RADIOGRAPHIC FILM PROTECTIVE COATING

The primary purpose of diagnostic radiologic apparatus and • Serves to protect the film from scratches and other
techniques is to transfer information from an x-ray beam to harmful agents.
the eye-brain complex of the radiologist. • Prevents glare when the finished radiograph is viewed.

Radiographic film is the principal medium used by radiologic TYPES OF X-RAY FILMS
technologist to record information that will be used by others Regular Type Film Direct Exposure Film
in forming opinions or diagnoses concerning the presence or Screen Type / Screen More sensitive to direct x-ray
absence of disease processes. Film exposure
Faster when used w/ IS Should NOT be used with IS
Slower when expose w/ Needs manual processing
direct radiation
Lower Px dose Higher Px dose
Shorter development Longer development time
time
Automatic Processing Higher Image Quality
(sharpness)

FILM CHARACTERISTICS
1. Contrast
BASE 2. Exposure Latitude
The foundation of the radiographic film. 3. Speed
4. Anti-crossover/Anti-halation Dyes
• Primary purpose is to provide a rigid structure on which
5. Spectral Matching
the emulsion can be coated.
• Must be clear, strong, consistent thickness FILM CONTRAST
• Tinted pale blue or blue-gray to reduce light glare • Depends on the size and distribution of the silver
(reduces eye strain and fatigue). halide crystals.
• The base is responsible for the films' dimensional • HIGH CONTRAST - smaller silver halide grains with
stability. relatively uniform grain size.
- Glass Plate - became largely unavailable during WWI • LOW CONTRAST - larger grains with a wider range of
(Belgium) sizes.
➢ Cellulose Nitrate - was highly flammable • The contrast of a film is inversely proportional to its
- Cellulose Triacetate - "safety base" exposure latitude.
- Polyester – modern base material
FILM/EXPOSURE LATITUDE
POLYESTER • Range of exposure techniques that produces an
• shrinks less when put in the water acceptable image
• holds less moisture • Sensitometry curve (H & D curve/ Characteristic curve)
• thinner (175 micrometer) or (6.8 to 7 mils)
• maintains rigidity necessary for safe handling
• more durable
• maintains “Dimensional Stability”
• allows automatic processing (roller transport)

EMULSION
• the “active layer” of the film
• called as the “heart of the x-ray film”
• composed of a binder (gelatin) and a recording
medium (silver halide crystals)

GELATIN (Binder)
FILM SPEED
• Collagen - a protein, obtained from the flat bones of • the sensitivity of the film to x-ray and light
cows.
• Direct Exposure Film - concentration and total number
• Colloid - a substance which, in solution, fails to settle of silver halide crystals.
out but imbibes (absorbs) water
• Screen-Film - grain size and shape.
• Porous - having minute spaces or holes through which
• Large-grain emulsions are more sensitive than small
liquid or air may pass. grain emulsion
SILVER HALIDE (Recording Medium) SPEED POINT
• the crystals are the "active ingredient" of the emulsion
• also known as film sensitivity
➢ 98% Silver Bromide (AgBr)
• indicated by the position of the H&D curve along the
- sensitive to light
horizontal exposure scale.
➢ 2% Silver lodide (Agl)
• Speed point is the point at which a certain amount of
- sensitive to x-rays
exposure is required a net density of 1.0 plus base plus
AgNO3 + KBr → AgBr ↓ + KNO3 fog.
(Silver Nitrate + Potassium Bromide → Silver Bromide ↓ + • The more the curve is to the left, the more sensitive or
Potassium Nitrate) faster the film.
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 FILM GRAIN FILM STORAGE AND HANDLING
• Silver halide tend to clump up during processing. Film is sensitive to:
• This clumping produces what is known as "film grain".
• Slow Films tend to have much less clumping • Heat
• Faster Films tend to have more clumping • Light
• Fast films tend to be more grainy than standard-speed • X-rays
film. • Gamma Rays
• Direct Exposure Films and Mammographic tend to • Chemical Fumes
have little graininess (Fine-Grain Film) • Pressure
• Rolling
CROSSOVER/CROSSTALK • Bending
• Caused by exposure from light photons generated in the
opposite screen. Film is packaged in:
• As light photons penetrate and spread through the film
1. Photo-inert Polyethylene Bag
base to the opposite side, the image also spreads, and
thus image sharpness is degraded 2. Metal Foil

REDUCE ELIMINATE - To protect the film from light and moisture

Making the base Using a direct exposure film
thinner HEAT
adding special dyes to using a single emulsion film • Causes low level exposure lo the film
the base • Increases sensitization of the film
Addition of an “anti- using a monochromatic film • Loss of contrast and fog
crossover layer” • DO NOT store film in damp places and sources of heat
Tabular grains • DO store film in a cool dry place
• TEMP 10° C - 21 • C and 40 - 60% HUMIDITY
ANTI-CROSSOVER LAYER STATIC ELECTRICITY
Characteristics: Tree rapids motions such as removing film
from interleaving paper
• It absorbs most of the crossover light.
Crown most often result of the rapid
• It does not diffuse into the emulsion but remains as a withdrawing of a film from a tight or
separate layer. new box of film
• It is completely removed during processing. Smudge occurs when a discharge follows a path
induced by dust, lint, or a rough IS
COVERING POWER surface or work surface
• Compared with earlier technology, current emulsions BASIC FILM SENSITOMETRY
contain less silver yet produce the same optical density SENSITOMETRY
per unit exposure. • defined as the quantitative measurement of the
response of a film lo exposure and development.
SPECTRAL MATCHING
• accomplished by exposing and processing a film then
• matching color sensilive film to the screen that
evaluating the resulting densities
emits that color
• Spectral Sensitivity - color of light where film is SENSITOMETRIC EQUIPMENT
most sensitive. • Sensitometric Strip
• Spectral Emission - color emitted by the IS or ➢ step-wedge exposure
safelight filter ➢ the “heart of sensitometry”
➢ made of exposing a film with the use a sensitometer
FILM SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY (TYPES)
• Sensitometer or Penetrometer
• Monochromatic:
➢ a device that produces a constant simulated x-ray
- Blue light sensitivity
exposure.
- Calcium Tungstate
➢ used to create a uniform set of densities on film
- Wratten 6B Safelight
• Orthochromatic:
- Green light sensitivity
- Rare Earth Screens
- GBX Filter
• Panchromatic:
- Sensitive to all colors
- Total Darkness

Appropriate wavelength to expose a:

➢ Monochromatic Film – 420 nm Question: A section of sensitometric strip was found to

➢ Orthochromatic Film – 545 nm transmit 0.1% of the light coming from the light source of the
densitometer. What is the OD or density unit found?

