Chapter 10

Temperature and Heat

 Thermodynamics deals with
1. Temperature.
2. The transfer and transformation of energy.
3. The relationship between macroscopic properties and
microscopic dynamics.
 Temperature and Heat
• On a cold morning does a tile floor feel as warm as a
carpeted floor in the same room? They are the same
temperature.
– Temperature is not the same as our perception of hot
and cold.
• The Physics definition of heat has a precise meaning
which is not the same as temperature or our sense of
hot and cold.
 Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium
• Temperature is a property of an object
• If two objects are in contact with one another long
enough, they will eventually have the same temperature.
• When they have the same temperature we say they are
in thermal equilibrium.
• The zeroth law of
thermodynamics
– If two objects are each in
thermal equilibrium with a
third object, they are in
thermal equilibrium with
each other. (i.e. they have
the same temperature.)
• The SI scale for temperature is
Celsius, TC, (named after Anders
Celsius)
• In the U.S. we use the Fahrenheit
scale , TF, (named after Gabriel
Fahrenheit)
• One Celsius degree is larger than
one Fahrenheit degree: the ratio
of Fahrenheit degrees to Celsius
degrees is 180/100, or 9/5.
• They are equal at -40 .
5
TC TF 32
9
9
TF TC 32
5
 Absolute Zero: The lowest possible temperature
• If the volume of a gas is kept constant
while the temperature is decreased, the
pressure will decrease.
• A constant-volume gas thermometer
uses this to measure temperature.
• The difference in height of the two
mercury columns is proportional to the
pressure, which is also proportional to
temperature
• Any gas has zero pressure at –273.2 C
• This is the lowest possible temperature
in nature: Absolute zero.
• The Kelvin temperature
scale sets this value to
be 0 K.
Common Temperature Scales
TC = (5/9)(TF –32)
TF = (9/5)TC +32
T = TC + 273.2 K

• The size of 1 ºC is
the same as 1 K.
The only difference
is an offset by 273.2
• Nothing can ever get
colder than (or even
as cold as) absolute
zero (0 K)
 Heat
• Recall that the definition of “work” was the transfer of
energy into or out of a system due to a force acting over
some distance.
• The definition of “heat” (Q) is the transfer of energy into or
out of a system due to a difference in temperature.
• Heat is measured in energy units.
– SI: Joules
• We say heat flows from a hot to a cold
object. A more accurate statement
would be that energy is transferred from
an object with a higher temperature to
one with a lower temperature (never
spontaneously the other way around.)
 What can happen when heat is added to a system?
There are three possibilities
1) A temperature increase
The object gets hotter
2) A phase change
A solid changes to a liquid, or a liquid changes to a gas
3) An isothermal expansion
A gas expands at a constant temperature
 Specific Heat Capacity
• Specific heat capacity (c) is a property of a material
• It is a measure of how much heat must flow into or out of a
system in order to change its temperature by a certain
amount.
Q = mcΔT
Q = quantity of heat
m = mass of object
c = specific heat capacity of object
T = change in temperature (Tf – Ti)
• Q is positive when the temperature increases and heat flows
into the system.
• Q is negative when the temperature decreases and heat
flows into the system.
Specific heat capacity is often given in units of cal/g∙ºC
which is not an SI unit.
• 1 cal is approximately the amount of energy needed to
raise 1 g of water by 1 C
• 1 Btu is approximately the amount of energy needed to
raise 1 pound of water by 1 F

To change units:
1 cal = 4.186 J
1 kcal = 1 Calorie (this is a food “calorie”)
1 cal/g·C = 1 Btu/lb·F = 4186 J/kg·K
 Interactive Question
Given that the same amount of heat will affect the
following objects in the following ways. Which object
has the greatest specific heat capacity?

A) Raises the temperature of 3 g of substance 1 by 10 K

B) Raises the temperature of 4 g of substance 2 by 4 K
C) Raises the temperature of 6 g of substance 3 by 15 K
D) Raises the temperature of 8 g of substance 4 by 6 K
E) Raises the temperature of 10 g of substance 5 by 10 K
 Interactive Question
Two objects of different temperatures are brought
together. Eventually the objects reach thermal
equilibrium. Which of the following statements is true
once they have reached thermal equilibrium?
A) They are at the same temperature.
B) The absolute value of the temperature change of each
object was the same.
C) Both objects have the same specific heat.
D) More than one of the above is true.
Problem: How much heat does it take to make a cup of
coffee? Assume that for your 12 oz. cup of coffee the
water starts at 20 ºC and reaches near boiling at 95 ºC.
 What can happen when heat is added to a system?
There are three possibilities
1) A temperature increase
Q = mc T
2) A phase change
A solid changes to a liquid, or a liquid changes to a gas
3) An isothermal expansion
A gas expands at a constant temperature
 Phase Change due to Heat:

