Chapter 4 | Applications of Derivatives 373

The proof of the extreme value theorem is beyond the scope of this text. Typically, it is proved in a course on real analysis.
There are a couple of key points to note about the statement of this theorem. For the extreme value theorem to apply, the
function must be continuous over a closed, bounded interval. If the interval I is open or the function has even one point
of discontinuity, the function may not have an absolute maximum or absolute minimum over I. For example, consider the
functions shown in Figure 4.13(d), (e), and (f). All three of these functions are defined over bounded intervals. However,
the function in graph (e) is the only one that has both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum over its domain.
The extreme value theorem cannot be applied to the functions in graphs (d) and (f) because neither of these functions is
continuous over a closed, bounded interval. Although the function in graph (d) is defined over the closed interval [0, 4],
the function is discontinuous at x = 2. The function has an absolute maximum over [0, 4] but does not have an absolute
minimum. The function in graph (f) is continuous over the half-open interval [0, 2), but is not defined at x = 2, and
therefore is not continuous over a closed, bounded interval. The function has an absolute minimum over [0, 2), but does
not have an absolute maximum over [0, 2). These two graphs illustrate why a function over a bounded interval may fail to
have an absolute maximum and/or absolute minimum.
Before looking at how to find absolute extrema, let’s examine the related concept of local extrema. This idea is useful in
determining where absolute extrema occur.

Local Extrema and Critical Points

Consider the function f shown in Figure 4.14. The graph can be described as two mountains with a valley in the middle.
The absolute maximum value of the function occurs at the higher peak, at x = 2. However, x = 0 is also a point of
interest. Although f (0) is not the largest value of f , the value f (0) is larger than f (x) for all x near 0. We say f has a
local maximum at x = 0. Similarly, the function f does not have an absolute minimum, but it does have a local minimum
at x = 1 because f (1) is less than f (x) for x near 1.

Figure 4.14 This function f has two local maxima and one
local minimum. The local maximum at x = 2 is also the
absolute maximum.

Definition
A function f has a local maximum at c if there exists an open interval I containing c such that I is contained
in the domain of f and f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ I. A function f has a local minimum at c if there exists an open
interval I containing c such that I is contained in the domain of f and f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ I. A function f
has a local extremum at c if f has a local maximum at c or f has a local minimum at c.
374 Chapter 4 | Applications of Derivatives

Note that if f has an absolute extremum at c and f is defined over an interval containing c, then f (c) is also
considered a local extremum. If an absolute extremum for a function f occurs at an endpoint, we do not consider that to be
a local extremum, but instead refer to that as an endpoint extremum.
Given the graph of a function f , it is sometimes easy to see where a local maximum or local minimum occurs. However,
it is not always easy to see, since the interesting features on the graph of a function may not be visible because they occur at
a very small scale. Also, we may not have a graph of the function. In these cases, how can we use a formula for a function
to determine where these extrema occur?
To answer this question, let’s look at Figure 4.14 again. The local extrema occur at x = 0, x = 1, and x = 2. Notice
that at x = 0 and x = 1, the derivative f ′(x) = 0. At x = 2, the derivative f ′(x) does not exist, since the function
f has a corner there. In fact, if f has a local extremum at a point x = c, the derivative f ′(c) must satisfy one of the
following conditions: either f ′(c) = 0 or f ′(c) is undefined. Such a value c is known as a critical point and it is important
in finding extreme values for functions.

Definition
Let c be an interior point in the domain of f . We say that c is a critical point of f if f ′(c) = 0 or f ′(c) is
undefined.

As mentioned earlier, if f has a local extremum at a point x = c, then c must be a critical point of f . This fact is known
as Fermat’s theorem.

Theorem 4.2: Fermat’s Theorem

If f has a local extremum at c and f is differentiable at c, then f ′(c) = 0.

Proof
Suppose f has a local extremum at c and f is differentiable at c. We need to show that f ′(c) = 0. To do this, we
will show that f ′(c) ≥ 0 and f ′(c) ≤ 0, and therefore f ′(c) = 0. Since f has a local extremum at c, f has a local
maximum or local minimum at c. Suppose f has a local maximum at c. The case in which f has a local minimum
at c can be handled similarly. There then exists an open interval I such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ I. Since f is
differentiable at c, from the definition of the derivative, we know that

f (x) − f (c)
f ′(c) = xlim
→c x−c .
Since this limit exists, both one-sided limits also exist and equal f ′(c). Therefore,

f (x) − f (c) (4.4)

f ′(c) = lim x−c ,
x → c+

and
f (x) − f (c) (4.5)
f ′(c) = lim− x−c .
x→c

Since f (c) is a local maximum, we see that f (x) − f (c) ≤ 0 for x near c. Therefore, for x near c, but x > c,
f (x) − f (c)
we have x−c ≤ 0. From Equation 4.4 we conclude that f ′(c) ≤ 0. Similarly, it can be shown that f ′(c) ≥ 0.
Therefore, f ′(c) = 0.