Given: 0.1%

100/0.1 = 1000
log10 = 3 (FINAL ANSWER)
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 SENSITOMETRIC CURVE Mammographic Film
• product of sensitometry
✓ Film Characteristic Curve • Single emulsion
✓ H&D Curve • High detail
✓ Characteristic Curve • Fine grain

Base Density Therapy Localization Film

• results from the manufacturing of the film. • Direct exposure

• inherent in the film base • Fine grain
• average base density is 0.14 OD • Wide range of exposure from x-ray and gamma rays
• other books: 0.1 or 0.14 • Processed manually or with automatic processor

Base + Fog DENTAL X-RAY FILM

Periapical - intra-oral (direct)
• inherent chemical fog 0.04 OD - roots of the teeth
• Base plus fog density in practice is about 0.18 OD - fast speed
✓ Base Density = 0.1 or 0.14 OD Bitewing - intra-oral (direct)
✓ Fog Density = 0.04 OD - interproximal
✓ Base + Fog = 0.18 / 0.2 OD - localizing cavities between teeth
Occlusal - intra-oral (direct)
D-min - larger than periapical
- examining larger dental areas
• minimum density Panoramic - not intra-oral (direct)
• least density on film after exposure
• represents the TOE of the H&D Curve
Industrial Film
D-max
• was used for mammography
• maximum density • can be used for small body parts
• obtained from the SHOULDER of the H&D Curve • applications in medical radiography is limited due to high
• read at the midpoint of the shoulder. dose compared to screen film
• True D-max is calculated from white-light exposure.
Dosimeter Film
AVERAGE GRADIENT
• reflects the film contrast • personal monitoring film
• 0.25 - density units above base plus log and 2.0 - • records x-ray, gamma rays, beta radiation exposure
density units above base plus fog. • measures exposure from slow and fast neutrons
• 0.25 0D - 2.0 OD • records exposure ranging from 13mR to approximately
• includes the densities accepted as being the most useful 800R
in radiography.
Video Film
• Phenidone – D-min
• Hydroquinone – D-max • single emulsion film
• exposed to a device called multi-format camera or
laser camera

Spot-Film Cameras

• photofluorographic cameras / Fluorospot

• single emulsion
• Film widths of 70, 90, 100, 105 mm.

Automatic Serial Changer Film

• used in serial radiography such as angiography

RECIPROCITY LAW • same emulsion as regular radiographic film
• The reciprocity law states that the OD on a radiograph is • special protective coating (top coat)
proportional only to the total energy imparted to the • Elema Schonander and Franklin Film Changers
radiographic film and independent of the time of
exposure. Polaroid Radiographic Film

QUESTION: Which of the following will exhibit the greatest • paper based, ultrasound
density?
Laser Film
a. 200 mAs x 0.25 sec
• laser printing such as MRI, and CT scan
b. 100 mAs x 0.5 sec (Ans.)
Copy or Duplicating
c. 500 x 1/10 sec
• exposed to UV light through existing radiograph to
d. NOTA produce a copy of inverse density using UV lamp or
black light bulb.
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Cine Film These negative ions therefore are converted to neutral
atoms.
• Cine Fluorography
• Records via output phosphor of an image intensifier The loss of ionic forces allows the bromide and iodide
• 16 or 35 mm in width atoms lo migrate freely out of the crystal into the gelatine
• Greenlight sensitive portion of the film.
• Sprocket holes
• High speed or medium speed This leads to the deterioration of the crystalline structure
which also enables the remaining silver ions to easily
GURNEY MOTT THEORY migrate.
Silver Halide Crystals
Secondary electrons liberated by the absorption event
• The shape and lattice structure of the silver halide migrate to the sensitivity center and are trapped.
crystals are not perfect, and some of the imperfections
Once a sensitivity center captures a photoelectron and
result in the imaging property of the crystals.
becomes more negatively charged, the center is attractive to
• The type of imperfection thought to be responsible is a
mobile interstitial silver ions.
chemical contaminant, usually SILVER SULFIDE
• This contaminant has been given the name Sensitivity The interstitial silver ion combines with the electron trapped
Center or Frankel Defect at the sensitivity center to form metallic silver atoms.
• During exposure, photoelectrons and silver ions are
attracted to those sensitivity centers, where they After migrating lo the sensitivity center, the silver ions are
combine to form a Latent Image Center. neutralized by electrons and are converted to metallic
• The silver, bromine, and iodine atoms are fixed in the silver.
crystal lattice in ion form
The silver deposition is not observable, even microscopically.
• The silver halide crystal is not as rigid as some crystals
and under certain conditions, atoms and electrons are This group of silver atoms is called latent image center
free to migrate within the silver halide crystals. and it is here that visible quantities of silver form during
processing to create the radiographic image.

• The halide ions, bromide and iodide, are generally

found in greatest concentration along the surface of the
crystal. EXPOSURE AND LATENT IMAGE FORMATION
• Therefore, the crystal takes on a negative surface SUMMARY
charge, which is matched by the positive charge of X-ray photons or light photons from IS strike a silver
the interstitial silver. bromide crystal contained within the emulsion.

Silver bromide crystals have an abundance of silver

bromide ions.

When these ions are struck by an appropriate level of energy

they emit electrons w/c migrate to a minute particle in the
silver halide crystal.

These particles are called sensitivity specks or centers

There the electrons (each a negative electrical charge)

attract positive silver ions, w/c are deposited as metallic
Photon Interaction with Silver Halide Crystals silver atoms.

When radiation and light interacts with the silver halide Activation of the sensitivity speck allows the developer
crystals via Pholoelectric Effect or Compton Effect. later to reduce all the silver atoms in the crystal, thus
increasing the number of reduced silver atoms by over one
In both cases, secondary electrons is released with sufficient million times.
energy to dislodge additional electrons from the crystal
lattice. The movement of the bromide ions to the sensitivity speck is
known as the "entrapment stage"
Most of the liberated electrons comes from the bromide and
iodide atoms because these negative ions contain an extra The movement of the silver ions and their deposition is
electron. known as the migration phase.