Boiling, or
T Vaporizing
QV = mLV
Melting,
or fusion
Q = mcΔT
Qf = mLf
(different value of c
in different regions)

Heat (Energy Added)

Qf = mLf Lf: “latent heat of fusion”

QV = mLV LV : “latent heat of vaporization.”
m: mass
 Interactive Question
An amount of heat is added to ice, raising its temperature
from -10 C to -5 C. A larger amount of heat is added to
the same mass of liquid water, raising its temperature
from15 C to 20 C. From these results, we conclude that
A) overcoming the latent heat of fusion of ice requires an
input of energy
B) the latent heat of fusion of ice delivers some energy to
the system
C) the specific heat of ice is less than that of water
D) the specific heat of ice is greater than that of water
Problem: You take a 110 gram ice cube out of the freezer
and it has a temperature of –18 ºC? How much heat, in
calories, does it take to completely melt the ice?
 Interactive Question

Which is more likely to cause more damage to skin, a

burn caused by water at 100 oC or a burn caused by steam
at 100 oC?

A) The burn caused by water.

B) The burn caused by steam.
C) There is no difference.
 What can happen when heat is added to a system?
There are three possibilities
1) A temperature increase
Q = mc T
2) A phase change
Q = mL
3) An isothermal expansion
A gas expands at a constant temperature
 Joule’s Experiment
• Rumford noticed that cannon
barrels became hot during drilling.
• Joule performed a series of
experiments showing that
mechanical work could raise the
temperature of a system.
– In one experiment, a falling object
turned a paddle in an insulated
beaker of water, producing an
increase in temperature.
• The end result was a realization
that both work and heat are energy
transfers into or out of a system.
 Conservation of Energy and Thermodynamics
In Chapter 6 we wrote the conservation of energy as
Won = ΔPE + ΔKE
System
Energy
• Motional energy
transfer
= kinetic energy = KE
• Stored energy
Environment Work = Won = potential energy = PE
• Other kinds of energy we won’t
discuss

• Add a new type of energy to the system, internal energy (U)

• Add another way to transfer energy into the system, Heat (Q)
• Change the definition of work from work done on the system
to work done by the system (W = –Won)
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Won = ΔPE + ΔKE
–W + Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔU
When ΔPE = ΔKE = 0

Q = W + ΔU

This is the first law of thermodynamics. It is really just

another way to write the conservation of energy in the
special circumstance when there is no change in
macroscopic potential energy or kinetic energy. The work
in this equation is the work done by the system. The
internal energy (U) is the microscopic kinetic and
potential energy of the atoms and molecules in the system.
 Interactive Question
The first law of thermodynamics states that the increase in
internal energy of a system is equal to
A) the amount of heat added to the system minus the
amount of work done on the system
B) the amount of heat added to the system plus the
amount of work done on the system
C) the amount of heat added to the system minus the
amount of work done by the system
D) the amount of heat added to the system minus the
amount of work done on the system
Problem: A 50 g lead bullet is moving at 250 m/s when it
strikes a wall and stops. If all the energy of the bullet is
converted to heat which is absorbed by the bullet, by how
much does its temperature change?
Problem: In order to melt ice, you put a pan on the stove
and heat it while stirring the ice. If the ice is initially at
0 ºC, you do 400 J of work by stirring, and the stove adds
500 cal of heat, how much ice is melted?
 Heat and Internal Energy
The previous problem illustrates an important principle.
We have discussed what can happen when heat is added to
a system:
• A temperature increase: Q = mcΔT
• A phase change: Q = mL
These are true when no work is done on the system.

When work is done on the system, both the work and the
heat change the internal energy: ΔU = Q – W
This total change in internal energy can change the phase
or temperature so we can substitute ΔU for Q:
• A temperature increase: ΔU = mcΔT
• A phase change: ΔU = mL
 Gas Behavior and The First Law
Consider a gas in a cylinder with a movable piston. If the
piston is pushed inward by an external force, work is done on
the gas, adding energy to the system.
• From Chapter 9, the force
exerted on the piston by the
gas equals the pressure of
the gas times the area of the
piston: F = PA
• The work done equals the
force exerted by the piston
times the distance the piston
moves: W = Fd = PAd Work by the gas is positive
W=P V when expanding and
negative when compressed.
 Ideal Gas Law
For an “ideal” gas in which the molecules are far enough
apart that we assume they do not interact with each other:
PV= NkT

P: Pressure
V: Volume
T: Temperature
N: The number of particles (molecules) of gas
k = 1.381 10-23 J/K (Boltzmann’s Constant)

Temperature (T) must be given in Kelvin

 Interactive Question

When the temperature of a quantity of gas is increased

A) the pressure must increase.

