Lecture 9

Heat and Thermodynamics

Fundamentals
Contents
 Heat and Internal Energy
 Specific Heat and Calorimetry
 Latent Heat
 Work and Heat in Thermodynamic Processes
 Thermodynamics –
Historical Background
 Thermodynamics and mechanics were considered to be
separate branches
 Until about 1850
 Experiments by James Joule and others showed a connection
between them
 A connection was found between the transfer of energy
by heat in thermal processes and the transfer of
energy by work in mechanical processes
 The concept of energy was generalized to include
internal energy
 The Law of Conservation of Energy emerged as a
universal law of nature
Heat
 Heat is defined as the transfer of
energy across the boundary of a system
due to a temperature difference
between the system and its
surroundings
 The term heat will also be used to
represent the amount of energy
transferred by this method
 Units of Heat
 Historically, the calorie was the unit used for
heat
 One calorie is the amount of energy transfer necessary to
raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5oC to 15.5oC
 The “Calorie” used for food is actually 1 kilocalorie
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
 Joule established the
equivalence between
mechanical energy and
internal energy
 His experimental setup
is shown at right
 The loss in potential
energy associated with
the blocks equals the
work done by the
paddle wheel on the
water
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat,
cont
 Joule found that it took approximately 4.18 J
of mechanical energy to raise the water 1oC
 Later, more precise, measurements
determined the amount of mechanical energy
needed to raise the temperature of water
from 14.5oC to 15.5oC
 1 cal = 4.186 J
 This is known as the mechanical equivalent of
heat
 Problem
A student eats a dinner rated at 200
Calories. He wishes to do an equivalent
amount of work in the gymnasium by
lifting a 50.0-kg barbell. How many
times must he raise the barbell to
expend this much energy? Assume he
raises the barbell 2.00 m each time he
lifts it and he regains no energy when
he lowers the barbell.
Solution
 Note
If the student is in good shape and lifts the barbell once
every 5 s, it will take him about 1.2 h to perform this
feat. Clearly, it is much easier for this student to lose
weight by dieting.
Heat Capacity
 The heat capacity, C, of a particular
sample is defined as the amount of
energy needed to raise the temperature
of that sample by 1oC
 If energy Q produces a change of
temperature of DT, then
Q = C DT
Specific Heat
 Specific heat, c, is the heat capacity
per unit mass
 If energy Q transfers to a sample of a
substance of mass m and the
temperature changes by DT, then the
specific heat is
Q
c
m DT
Specific Heat, cont
 The specific heat is essentially a
measure of how insensitive a substance
is to the addition of energy
 The greater the substance’s specific heat,
the more energy that must be added to
cause a particular temperature change
 The equation is often written in terms
of Q :
Q = m c DT
Some Specific Heat Values
More Specific Heat Values
Sign Conventions
 If the temperature increases:
 Q and DT are positive
 Energy transfers into the system
 If the temperature decreases:
 Q and DT are negative
 Energy transfers out of the system
Specific Heat Varies With
Temperature
 Technically, the specific heat varies with
temperature
Tf
 The corrected equation is Q  m T c dT
However, if the temperature intervals
i

are not too large, the variation can be
ignored and c can be treated as a
constant
 There is only about a 1% variation
between 0o and 100oC
Specific Heat of Water
 Water has the highest specific heat of
common materials
 This is responsible for many weather
phenomena
 Moderate temperatures near large bodies
of water
 Global wind systems
 Land and sea breezes
Calorimetry
 One technique for measuring specific
heat involves heating a material, adding
it to a sample of water, and recording
the final temperature
 This technique is known as
calorimetry
 A calorimeter is a device in which this
energy transfer takes place
Calorimetry, cont
 The system of the sample and the
water is isolated
 Conservation of energy requires that
the amount of energy that leaves the
sample equals the amount of energy
that enters the water
 Cons. of Energy gives a mathematical
expression of this: Qcold= -Qhot
 Calorimetry, final
 The negative sign in the equation is critical for
consistency with the established sign
convention
 Since each Q = mcDT, csample can be found by:
mwcw T f  Tw 
cs 
ms Ts  T f 

 Technically, the mass of the container should be

included, but if mw >>mcontainer it can be neglected
 Problem
A 0.05 kg ingot of metal is heated to 200.0°C
and then dropped into a calorimeter containing
0.400 kg of water initially at 20.0°C. The final
equilibrium temperature of the mixed system is
22.4°C. Find the specific heat of the metal.
Solution

mwcw T f  Tw 
cs 
ms Ts  T f 
(0.400 kg)(4186 J/kg  o C)(22.4 o C  20.0 C)

(0.0500 kg)(200.0 C  22.4 C )
 453 J/kg  C
Explain the following graph !

mwcw T f  Tw 
cs 
ms Ts  T f 
(0.400 kg)(4186 J/kg  o C)(22.4 o C  20.0 C)

(0.0500 kg)(200.0 C  22.4 C )
 453 J/kg  C
Phase Changes
 A phase change is when a substance
changes from one form to another
 Two common phase changes are
 Solid to liquid (melting)
 Liquid to gas (boiling)
 During a phase change, there is no
change in temperature of the substance
Latent Heat
 The quantity L is called the latent heat
of the material
 Latent means “hidden”
 The value of L depends on the substance
as well as the actual phase change
 The energy required to change the
phase is Q =  mL
 example
 To cook the boiled
chicken faster, should
you add salt to the
water after or before
boiling ? Why ?
Sample Latent Heat Values
Graph of Ice to Steam
Warming Ice, Graph Part A
 Start with one gram
of ice at –30.0ºC
 During phase A, the
temperature of the
ice changes from
–30.0ºC to 0ºC
 Use Q = mi ci ΔT
 In this case, 62.7 J
of energy are added
Melting Ice, Graph Part B
 Once at 0ºC, the
phase change
(melting) starts
 The temperature stays
the same although
energy is still being
added
 Use Q = mi Lf
 The energy required is 333 J
 On the graph, the values move
from 62.7 J to 396 J
Warming Water, Graph Part C
 Between 0ºC and 100ºC,
the material is liquid and no
phase changes take place
 Energy added increases the
temperature
 Use Q = mwcw ΔT
 419 J are added
 The total is now 815 J
 Boiling Water, Graph Part D
 At 100ºC, a phase
change occurs
(boiling)
 Temperature does
not change
 Use Q = mw Lv
 This requires 2260 J
 The total is now
3070 J
Heating Steam
 After all the water is converted
to steam, the steam will heat
up
 No phase change occurs
 The added energy goes to
increasing the temperature
 Use Q = mscs ΔT
 In this case, 40.2 J are needed
 The temperature is going to 120o C
 The total is now 3110 J