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The ionization and deposition of silver produces what is 7. Formatter Cassettes
known as the latent image.
- used for imaging from CRT and TV monitors in
• The invisible latent image is made visible by the process ultrasound, nuclear medicine, DSA, CT, MRI
of developing the film.
8. Angiography Cassettes
RADIOGRAPHIC CASSETTES
1. Hold intensifying screens and protect them from - can hold up to 30 sheets of films, 35x35 size.
damage.
9. Photo Fluorography Cassettes
2. Exclude all light from entering the cassette and fogging
the film. - photo fluorospots are images from the output phosphor
3. Maintain a close and uniform contact between the film of an intensifier tube.
and screens. - 70 mm or 105 roll film, 100 mm sheet film
4. Acts as medium from exposure up to further processing
the film. 10. Phototimer Cassettes

CASSETTE CONSTRUCTION - has a radiolucent back to permit radiation penetration

Cassette Front: - used in automatic processing

• Metal (Al) 11. Cardboard Cassettes

- equivalent of 1.6mm Al
• Plastic Laminate - used for direct exposure film
- 25 to 400 times more radiation to create an image on
- 0.2 mm Al
the film
• Carbon Fiber
- better detail than film screen (no blurring of image from
- atomic #6
light)
Cassette Back: - all exposure made from x-ray photons
- higher patient dose
• Steel
• Magnesium or Manganese Cassette Sizes:

Fittings: • 8 x 10 inches
• 10 x 12 inches
• Clips and Fasteners • 14 x 14 inches
- usually stainless steel • 14 x 17 inche
• Hinges • 20 x 25 cm
- metal or plastic • 24 x 30 cm
• Pressure Pad • 14 x 14 inches
- plastic foam sponge • 35 x 35 cm
• 35 x 43 cm
TYPES OF CASSETTES
1. Single Screen Cassettes Problems with Cassettes:
- used for single sided emulsion film 1. Light Leaks
- principal application in mammography 2. Air Trapping
3. Poor Screen contact
2. Double Sided Cassettes
WIRE MESH TEST
- used for double sided emulsion film
- applied in general radiography Expose cassette through the wire mesh

3. Curved Cassettes - 50 kVp at 5 mAs and SID of 100 cm

- 50 kVp, 50ms (0.05 secs), 50 mA, 90cm (60 in)
- first type used for object cassette contact - To view back away 2 to 3 meters from the viewbox
- second type used for mandible and maxilla in
orthodontic radiography INTENSIFYING SCREEN
Advantages of Proper Screen Film Usage:
4. Gridded Cassettes
Increase:
- contains a grid between the front of the cassette and the
front intensifying screen • Spatial resolution when smaller focal spots are used
- used in ward radiography where a bucky system is • Capacity for magnification radiography
unavailable.
Decrease:
5. Multi Section Cassette
• Patient dose
- most commonly used in tomography. • Occupational exposure
• X-ray tube heat production
6. Vacuum Cassettes • X-ray exposure time
• X-ray tube mA
- made of flexible vinyl material.
• Focal spot size
- contains a single IS.
- used in mammography and joint radiography.
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 • Phosphor afterglow, the continuing emission of light
after exposure of the phosphor to x-rays, should be
minimal.
• The phosphor should not be affected by heat, humidity,
or other environmental conditions.

Reflective Layer

• approximately 25 micrometer thick

Protective Coating • located between the phosphor layer and the base
• made of magnesium oxide or titanium oxide
• 10 to 20 micrometer thick
• transparent to light Base
• resistant to abrasion and damage caused by handling
• approximately 1mm thick
• helps eliminate build-up of static electricity
• made of polyester
Phosphor Layer
Properties of the Base:
• 50 to 300 micrometer thick
• rugged
• the "active layer” of the Intensifying Screen
• resistant to radiation damage and discoloration
Phosphor • chemically inert
• flexible
• Any material that emits light in response to some outside • lacking impurities
stimulation is called a PHOSPHOR.
• 5 to 15 micrometer thick

SCREEN SPEED
Screen speed is a relative number that describes how
Luminescence
efficiently x-rays are converted into light.
- emission of visible light (Ability)
• 25: ultra detailed
Fluorescence • 50: high resolution, detailed
• 100: standard, medium, par
- emission of visible light only during stimulation • 200: fast (6)
• 300: ultrafast
Phosphorescence
EFFICIENCY OF INTENSIFYING SCREENS
- emission of visible light during and after SCREEN % OF X-RAY BEAM ABSORBED
stimulation. Detail 2-5
Medium Speed 20
TYPES OF PHOSPOR MATERIAL
High Speed 40
• CaWO4
Rare Earth 40 - 60
- emit blue and blue violet light
• Barium Lead Sulfate
- use of high kVp technique for radiation protection Intensification Factor
• Zinc Sulfide
- low kVp for good image quality Ratio of the exposure required to produce the same optical
• Rare earth crystals: density with a screen to the exposure required to produce an
- fastest, presence of quantum mottle optical density without the screen.
• Lanthanum (La) – 57
exposure required without screen
• Gadolinium (Gd) – 64 IF =
exposure required with screens
• Yttrium (Y) – 3
What is the intensification factor for screens that require 5
FAVORABLE PROPERTIES OF A RADIOGRAPHIC
INTENSIFYING SCREEN PHOSPHOR mAs to produce the same density as produced by direct
• The phosphor should have a high atomic number so that exposure using 150 mAs?
x-ray absorption is high. Given: 5 mAs & 150 mAs
• The phosphor should emit a large amount of light per x-
ray absorption. The light emitted must be of proper = 150 / 5
wavelength (color) to match the sensitivity of the x-ray
film. Answer: 30
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 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SCREEN SPEED THE BASIC STEPS IN THE PRODUCTION OF A
• Radiation Quality COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY IMAGE:
• Reflective Layer 1. The IP is exposed to X-rays, which causes
• Temperature electrons in the phosphor to move to another
• Dye energy level, where they remain trapped to create a
• Phosphor Composition latent image.
• Phosphor Thickness 2. The plate is then taken to the CR reader/processor
• Crystal Size (digital image processor) where it is scanned by a
• Concentration of Phosphor laser beam which causes the trapped electrons to
• Crystals return to their original orbit, and in the process, light
is emitted.
OVERVIEW: DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 3. This light is collected by a light guide and sent to a
Digital Imaging: Definition photomultiplier tube (PMT). The output electrical
Type of imaging that allows text, photos, drawings, signal from the PMT is subsequently converted into
animations, and video to appear in the internet. digital data.
4. A digital processor processes the digital data to
Any imaging process that produces an electronic image that produce a CR image.
can be viewed and manipulated on a computer. 5. The CR image is subsequently displayed for
Radiographic imaging technology producing digital projection viewing.
images such as those using photostimulable storage 6. The IP is exposed to a bright light to erase it
phosphor (computed radiography, or CR), amorphous (remove residual latent image).
selenium, amorphous silicon, charge coupled device 7. The IP can now be used again.
(CCD), or metal oxide semiconductor-field effect
transistor (MOSFET) technology

