetland Inventory and Classification:
contaminants by acting as riparian buffers. ● Conduct comprehensive wetland inventories to
● They serve as a genetic reservoir for many plant identify and classify wetland areas. These inventories
species, particularly rice. should include mapping, documenting the ecological
● They serve as a carbon sink. value of wetlands, and assessing their functions and
values.
Reasons for The Depletion of Wetlands Wetland Zoning and Land-Use Planning:
Wetlands are being reduced for a variety of causes. ● Establish zoning regulations and land-use planning
Among the most frequent causes are: that restrict or prohibit activities that could harm
 40

wetlands. Zoning should consider factors like wetland Measures to Protect Wetlands of India
types, ecological significance, and potential risks. ● India has 15.26 million hectares of wetlands, or 4.6%
Wetland Conservation Easements and Land of its total land area, according to the National
Acquisition: Wetlands Atlas, which was produced by ISRO's Space
● Encourage landowners to voluntarily protect wetlands Applications Centre in Ahmedabad. Of these, paddy
through conservation easements or land acquisition cultivation (man-made) accounts for 70%. Inland
programs. Incentivize private landowners to maintain wetlands cover 10.56 million ha, or 69.22%. Including
their wetland areas through financial incentives and those smaller than 2.25 ha, lakes and ponds make for
tax breaks. over 12% of the inland wetland area.
Public Awareness and Education: ● Natural wetlands in India include coastal wetlands like
● Raise public awareness about the importance of lagoons, backwaters, estuaries, mangroves, swamps,
wetlands and their value to the community. and coral reefs as well as high altitude wetlands in the
Educational programs can help communities Himalayas (glacial lakes, swamps, and floodplain
understand the ecological and economic benefits of marshes). They also include saline and temporary
wetlands. wetlands in arid and semi-arid regions.
Sustainable Development Practices: ● India has 4,661 wetlands in total, totalling 15.26
● Promote sustainable development practices that avoid million hectares, according to the National Wetland
or minimize wetland destruction. This includes Inventory. The Sundarbans (in West Bengal and
responsible land development, site design, and Bangladesh), Chilika Lake (in Odisha), and Pulicat
construction techniques that protect wetlands. Lake (in Tamil Nadu) are India's three largest
Wetland Restoration and Creation: wetlands.
● Support wetland restoration and creation efforts to ● The precise number of lakes in India is unknown,
compensate for lost wetland areas. This involves however they are many. There are about 2.8 million
reestablishing natural hydrology, replanting native lakes in India, but only a small percentage of these are
vegetation, and recreating habitat for wildlife. significant and permanent, according to the Ministry
Erosion Control and Water Management: of Water Resources.
● Implement erosion control measures and water
management practices in areas adjacent to wetlands to
prevent sedimentation and nutrient runoff into wetland National Plan for Conservation Of Aquatic
ecosystems. Ecosystems
Monitoring and Research: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
● Conduct ongoing monitoring and research to assess (MoEFCC), Government of India, is centrally sponsoring
wetland health, the impact of human activities, and the the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic
effectiveness of conservation measures. Ecosystems (NPCA). It was established in 2013 with the
Collaboration and Partnerships: aim of conserving and sustainably managing aquatic
● Collaborate with government agencies, non- ecosystems, including wetlands and lakes.
governmental organizations, and local communities to The NPCA is a thorough strategy that addresses
work together on wetland conservation initiatives. numerous activities, such as:
Partnerships can enhance the effectiveness of ● Wetland management, wetland restoration, and
conservation efforts. wetland mapping are all part of wetland conservation.
Wetland Banking: ● Lake management, lake restoration, and lake pollution
● Establish wetland banking systems where developers reduction are all included in lake conservation.
can purchase wetland credits to offset the destruction ● Research and development: This covers work on
of wetlands in one area by creating or restoring managing wetlands, lakes, and aquatic ecosystems.
wetlands in another. ● Building capacity entails providing management of
aquatic ecosystems employees with training.
● Raising public awareness of the value of aquatic
ecosystems and the necessity for their preservation is
one aspect of this.
 41

● Through State Wetland Authorities (SWAs) and Lake ● Biodiversity Conservation: The conservation
Conservation Committees (LCCs), the state and union and sustainable use of wetland biodiversity are
territory governments carry out the NPCA. The state central to the rules, including the protection of
and union territory governments receive financial and critical habitats and the prevention of invasive
technical support from the MoEFCC to implement the species.
NPCA. ● Ramsar Sites: India's obligations as a signatory
to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands are
recognized and integrated into these rules, with a
Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules
focus on conserving and managing Ramsar Sites.
2010
● State Wetland Authorities: Each state in India is
The "Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules,
expected to establish a State Wetland Authority
2010" are a set of rules and regulations established by the
responsible for implementing these rules and
Ministry of Environment and Forests (now the Ministry of
coordinating wetland conservation efforts at the
Environment, Forest and Climate Change) in India to
state level.
govern the conservation and sustainable management of
● Public Participation: The rules encourage public
wetlands in the country. These rules were introduced to
participation in the protection and management of
address the urgent need for the protection of wetland
wetlands and involve local communities in
ecosystems, which provide crucial ecological, economic,
decision-making processes.
and social services.
● Penalties: Violations of the rules may result in
Key provisions and objectives of the Wetlands
penalties and fines, including the restoration of
(Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010, include:
wetland ecosystems to their original state.
● Identification and Classification: The rules establish
a framework for identifying and classifying wetlands
based on their ecological characteristics, hydrology, Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules
and biodiversity. 2017
● National Wetland Inventory: The rules mandate the The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules,
preparation and maintenance of a National Wetland 2017 are a set of regulations in India designed to govern
Inventory, which catalogues and records wetlands the conservation and management of wetlands in the
across the country. country. These rules were introduced to address the
● Prohibited Activities: Certain activities that are conservation and sustainable management of wetlands,
detrimental to wetlands are prohibited, including recognizing their ecological significance and the need for
reclamation, conversion to non-wetland uses, and their protection.
setting up industries or solid waste dumps. ● Definition of Wetland: The rules provide a
● Regulation of Activities: The rules provide for the comprehensive definition of wetlands, covering a wide
regulation of activities within and around wetlands, range of water bodies, including lakes, rivers, creeks,
ensuring that any proposed activities do not harm the ponds, marshes, and any other natural or man-made
ecological integrity and hydrological functions of the bodies of water.
wetlands. ● Identification and Notification: The rules outline a
● Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Prior to process for identifying and notifying wetlands. State
approving any development or activity in or around governments are responsible for conducting the
wetlands, an environmental impact assessment (EIA) identification process and submitting proposals for
is mandatory to evaluate potential ecological notification to the central government.
consequences. ● Wetland Authorities: The rules establish Wetland
● Wise Use Principles: The rules promote the adoption Authorities at the national, state, and district levels to
of the "wise use" principle, emphasizing that oversee the implementation of these rules. These
wetlands should be used in a manner that ensures the authorities are responsible for ensuring the
conservation of their ecological character while conservation and management of wetlands.
allowing for sustainable use by local communities. ● Protection and Conservation: The rules emphasize
the need to protect wetlands from degradation,