B) the volume must increase.
C) the pressure and/or the volume must increase.
D) none of the above.
 Interactive Question
Two identical rooms in a house are connected by an open
doorway. The temperatures in the two rooms are
maintained at different values. Which room contains
more air?

A) The room with the higher temperature

B) The room with the lower temperature
C) Neither because they both have the same volume
D) Neither because they both have the same pressure
Problem: A 2 liter bottle is filled with nitrogen (N2) at
STP and closed tight. (STP is “Standard Temperature
and Pressure” of 273 K and 1 atm.)
(a) How many molecules of N2 are there?
Problem: A 2 liter bottle is filled with nitrogen (N2) at
STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure of 1 atm and
273 K) and closed tight.
(b) If the temperature is raised to 100 C, what will be the
new pressure.
 Interactive Question

The Kelvin temperature of an ideal gas is doubled and the

volume is halved. How is the pressure affected?

A) increases by a factor of 2
B) increases by a factor of 4
C) stays the same
D) decreases by a factor of 2
E) decreases by a factor of 4
 Interactive Question

You fill your backpack with snacks and drive to the

mountains to ski. When you get to the top of the
mountain you notice that your bag of chips
A) looks just like it did when you packed it at home.
B) has shrunk and all of your chips are crushed.
C) has puffed up and looks like it could pop.
 Internal Energy and Temperature
For an ideal gas, the internal energy is directly
proportional to the temperature.
• Absolute temperature (Kelvin) must be used.
• The internal energy
only depends on the
kinetic energy of the
molecules since there
is no interaction
between the molecules
and no microscopic
potential energy.
 Interactive Question

The temperature of an ideal gas increases from 100 ºC to

500 ºC. What happens to the internal energy.
A) It decreases by 1/5
B) In increases by a factor of 5
C) It increases by a factor of 25
D) It stays the same
E) It just about doubles
Let’s look at these two equations and PV = NkT
describe some thermodynamic processes: Q = ΔU +W

• Adiabatic Process: no heat flows into or out of the gas.

 Q=0
 ΔU = –W = –PΔV = Nk ΔT
 When the volume decreases the temperature increases
even though no heat flows into the system.
• Isothermal Process: the temperature does not change.
 ΔT = 0
 The internal energy must be constant since internal
energy is proportional to temperature. i.e. ΔU = 0
 Q=W
Let’s look at these two equations and PV = NkT
describe some thermodynamic processes: Q = ΔU +W

• Isobaric Process: the pressure of the gas remains constant.

 ΔP = 0
 The internal energy increases as the gas is heated, and so
does the temperature.
 The gas also expands, removing some of the internal
energy.
• Isochoric Process: the volume of the gas remains constant.
 W=0
 Q = ΔU
 What can happen when heat is added to a system?
There are three possibilities
1) A temperature increase
Q = mc T
2) A phase change
Q = mL
3) An isothermal expansion
Q = W = P ΔV
 Transfer of thermal energy

1) Convection: Mass carrying thermal energy is

transported. “Hot air rises”
2) Conduction: Mass interacts to transport energy.
Molecules may collide with other molecules. “Don’t
grab a metal spoon that is partially submerged in hot
water.”
3) Radiation: No mass is transported. Thermal energy is
transported by electromagnetic radiation. “Always
wear sunscreen.”
In convection, heat is transferred by
the motion of a fluid containing
thermal energy.
• Convection is the main method of
heating a house.
• It is also the main method heat is lost
from buildings.
In conduction, heat flows through a
material when objects at different
temperatures are placed in contact
with one another.
• The rate of heat flow depends on the temperature difference
between the objects and the thermal conductivity of the
materials, a measure of how well the materials conduct heat.
– Material with a high thermal conductivity allows heat to flow
through it more easily.
 Interactive Question
When you get out of bed on a cold winter morning, a tile
floor will feel colder than a carpeted floor. This is
because:
A) A given mass of tile contains more heat than the same
mass of carpet.
B) Tile conducts heat better than carpet.
C) Heat tends to flow from tile to carpet.
D) The temperature of the tile is lower than the
temperature of the carpet.
E) The human body, being organic, resembles carpet more
closely than it resembles tile.
In radiation, heat energy is
transferred by electromagnetic
waves.
• Unlike conduction and convection,
which both require a medium to
travel through, radiation can take
place across a vacuum.
– Radiation is the only method to
transfer heat through outer space.
 Interactive Question
A thermos bottle works well because

A) Its glass walls are thin

B) Silvering reduces convection
C) Vacuum reduces heat radiation
D) Silver coating is a poor heat conductor
E) None of the above
 Interactive Question
The heat transfer process in which heat flows directly
through the material is
A) conduction
B) convection
C) radiation