HISTORY
• In the 1970's, the first clinical application for digital
images - Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) -
was developed at the University of Arizona in Tucson.
• One of the first uses of digital imaging was with the
introduction of the CT scanner by Godfrey Hounsfield
in the 1970's.
• MRI was introduced commercially for health care use
in the early 1980's
• Fluoroscopy also saw many advances during the OVERVIEW: FLAT PANEL DETECTORS (FPD)
1970's. • Flat-Panel Digital Radiography systems have been
• Moving images digitally (Teleradiology) was introduced developed to overcome the shortcomings of CR
by Albert Jutras in the 1950's. systems.
• Early PACS was developed by the US army. • As the name implies, the digital detector is designed as
• PSP imaging was first introduced commercially in the a flat-panel, and it is totally different in design structure
US in 1983 by Fuji Medical Systems Japan. and function, compared to the CR detector (IP).
• Most Flat-Panel Detectors (FPD) systems use an X-ray
absorber material coupled to a thin-film transistor
(TFT), complementary metal oxide semiconductor
(CMOS), or charge-coupled device (CCD)

FLAT PANEL DETECTORS: (2 CATEGORIES)

1. Indirect Conversion Digital Radiography Systems

- x-ray to light, light to electrical signal

2. Direct Conversion Digital Radiography Systems

OVERVIEW: COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY
• Photostimulable Phosphor (PSP) Image Capture - x-ray to electrical signal
• is the digital acquisition modality that uses storage
phosphor plates to produce projection images using
existing X-ray imaging equipment.

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 DIGITAL IMAGING CHARACTERISTICS
Pixel Size, Matrix Size, & Field of View
Pixel
• The matrix size can be changed without affecting the
• A pixel, or picture element, is the smallest element in a
FOV.
digital image.
• The FOV can be changed without affecting the matrix
• Each pixel contains a number (discrete value) that
size.
represents a brightness level. The numbers represent
• A change in either the matrix size and/or the FOV
tissue characteristics being imaged.
changes the size of the pixels.
Pixel Size • For digital imaging modalities, the larger the matrix size,
the smaller the pixel size (for the same FOV) and the
• The size of the pixel is directly related to the amount better the spatial resolution.
of spatial resolution or detail in the image.
• Pixel size may change when the size of the matrix or the Exposure Indications
field of view (FOV) changes.
The exposure index refers to the amount of exposure
• The pixel size can be calculated using the relationship:
received by the image receptor (IR), not by the patient.
- Pixel size = FOV / matrix size
Knowing how exposure factors affect the exposure index, is
Pixel Bit Depth
key to learning to provide enough exposure to the receptor
• Each pixel contains pieces or bits of information. while limiting exposure to the patient.
• The bit depth is the number of bits per pixel.
STANDARD UNITS OF MEASURE
• Most digital imaging systems have bit depths of 10 ог
Standard Radiation Exposure (𝑲𝑺𝑻𝑫)
16.
• The bit depth has an effect on the number of shades of • Is a standard exposure typical of that imaging receptor
gray, hence the density resolution of the image. system.
• These standard conditions for the exposure are used ton
Fill Factor (Pixel)
ensure that the equipment is functioning appropriately.
• An important feature of the pixel in the flat-panel TFT
Indicated Equivalent Air Kerma (𝑲𝑰𝑵𝑫)
digital detector active matrix array is the fill factor.
• The fill factor is defined as the ratio of sensing area of • Is the measurement of the radiation that was incident on
the pixel to the area of the pixel itself and can be the IR for that particular exposure.
expressed as: • Simply stated as the amount of exposure on the IR
• This value will help determine whether the IR has been
sensing area of the pixel
Fill factor = overexposed or underexposed for that particular body
area of the pixel part
• The fill factor affects both the spatial resolution (detail) Target Equivalent Air Kerma Value (𝑲𝑻𝑮𝑻 )
and contrast resolution (signal-to-noise ratio)
characteristics of the detector • Is a set of values, established by either the system
• Detectors with high fill factors (large sensing areas) manufacturer or the system user.
will provide better spatial and contrast resolution • Represents an optimal exposure for each specific body
than detectors with low fill factors (small sensing area) part and view.
• Each body part and view will have its own unique
Voxels
optimal exposure.
• Pixels in a digital image represent the information
Deviation Index
contained in a volume of tissue in the patient.
• Such volume is referred to as a voxel (contraction for • The difference between the actual exposure (KIND)
volume element). and the target exposure (K).
• It is expressed in a logarithmic fashion:
Matrix
(𝑲𝑰𝑵𝑫)
• A digital image is made up of a two-dimensional array of 𝑫𝑰 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎
(𝑲𝑻𝑮𝑻 )
numbers, called a matrix
• Is a square arrangement of numbers (pixel values) in • The DI is intended to help the technologist determine
columns and rows, and in digital imaging, the numbers whether the image has been underexposed or
correspond to discrete pixel values. overexposed.
• The size of the matrix determines the size of the pixels. • The DI can be used to adjust technical factors if the
• The larger the matrix, the larger the file size of the image image must be repeated
Field of View DI value: 0.0 - perfect image
• Synonymous with the X-ray field.
DI value: -1 - underexposed
(increased technique by 25%)
• It is the amount of body part or patient included in the
DI value: +1 - overexposed
image.
(decrease technique by 20%)
• FOV will not affect the size of the matrix but will affect
pixel size
• Do not rely on the DI as the sole determining factor of
image quality.