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Chapter 4 | Applications of Derivatives 375

From Fermat’s theorem, we conclude that if f has a local extremum at c, then either f ′(c) = 0 or f ′(c) is undefined.
In other words, local extrema can only occur at critical points.
Note this theorem does not claim that a function f must have a local extremum at a critical point. Rather, it states that
critical points are candidates for local extrema. For example, consider the function f (x) = x 3. We have f ′(x) = 3x 2 = 0
when x = 0. Therefore, x = 0 is a critical point. However, f (x) = x 3 is increasing over (−∞, ∞), and thus f does
not have a local extremum at x = 0. In Figure 4.15, we see several different possibilities for critical points. In some of
these cases, the functions have local extrema at critical points, whereas in other cases the functions do not. Note that these
graphs do not show all possibilities for the behavior of a function at a critical point.

Figure 4.15 (a–e) A function f has a critical point at c if f ′(c) = 0 or f ′(c) is undefined. A function may or may not
have a local extremum at a critical point.

Later in this chapter we look at analytical methods for determining whether a function actually has a local extremum at a
critical point. For now, let’s turn our attention to finding critical points. We will use graphical observations to determine
whether a critical point is associated with a local extremum.

Example 4.12

Locating Critical Points

For each of the following functions, find all critical points. Use a graphing utility to determine whether the
function has a local extremum at each of the critical points.

a. f (x) = 1 x 3 − 5 x 2 + 4x
3 2

f (x) = ⎛⎝x 2 − 1⎞⎠

3
b.

c. f (x) = 4x
1 + x2
376 Chapter 4 | Applications of Derivatives

Solution
a. The derivative f ′(x) = x 2 − 5x + 4 is defined for all real numbers x. Therefore, we only need to find
the values for x where f ′(x) = 0. Since f ′(x) = x 2 − 5x + 4 = (x − 4)(x − 1), the critical points are
x = 1 and x = 4. From the graph of f in Figure 4.16, we see that f has a local maximum at x = 1
and a local minimum at x = 4.

Figure 4.16 This function has a local maximum and a local

minimum.

b. Using the chain rule, we see the derivative is

f ′(x) = 3⎛⎝x 2 − 1⎞⎠ (2x) = 6x⎛⎝x 2 − 1⎞⎠ .

2 2

Therefore, f has critical points when x = 0 and when x 2 − 1 = 0. We conclude that the critical points
are x = 0, ±1. From the graph of f in Figure 4.17, we see that f has a local (and absolute) minimum
at x = 0, but does not have a local extremum at x = 1 or x = −1.

Figure 4.17 This function has three critical points: x = 0,

x = 1, and x = −1. The function has a local (and absolute)
minimum at x = 0, but does not have extrema at the other two
critical points.

c. By the chain rule, we see that the derivative is

⎛
⎝1 + x 2 4⎞⎠ − 4x(2x) 2
f ′(x) = = 4 − 4x 2 .
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
2
⎝1 + x 2⎠ ⎝1 + x ⎠

The derivative is defined everywhere. Therefore, we only need to find values for x where f ′(x) = 0.
Solving f ′(x) = 0, we see that 4 − 4x 2 = 0, which implies x = ±1. Therefore, the critical points

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Chapter 4 | Applications of Derivatives 377

are x = ±1. From the graph of f in Figure 4.18, we see that f has an absolute maximum at x = 1
and an absolute minimum at x = −1. Hence, f has a local maximum at x = 1 and a local minimum at
x = −1. (Note that if f has an absolute extremum over an interval I at a point c that is not an endpoint
of I, then f has a local extremum at c.)

Figure 4.18 This function has an absolute maximum and an

absolute minimum.

4.12 Find all critical points for f (x) = x 3 − 1 x 2 − 2x + 1.

2

Locating Absolute Extrema

The extreme value theorem states that a continuous function over a closed, bounded interval has an absolute maximum and
an absolute minimum. As shown in Figure 4.13, one or both of these absolute extrema could occur at an endpoint. If an
absolute extremum does not occur at an endpoint, however, it must occur at an interior point, in which case the absolute
extremum is a local extremum. Therefore, by Fermat’s Theorem, the point c at which the local extremum occurs must
be a critical point. We summarize this result in the following theorem.

Theorem 4.3: Location of Absolute Extrema

Let f be a continuous function over a closed, bounded interval I. The absolute maximum of f over I and the
absolute minimum of f over I must occur at endpoints of I or at critical points of f in I.

With this idea in mind, let’s examine a procedure for locating absolute extrema.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Locating Absolute Extrema over a Closed Interval

Consider a continuous function f defined over the closed interval [a, b].

1. Evaluate f at the endpoints x = a and x = b.

2. Find all critical points of f that lie over the interval (a, b) and evaluate f at those critical points.