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• There are several factors that will cause the DI to
fluctuate, including the following:
- A prosthesis within the image MODULATION TRANSFER FUNCTION
- Gonadal shielding within the image • A mathematical theorem that stated that spatial
- Failure of the system to recognize the collimated border resolution can be broken down into individual
- An unexpected body part in the image components and that the quality of each component
affects the total amount of resolution.
IMAGE QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS • The ability of a system to record available spatial
Brightness frequencies.
• Simply stated, it is used quantify gain or loss of
• The brightness of a digital image refers to its resolution.
appearance on the display monitor of the computer and
is a function of the monitor's ability to emit light through NOISE
the surface of the display. • Is anything that interferes with the formation
• Changing the window level makes the image brighter of
Anatomic Noise Superimposition of body parts
darker.
Radiographic Noise that occurs during the
Contrast Resolution Noise acquisition of the image Comprised
of:
• Refers to the ability of the imaging system to display - Equipment Noise
subtle changes in the shade of gray. - Quantum Noise
• Directly related to bit depth of the pixels in the image Equipment Noise Noise in the detector elements and
• Display resolution cab be controlled by a technique nonuniform detector responses
called window width. Quantum Noise The quantum noise is determined
by the number of X-ray photons
Exposure Latitude falling upon the detector to create
the image
• Latitude refers to the range of exposure diagnostic
values the image detector is able to produce.
• LATITUDE is dependent on the image receptor's Noise
DYNAMIC RANGE
• NOISE TO POWER RATIO (NPS)
• Dynamic Range - the ability to respond to varying levels • Used to place a relative value on noise.
of exposure
• NPS (up) NOISE (up)
Spatial Resolution
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
The ability of the imaging system to demonstrate small
• Signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of useful, constructive
details of an object.
information to non-useful, destructive input forming the
CR / PSP SYSTEMS - Phosphor Layer latent image.
Thickness • In general, as the milliampere seconds (mAs) is
- Pixel Size increased, the SNR also is increased, although at the
ACTIVE MATRIX FLAT - Pixel Size expense of increased patient radiation dose.
PANEL IMAGERS - Capture Technique
(AMFPI) Detective Quantum Efficiency
IMAGING SYSTEM APPROXIMATE PIXEL
• How efficiently a system converts the X-ray input signal
SIZE
into a useful image.
CR / PSP 200 um
GADOLINIUM AMFPI 150 um • Is a measurement of the percentage of X-rays that is
CESIUM IODIDE AMFPI 125 um to 100 um absorbed when they hit the detector.
AMORPHOUS 50 um • DQE is a measure of the efficiency and fidelity with
SELENIUM which the detector can perform this task. DQE also
Spatial Frequency takes into consideration not only the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) but also the system noise and therefore
• Spatial resolution is described quantitatively using includes a measure of the amount of noise added.
"Spatial Frequency" • The DQE can be calculated using the following
• Is expressed in line pair per millimeter (lp/mm) relationship:
• An imaging system with higher spatial frequency
response has better spatial resolution. 𝑫𝑸𝑬 = 𝑺𝑵𝑹𝟐𝒐𝒖𝒕 / 𝑺𝑵𝑹𝟐𝒊𝒏

Approximate Spatial Resolution for Various Medical

Imaging Systems
Imaging System Spatial
Resolution
(lp/mm)
Gamma Camera 0.1
MRI 1.5
Computed Tomography 1.5
Diagnostic Ultrasonography 2
Fluoroscopy 3
Digital Radiography 4
Computed Radiography 6
Radiography 8
Mammography 15
IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM
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 AMORPHOUS - Have the highest DQE • In digital imaging, at least twice the number of pixels
SELENIUM - No light conversion step needed to form the image must be sampled.
DETECTORS - No light spread • If too few pixels are sampled, the result will be a lack of
- Lower patient dose resolution
- Better image quality
AMORPHOUS - Higher DQE compared to Nyquist Theorem (other names)
SILICON THIN PSP systems
FILM TRANSISTOR • Nyquist-Shannon-Kotelnikov
(TFT) • Whittaker-Shannon-Kotelnikov
CHARGE- - Higher DQE compared to • Whittaker-Nyquist-Kotelnikov-Shannon (WKNS)
COUPLED DEVICE PSP systems • Cardinal Theorem of Interpolation Theory
(CCD) - Has problems with low • Sampling Theorem
light capture
COMPLEMENTARY - Newer CMOS capture Aliasing/ Foldover/ Biasing
METAL OXIDE systems may be equal to
SEMICONDUCTOR direct image acquisition • When the Spatial frequency is greater than the Nyquist
(CMOS) because of crystal light frequency, and the sampling occurs less than twice per
tubes, which also prevent cycle, information is lost and a fluctuating signal is
light spread produced.
CR / PSP - Lowest DQE • A wrap around image is produced, which appears as
SYSTEMS two superimposed images that are slightly out of
alignment, resulting in a "Moiré Effect"

DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE PROCESSING Automatic Rescaling

AND MANIPULATION
Steps in Digitizing an Image: • Automatic rescaling means that images are produced
with uniform brightness and contrast, regardless of the
1. Scanning amount of exposure used to acquire the image
- the image is first divided into an array of small square • Occurs when exposure is greater or less than what is
regions called pixels. needed to produce an image.
2. Sampling • Too little exposure = quantum mottle
- simply involves measuring the brightness level of each • Too much exposure = Too loss of contrast and loss
of the pixels using a special device. of distinct edges
3. Quantization
- this is a process whereby the brightness levels obtained Look-Up-Table (LUT)
from sampling are assigned an integer grey (zero, a
negative, or a positive number) called a gray level. • It is a histogram of the luminance values derived during :
image acquisition.
Histogram • The LUT is used as a reference to evaluate the raw
information and correct the luminance values.
• A graphical representation of a digital image. • This is a mapping function in which all pixels (each with
• A graphic representation of the densities acquired within its own specific gray value) are changed to a new gray
the collimated area. value.
• A histogram is a graph of the number of pixels in the • The resultant image will have the appropriate
entire image or part of the image having the same gray appearance in brightness and contrast.
levels (density values), plotted as a function of the gray • There is a LUT for every anatomic part.
levels.
High-Pass Filtering
NYQUIST THEOREM
Harry Nyquist • Also known as "Edge Enhancement" or "Masking".
• The high-pass filter suppresses the low frequencies, and
• In 1928, described a way to convert analog signals into the result is a much sharper image than the original.
digital signals that would more accurately transmit over • Useful for enhancing large structures such as organs
telephone lines. and soft tissues.
• He said that the sampling rate would need to be at least • Can cause a "noisy" image.
twice the highest frequency produced.
Low-Pass Filtering
Claude Shannon
• This is referred to as image "Smoothing".
• Presented a mathematical proof of Nyquist's theory, • The output image appears blurred compared to the input
allowing it to be called the "Nyquist Theorem" image.
• In this type of filtering, the output image noise is
Nyquist Theorem
reduced, and the image sharpness is compromised.
• It states that when sampling a signal (such as the • Results in a reduction of noise and contrast.
conversion from an analog image to a digital image), the • Useful for viewing small structures such as fine bone
sampling frequency must be greater than twice the tissue.
frequency of the input signal so that the reconstruction
of the original image will be as close to the original
signal as possible.

IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM

COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
 WINDOWING Imaging Plate
Window - the window level ia uaed to change
Level the image brightness
- controls how dark or bright the
screen image is.
- HIGHER LEVEL = DARKER
IMAGE
Window - The window width is used to change
Width the contrast of the image
- WIDER = LOWER CONTRAST
In PSP systems, the radiographic image is recorded on a
COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY thin sheet of plastic known as the imaging plate. The
IP Imaging Plate imaging plate is consists of several layers.
PD Photodiode
1. Protective Layer
PMT Photomultiplier Tube
PSL Photostimulable Luminescence 2. Phosphor Layer
PSP Photostimulable Phosphor 3. Reflective Layer
SPS Storage Phosphor Screen 4. Conductive Layer
Photostimulable Luminescence 5. Color Layer
6. Support Layer
• Some materials such as barium fluorohalide with 7. Backing Layer
europium (BaFBr: Eu or BaFI:Eu) emit light promptly
in the way that a scintillator does following x-ray 1. Protective Layer
interaction.
• This is a very thin, tough, clear plastic that protects
• However, they also emit light some time later when
the phosphor layer.
exposed to a different light source.
• Such a process is called photostimulable 2. Phosphor Layer
luminescence.
• Upon exposure to X-ray exposure many Compton and • Also called the “active layer”
photoelectric x-ray interactions occur with outer-shell • Usually made of phosphors from the barium
electrons, sending them into an excited, metastable fluorohalide family:
state. - Barium Fluorohalide,
• When these electrons return to the ground state, visible - Barium Chlorohalide,
light is emitted. - Barium Bromohalide
• May also contain a dye to minimize light spread
Photostimulable Phosphor Screen
Activator
• The PSP, barium fluorohalide, is fashioned similarly
to a radiographic intensifying screen. • Europium (Eu)
• The SPS appears white because the small PSP • Responsible for the storage property of the PSL
particles (3-10 um) scatter light excessively. Such a • The activator is similar to the sensitivity center of a film
scattering is called turbid. emulsion.
• PSP particles are randomly positioned throughout a • Without there would be no latent image.
binder.
3. Reflective Layer
Image Receptor
• Sends light in a forward direction when released in the
• The PSP screen is housed in a rugged cassette that cassette reader.
appears similar to a screen-film cassette. • This layer may be black to:
• In this form as an image receptor, the PSP screen-film - Reduce the spread of stimulating light
cassette is called an imaging plate (IP). - Reduce escape of emitted light.
• The IP has lead backing that reduces backscatter x- • Causes loss in detail
rays. This improves the contrast resolution of the
image receptor. 4. Conductive Layer

Cassette • This is a layer of material that absorbs and reduces

static electricity
• Holds the PSP plate
• Consist of durable, lightweight plastic material 5. Color Layer
• Backed by a thin sheet of aluminium or lead, to absorb • Newer plates may contain a color layer.
back scatter radiation • Located between the active layer and the support
• Contains an antistatic material (Felt) to protect the layer
plate against: • Absorbs the stimulating light
- Electricity buildup • Reflects emitted light
- Dust collection
- Mechanical Damage 6. Support Layer

• Semigrid material that gives the imaging sheet some

strength.

IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM

COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
7. Backing Layer • Revolving Door

• A soft polymer ILLUMINATION

• Protects the back of the cassette. • White Lighting
- For inspection of maintenance of the darkroom and
IMAGING PLATE: TYPES equipment inside
STANDARD HIGH-RESOLUTION - Moderate in intensity – (60W Tungsten, 30W
RESOLUTION
Fluorescent)
- have thick phosphor - have thinner
- Installed close to the ceiling
layers phosphor layers
- Preferable to be centrally placed
- more lateral spread - less lateral spread of
of the laser light the laser light - Identification of respective switches is important
- image is less - provide sharper SAFE LIGHTING
sharper image
• Direct Safelight / Fixture Type
- faster speed - less speed
- Distance: minimum of 1.2 to 1.3 m (4ft) above the
- absorb more - used for extremity
radiation imaging and other working bench.
small parts where - Wattage: 7.5 to 10 watts (25 watts)
detail (sharpness) is • Indirect Safelight / Ceiling Type
critical) - Directed to the ceiling and reflected downward 6ft for 15
watts and 3ft for 7.5 watts
DARKROOM
SPECTRAL MATCHING
• To protect the film from light and ionizing radiation
Spectral Matching
• Location: Centrally Located
• Wall Protection: - color of light where film is most sensitive
a. Wood – lined with 1.5 to 1.6 mm lead
b. Poured Concrete – 6 inches Spectral Emission
c. Hollow Blocks – cores must be poured with
cement - color emitted by the IS or safelight filter

Minimum Darkroom Size: SAFELIGHT FILTER

• Wratten 6B Filter
• Not less than 8ft along any wall. • Amber Filter
• Room divided into: • Kodak More Light Filter
- Wet Area ➢ for monochromatic or blue sensitive film
- Dry Area • GBX Filter
• Red Filter
Floor:
• Kodak 2 Filter
• Non-Porous • Multipurpose Filter
• Non-Slip ➢ for orthochromatic or green sensitive film
• Chemical Resistant ✓ 550 nm – Amber
• Stain Proof ✓ 600 nm – Red
• Light Coloured
Effects of Excessive Safelight Exposure:
Color of Walls and Ceiling:
1. An increase in gross fog
• Light Color 2. An overall loss of contrast
• Avoid Neon Color
Wratten 6B: Exposure Limit
• Epoxy and Enamel (texture)
2 ft ½ min
• Avoid gloss
3 ft 1 min
• Ivory (ideal)
4 ft 1 ½ min
Ventilation: 5 ft 2 min
6 ft 2 ½ min
• Humidity – 40% to 60% 7 ft 3 min
• Storage Temperature – 50 to 700F (10 to 21C) 8 ft 3 ½ min
• Darkroom Temperature – 67 to 83F (18 to 200C)
• Exhaust – 8 to 10ft/min
GBX Filter: Exposure Limit
• Air Movement – 15 to 25 ft/min (10 air changes per
hour) - There is no significant safelight fogging latensification for
up to 5 minutes.
Entrance:

• Single Door MANUAL PROCESSING

1. Marking the film
- common
2. Wetting
- uses passbox (cassette transfer cabinet)
3. Developing
• Double Door/Interlocking Door/ Light Lockdoor
- The temperature of the developer must be taken in the
- no passbox
morning and the afternoon.
• Labyrinth/Maze
- The time taken for the film to develop depends on the
- use of heavily built curtains; no door
temperature of the chemical solution.
IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM
COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
 Temperature – Time Table: 1987:
Temperature of Developer Developer Time (min)
15 C 59 F 7 min - Konika - an automatic film processor with a processing
16 C 61 F 6 ½ min cycle of 45 seconds
17 C 62.5 F 6 min - Requires special films and chemicals
18 C 64.5 F 5 ½ min
19 C 66 F 5 min PROCESSING CYCLE
20 C 68 F 4 ½ min WETTING:
21 C 70 F 4 min - In automatic processing, the wetting agent is
22 C 71.5 F 3 ½ min incorporated in the developer.
23 C 73.5 F 3 min DEVELOPING:
- Swells the emulsion to facilitate chemical penetration
- Reduction of exposed silver halide crystals.
4. Rinsing - Conversion of Latent Image to Manifest Image.

- During this time, the film should be lifted up and down Developer Composition:
several times.
- The films should be in rinsed in clean water for up to 30 • Reducing or Developing Agent:
seconds. - Phenidone: acts quickly, responsible for the gray tone
of image, controls the toe portion of the sensitometric
5. Fixing curve.
- Hydroquinone: acts slowly, responsible for the black
- The film should stay in the fixer for at least 30 minutes. tones of the image, controls the shoulder area of the
- There must be no white light in the darkroom for the first characteristic curve.
3 minutes of fixing time. • Developer Composition: Activator, Alkalanizer,
6. Washing Buffering Agent, Accelerator, Wetting Agent
✓ Sodium Carbonate: swells the gelatin of the emulsion
- The film should stay on the water tank for at least 30 and provides alkalinity required for reducing agents to
minutes. work.
• Developer Composition: Restrainer, Starter Agent,
7. Drying Anti-Foggant, Regulator
✓ Potassium Bromide: controls activity of reducing
- The drying temperature must not exceed 35 C.
agents and prevents fogging.
8. Checking • Developer Composition: Preservative, Anti-Oxidant
✓ Sodium Sulfite: protects the reducing agents from
Some differences between Manual & Automatic Processing: aerial oxidation
• Developer Compositon: Hardener
• No stop bath between developer and fixer as rollers ✓ Glutaraldehyde: added to automatic processing to
removes the chemicals. control the swelling of the emulsion.
• Higher temperature are used for automatic processors.
Therefore, some different chemicals are required for Other Components:
automatic processing.
• Additional hardener is added to the developer solution in • Benzothiosole – organic restrainer which is added to
automatic processing. PQ developer to prevents the action of Phenidone to
• Dark-room is not required when automatic daylight Sliver Halide Crystals which is not restrained by
loaders are used. bromide.
• Automatic processors allow “dry to dry” process • Sequestering Agent – (EDTA and CALGON) prevents
because of its dryer system. precipitation of calcium sludge which would show up as
chalky deposits on the film or cause scaling of the tank.
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING • Solvent – (water) stimulate uniform development by
1942: reducing surface tension.
• Anti-Fothan / Anti-Foaming – prevents bubble
- The first automatic x-ray film processor was introduced formation on the solution and aerial oxidation.
by PAKO • Fungicides – fights fungi which develops in complete
- 120 films per hour with the use of special film hangers darkness and moisture.
- Total processing time of 40 minutes
Factors affecting Developing Time:
1956:
• Temperature of Solution
- Eastman Kodak Company introduced the first roller • Size of the film
transport system • Size of grains of the film
- 10 ft long and weighed about a ton • Agitation of Developer
- $350,000 • Exhaustion of Developer
1965: Time/Temperature Relationships in Mechanical
Processing:
- Eastman Kodak Company introduced the 90-second
Time Temperature
rapid processor
18 sec 92 F
- This type of automatic film processing remains the
22 sec 90 F
standard
26 sec 88 F
IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM
COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
 • Plexiglas or Acrylic Plastic
FIXING: • Plastic Polyester
30 sec 86 F • Phenolic Resin – most sensitive
Functions: • Stainless Steel
• To neutralize the developer • Rubberized Plastic
• To clear away undeveloped silver halide crystals Transport Rack Subassembly:
• To shrink and harden the gelatin
- Most of the rollers in the transport system are positioned
Fixer Composition: in a rack assembly.
• Fixing Agent - These racks are easily removable and provide for
✓ Ammonium Thiosulfate, Sodium Thiosulfate: convenient maintenance and efficient cleaning of the
removes undeveloped silver halide crystals processor.
• Neutralizer, Acidifier, Acitvator, Starter • Guide Shoe: a curved metal lip with smooth grooves
✓ Acetic Acid: provides acid medium and neutralizes guides the film around the bend.
the developer using the film. • Turnaround Assembly: consist of master roller,
• Preservative, Stabilizer, Anti-Oxidant planetary roller located at the bottom of the transport
✓ Sodium Sulfite: maintains equilibrium, prevent rack assembly.
oxidation and precipitation • Crossover Rack: the crossover rack is a smaller rack
• Hardening Agent, Tanning Agent, Strong Hardener assembly that is composed of rollers and guide shoe
✓ Potassium Aluminum: hardens and shrinks the Drive Subsystem:
emulsion, prevents too much absorption of water,
enhances archival quality - controls the speed of the transport system
• Sequestering Agent:
✓ Boric Acid, Boric Salts: anti-sludging agent, removes Three (3) means od transferring power to the transport rack.
aluminum ions
• Belt and Pulley
• Buffer
• Chain and Sprocket
✓ Acetate: maintains proper pH
• Gears
• Solvent
✓ Water Temperature Control System
Developer:
WASHING:
- Very important for archival quality because it removes - temperature most critical
residual chemical from the fixer. - temperature is usually maintained at 35C (95 F)
- 5 degree F to 3 degree C below developer temperature
to stabilize developer temperature. Wash Water:

DRYING: - maintained at 3C (5 F) lower than developer

- Final stage of processing temperature
- 85 to 95% - moisture removed
- 10 to 15% - moisture retained Temperature Measuring Devices:

Principal System Components ➢ Thermocouple:

• Transport System - consisting of two wires of different metals connected at
• Temperature System two points
• Replenishing System - a voltage being developed between the two junctions is
proportional to the temperature difference.
• Circulation System/Filtration System
➢ Thermistor:
• Drying System
- an electrical resistor whose resistance is greatly reduced
TRANSPORT SYSTEM by heating.
Transport System - transports film through the various
stages at precise intervals, supports film movement, provides Circulation/Filtration System
power to turn roller at precise rate. Circulation Pumps:

• Rollers - agitate chemicals for good sensitometric results.

- helps maintain a constant temperature
• Transport Racks
• Drive Motor - failure of adequate circulation results in:
• decrease in maximum density
Roller Subassembly: • loss of contrast
• loss of speed
• Entrance Rollers – covered with corrugated rubber or
rubberized plastic and straightens the path of the film. Filters:
• Transport Rollers – conveys the film along its path and
it has a diameter of 1 inch. - required with the developer due to accumulation of
• Master Rollers/Solar Rollers/ Turnaround Roller – gelatin in the rollers
has a diameter of 3 inches and is used when the film - Generally not used in fixer, required on wash tank.
makes a turn in the processor. • 100 micron – developer
• Planetary Rollers – positioned around the master roller • 40 micron – general use
• 30 micron – ion oxide
Types of Roller Material: • 1 micron – algea
IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM
COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
Wash Tank: Photo Thermography

- Fresh tap water is piped into the tank at the bottom and • uses low power laser beam to create latent image
overflows out the top. • latent image is converted to manifest image using
thermal processor
12 L/min (3 gal/min) • 125 C with 15 seconds dwell time
- The minimum flow rate for the wash tank in most Chemical Recovery Units
processors. Precipitation of Silver
REPLENISHMENT SYSTEM - produces chemical sludge
Meters the proper quantities of chemicals into each tank to
maintain volume and chemical activity. Replacement of Silver by Another Metal (Steel Wood)

• Over Replenishment – slight increase in contrast - cheapest but inefficient

• Under Replenishment – sever reduction in speed and
contrast Electrolytic Recovery Units

Mode of Replenishment: - Advisable

1. Volume COMPTON SCATTERING

- most common type FACTORS AFFECTING SCATTER PRODUCTION:
- controlled by the size of the film
1. Patient Thickness
• 60 – 70 cc of developer
2. Field Size
• 100 – 110 cc of fixer
3. kVp
- per 35 cm (14in) of film
2. Flood/Timed/Standby TYPE OF BEAM RESTRICTING DEVICES:
- controlled by a timer
- processors that are not in constant use 1. Aperture Diaphragm
2. Cones and Cylinders
DRYER SYSTEM 3. Variable Aperture Collimator
Extracts all residual moisture from the processed radiograph. 4. Positive Beam-Limiting Devices

Consists of: Aperture Diaphragm

1) Blower • Simplest
2) Ventilation Ducts • Fixed Lead Opening
3) Drying Tubes • Fixed IR Size
4) Exhaust System • Constant SID
• Heating Coils – 2300 to 2500 W capacity
• Air Blower – 100 to 300 ft3/min Cones and Cylinders
• 60 to 80% - electricity consumed
• Modification of Aperture Diaphragm
ALTERNATIVE PROCESSING METHODS • Difficult to Use
1) Rapid Processing
Variable Aperture Collimator
- 30 seconds processing time
- More concentrated chemicals and higher • Most common beam restricting device
developer and fixer temperatures
2) Extended Processing Positive Beam-Limiting Devices
- 3 minutes processing time
- Useful in mammography • Electrically interconnected to the potter-buck diaphragm
Advantages: • Collimator automatically adjust to the size of film placed
➢ increases contrast (15%) in the bucky tray
➢ increases film sensitivity (30%)
RADIOGRAPHIC GRIDS
➢ reduces PX dose (30%)
Moving Grid
3) Daylight Processing
- 15 seconds loading & unloading time ➢ Reciprocating Grid
- 2 minutes total processing time -Motor – drives grid back and forth several times
Advantages: during exposure
➢ elimination of darkrooms speed - Total distance of drive is 2cm
4) Dry Processing ➢ Oscillating Grid
Advantages: - oscillates in a circular fashion around the grid
➢ elimination of chemicals frame.
➢ no darkroom required
➢ no plumbing required Parallel Grid
➢ less environmental impact
- non-focused grid
➢ reduced capital cost
- always produces cut-off
➢ reduced operating cost
- lead strips are parallel to each other and focused to
infinity
- has an infinite focal range
IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM
COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
1. The higher the grid ratio, the higher is the bucky factor Type of Grid Misalignment Result
2. The bucky factor increases with increasing kVp Off-Level grid cutoff across image;
underexposed, light
Contrast Improvement Factor image
Off-Center grid cutoff across image;
• reveals the ability of the grid to improve image underexposed, light
contrast. This property of the grid is specified by the image
contrast improvement factor (k) Off-Focus grid cutoff toward edge of
image
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑
𝑘= Upside-Down severe grid cutoff toward
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 edge of image
Off-Center + Off-Focus grid cutoff on one side of
Off-Focus Grid
image
- using an SID outside the focal range creates a loss
of exposure at the periphery of the radiograph
GRID CONSTRUCTION
GRID CONSTRUCTION • Interspace Material
GRID DIMENSIONS - maintains precise separation between lead strips
• Consists of;
• Thickness of the Grid Strip (T) - Aluminum
• Width of the Interspace Material (D) - Plastic Fiber
• Height of the Grid Strip (h)
Focused Grid
Off-Center Grid
- designed to minimize grid cut-off
- if the center of the x-ray beam is not aligned from - has a specific focal range
side to side with the center of a focused grid, grid
cut-off occurs. GRID CONSTRUCTION
- also called “lateral decentering” Grid Strips

Grid Frequency - infinitely thin and should have high absorption

properties
The number of grid strips per centimeter is called the grid
frequency Materials;

Grid Frequency is computed by dividing the thickness of one - Lead

line pair (T+D), expressed in um, into 1 cm: - Gold
- Tungsten
10,000 𝑢𝑚/𝑐𝑚
𝐺𝑟𝑖𝑑 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = Table 11-2. Approximate Bucky Factor Values for
(𝑇 + 𝐷)𝑢𝑚/𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟
Popular Grids
Table 7.2 Grid Conversion Factor (GCF) / Bucky Factor BUCKY FACTOR AT
Grid Ratio GCF/Bucky Factor Grid Ratio 70 kVp 90 kVp 120 kVp Average
No Grid 1 No Grid 1 1 1 1
5:1 2 5:1 2 2.5 3 2
6:1 3 8:1 3 3.5 4 4
8:1 4 12:1 3.5 4 5 5
12:1 5 16:1 4 5 6 6
16:1 6
Crossed Grid
GCF / Bucky Factor
- Combines two linear parallel grids
- can be used to determine the required adjustment - Highest clean-up ability
in mAs when changing from using a grid to nongrid - No lateral or longitudinal angulation is permissible
(or vice versa) or for changing to grids with different
grid ratios Grid Ratio

Upside-Down Grid - The ratio of the height of the lead strips to the width
of the interspace material
- placing a focused grid upside-down on the IR - Indicates efficiency in removing scattered radiation
causes the lateral edges of the IR to be highly
underexposed.

Off-Level Grid

- angling the x-ray tube across the grid lines or

angling the grid itself during exposure produces
- overall decrease in exposure to the image receptor

IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM

COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA