Ipe Compilation
Ipe Compilation
The primary purpose of diagnostic radiologic apparatus and • Serves to protect the film from scratches and other
techniques is to transfer information from an x-ray beam to harmful agents.
the eye-brain complex of the radiologist. • Prevents glare when the finished radiograph is viewed.
Radiographic film is the principal medium used by radiologic TYPES OF X-RAY FILMS
technologist to record information that will be used by others Regular Type Film Direct Exposure Film
in forming opinions or diagnoses concerning the presence or Screen Type / Screen More sensitive to direct x-ray
absence of disease processes. Film exposure
Faster when used w/ IS Should NOT be used with IS
Slower when expose w/ Needs manual processing
direct radiation
Lower Px dose Higher Px dose
Shorter development Longer development time
time
Automatic Processing Higher Image Quality
(sharpness)
FILM CHARACTERISTICS
1. Contrast
BASE 2. Exposure Latitude
The foundation of the radiographic film. 3. Speed
4. Anti-crossover/Anti-halation Dyes
• Primary purpose is to provide a rigid structure on which
5. Spectral Matching
the emulsion can be coated.
• Must be clear, strong, consistent thickness FILM CONTRAST
• Tinted pale blue or blue-gray to reduce light glare • Depends on the size and distribution of the silver
(reduces eye strain and fatigue). halide crystals.
• The base is responsible for the films' dimensional • HIGH CONTRAST - smaller silver halide grains with
stability. relatively uniform grain size.
- Glass Plate - became largely unavailable during WWI • LOW CONTRAST - larger grains with a wider range of
(Belgium) sizes.
➢ Cellulose Nitrate - was highly flammable • The contrast of a film is inversely proportional to its
- Cellulose Triacetate - "safety base" exposure latitude.
- Polyester – modern base material
FILM/EXPOSURE LATITUDE
POLYESTER • Range of exposure techniques that produces an
• shrinks less when put in the water acceptable image
• holds less moisture • Sensitometry curve (H & D curve/ Characteristic curve)
• thinner (175 micrometer) or (6.8 to 7 mils)
• maintains rigidity necessary for safe handling
• more durable
• maintains “Dimensional Stability”
• allows automatic processing (roller transport)
EMULSION
• the “active layer” of the film
• called as the “heart of the x-ray film”
• composed of a binder (gelatin) and a recording
medium (silver halide crystals)
GELATIN (Binder)
FILM SPEED
• Collagen - a protein, obtained from the flat bones of • the sensitivity of the film to x-ray and light
cows.
• Direct Exposure Film - concentration and total number
• Colloid - a substance which, in solution, fails to settle of silver halide crystals.
out but imbibes (absorbs) water
• Screen-Film - grain size and shape.
• Porous - having minute spaces or holes through which
• Large-grain emulsions are more sensitive than small
liquid or air may pass. grain emulsion
SILVER HALIDE (Recording Medium) SPEED POINT
• the crystals are the "active ingredient" of the emulsion
• also known as film sensitivity
➢ 98% Silver Bromide (AgBr)
• indicated by the position of the H&D curve along the
- sensitive to light
horizontal exposure scale.
➢ 2% Silver lodide (Agl)
• Speed point is the point at which a certain amount of
- sensitive to x-rays
exposure is required a net density of 1.0 plus base plus
AgNO3 + KBr → AgBr ↓ + KNO3 fog.
(Silver Nitrate + Potassium Bromide → Silver Bromide ↓ + • The more the curve is to the left, the more sensitive or
Potassium Nitrate) faster the film.
IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM
COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
FILM GRAIN FILM STORAGE AND HANDLING
• Silver halide tend to clump up during processing. Film is sensitive to:
• This clumping produces what is known as "film grain".
• Slow Films tend to have much less clumping • Heat
• Faster Films tend to have more clumping • Light
• Fast films tend to be more grainy than standard-speed • X-rays
film. • Gamma Rays
• Direct Exposure Films and Mammographic tend to • Chemical Fumes
have little graininess (Fine-Grain Film) • Pressure
• Rolling
CROSSOVER/CROSSTALK • Bending
• Caused by exposure from light photons generated in the
opposite screen. Film is packaged in:
• As light photons penetrate and spread through the film
1. Photo-inert Polyethylene Bag
base to the opposite side, the image also spreads, and
thus image sharpness is degraded 2. Metal Foil
Given: 0.1%
100/0.1 = 1000
log10 = 3 (FINAL ANSWER)
IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM
COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
SENSITOMETRIC CURVE Mammographic Film
• product of sensitometry
✓ Film Characteristic Curve • Single emulsion
✓ H&D Curve • High detail
✓ Characteristic Curve • Fine grain
Spot-Film Cameras
QUESTION: Which of the following will exhibit the greatest • paper based, ultrasound
density?
Laser Film
a. 200 mAs x 0.25 sec
• laser printing such as MRI, and CT scan
b. 100 mAs x 0.5 sec (Ans.)
Copy or Duplicating
c. 500 x 1/10 sec
• exposed to UV light through existing radiograph to
d. NOTA produce a copy of inverse density using UV lamp or
black light bulb.
IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM
COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
Cine Film These negative ions therefore are converted to neutral
atoms.
• Cine Fluorography
• Records via output phosphor of an image intensifier The loss of ionic forces allows the bromide and iodide
• 16 or 35 mm in width atoms lo migrate freely out of the crystal into the gelatine
• Greenlight sensitive portion of the film.
• Sprocket holes
• High speed or medium speed This leads to the deterioration of the crystalline structure
which also enables the remaining silver ions to easily
GURNEY MOTT THEORY migrate.
Silver Halide Crystals
Secondary electrons liberated by the absorption event
• The shape and lattice structure of the silver halide migrate to the sensitivity center and are trapped.
crystals are not perfect, and some of the imperfections
Once a sensitivity center captures a photoelectron and
result in the imaging property of the crystals.
becomes more negatively charged, the center is attractive to
• The type of imperfection thought to be responsible is a
mobile interstitial silver ions.
chemical contaminant, usually SILVER SULFIDE
• This contaminant has been given the name Sensitivity The interstitial silver ion combines with the electron trapped
Center or Frankel Defect at the sensitivity center to form metallic silver atoms.
• During exposure, photoelectrons and silver ions are
attracted to those sensitivity centers, where they After migrating lo the sensitivity center, the silver ions are
combine to form a Latent Image Center. neutralized by electrons and are converted to metallic
• The silver, bromine, and iodine atoms are fixed in the silver.
crystal lattice in ion form
The silver deposition is not observable, even microscopically.
• The silver halide crystal is not as rigid as some crystals
and under certain conditions, atoms and electrons are This group of silver atoms is called latent image center
free to migrate within the silver halide crystals. and it is here that visible quantities of silver form during
processing to create the radiographic image.
When radiation and light interacts with the silver halide Activation of the sensitivity speck allows the developer
crystals via Pholoelectric Effect or Compton Effect. later to reduce all the silver atoms in the crystal, thus
increasing the number of reduced silver atoms by over one
In both cases, secondary electrons is released with sufficient million times.
energy to dislodge additional electrons from the crystal
lattice. The movement of the bromide ions to the sensitivity speck is
known as the "entrapment stage"
Most of the liberated electrons comes from the bromide and
iodide atoms because these negative ions contain an extra The movement of the silver ions and their deposition is
electron. known as the migration phase.
Fittings: • 8 x 10 inches
• 10 x 12 inches
• Clips and Fasteners • 14 x 14 inches
- usually stainless steel • 14 x 17 inche
• Hinges • 20 x 25 cm
- metal or plastic • 24 x 30 cm
• Pressure Pad • 14 x 14 inches
- plastic foam sponge • 35 x 35 cm
• 35 x 43 cm
TYPES OF CASSETTES
1. Single Screen Cassettes Problems with Cassettes:
- used for single sided emulsion film 1. Light Leaks
- principal application in mammography 2. Air Trapping
3. Poor Screen contact
2. Double Sided Cassettes
WIRE MESH TEST
- used for double sided emulsion film
- applied in general radiography Expose cassette through the wire mesh
Reflective Layer
SCREEN SPEED
Screen speed is a relative number that describes how
Luminescence
efficiently x-rays are converted into light.
- emission of visible light (Ability)
• 25: ultra detailed
Fluorescence • 50: high resolution, detailed
• 100: standard, medium, par
- emission of visible light only during stimulation • 200: fast (6)
• 300: ultrafast
Phosphorescence
EFFICIENCY OF INTENSIFYING SCREENS
- emission of visible light during and after SCREEN % OF X-RAY BEAM ABSORBED
stimulation. Detail 2-5
Medium Speed 20
TYPES OF PHOSPOR MATERIAL
High Speed 40
• CaWO4
Rare Earth 40 - 60
- emit blue and blue violet light
• Barium Lead Sulfate
- use of high kVp technique for radiation protection Intensification Factor
• Zinc Sulfide
- low kVp for good image quality Ratio of the exposure required to produce the same optical
• Rare earth crystals: density with a screen to the exposure required to produce an
- fastest, presence of quantum mottle optical density without the screen.
• Lanthanum (La) – 57
exposure required without screen
• Gadolinium (Gd) – 64 IF =
exposure required with screens
• Yttrium (Y) – 3
What is the intensification factor for screens that require 5
FAVORABLE PROPERTIES OF A RADIOGRAPHIC
INTENSIFYING SCREEN PHOSPHOR mAs to produce the same density as produced by direct
• The phosphor should have a high atomic number so that exposure using 150 mAs?
x-ray absorption is high. Given: 5 mAs & 150 mAs
• The phosphor should emit a large amount of light per x-
ray absorption. The light emitted must be of proper = 150 / 5
wavelength (color) to match the sensitivity of the x-ray
film. Answer: 30
IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM
COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SCREEN SPEED THE BASIC STEPS IN THE PRODUCTION OF A
• Radiation Quality COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY IMAGE:
• Reflective Layer 1. The IP is exposed to X-rays, which causes
• Temperature electrons in the phosphor to move to another
• Dye energy level, where they remain trapped to create a
• Phosphor Composition latent image.
• Phosphor Thickness 2. The plate is then taken to the CR reader/processor
• Crystal Size (digital image processor) where it is scanned by a
• Concentration of Phosphor laser beam which causes the trapped electrons to
• Crystals return to their original orbit, and in the process, light
is emitted.
OVERVIEW: DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 3. This light is collected by a light guide and sent to a
Digital Imaging: Definition photomultiplier tube (PMT). The output electrical
Type of imaging that allows text, photos, drawings, signal from the PMT is subsequently converted into
animations, and video to appear in the internet. digital data.
4. A digital processor processes the digital data to
Any imaging process that produces an electronic image that produce a CR image.
can be viewed and manipulated on a computer. 5. The CR image is subsequently displayed for
Radiographic imaging technology producing digital projection viewing.
images such as those using photostimulable storage 6. The IP is exposed to a bright light to erase it
phosphor (computed radiography, or CR), amorphous (remove residual latent image).
selenium, amorphous silicon, charge coupled device 7. The IP can now be used again.
(CCD), or metal oxide semiconductor-field effect
transistor (MOSFET) technology
HISTORY
• In the 1970's, the first clinical application for digital
images - Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) -
was developed at the University of Arizona in Tucson.
• One of the first uses of digital imaging was with the
introduction of the CT scanner by Godfrey Hounsfield
in the 1970's.
• MRI was introduced commercially for health care use
in the early 1980's
• Fluoroscopy also saw many advances during the OVERVIEW: FLAT PANEL DETECTORS (FPD)
1970's. • Flat-Panel Digital Radiography systems have been
• Moving images digitally (Teleradiology) was introduced developed to overcome the shortcomings of CR
by Albert Jutras in the 1950's. systems.
• Early PACS was developed by the US army. • As the name implies, the digital detector is designed as
• PSP imaging was first introduced commercially in the a flat-panel, and it is totally different in design structure
US in 1983 by Fuji Medical Systems Japan. and function, compared to the CR detector (IP).
• Most Flat-Panel Detectors (FPD) systems use an X-ray
absorber material coupled to a thin-film transistor
(TFT), complementary metal oxide semiconductor
(CMOS), or charge-coupled device (CCD)
- During this time, the film should be lifted up and down Developer Composition:
several times.
- The films should be in rinsed in clean water for up to 30 • Reducing or Developing Agent:
seconds. - Phenidone: acts quickly, responsible for the gray tone
of image, controls the toe portion of the sensitometric
5. Fixing curve.
- Hydroquinone: acts slowly, responsible for the black
- The film should stay in the fixer for at least 30 minutes. tones of the image, controls the shoulder area of the
- There must be no white light in the darkroom for the first characteristic curve.
3 minutes of fixing time. • Developer Composition: Activator, Alkalanizer,
6. Washing Buffering Agent, Accelerator, Wetting Agent
✓ Sodium Carbonate: swells the gelatin of the emulsion
- The film should stay on the water tank for at least 30 and provides alkalinity required for reducing agents to
minutes. work.
• Developer Composition: Restrainer, Starter Agent,
7. Drying Anti-Foggant, Regulator
✓ Potassium Bromide: controls activity of reducing
- The drying temperature must not exceed 35 C.
agents and prevents fogging.
8. Checking • Developer Composition: Preservative, Anti-Oxidant
✓ Sodium Sulfite: protects the reducing agents from
Some differences between Manual & Automatic Processing: aerial oxidation
• Developer Compositon: Hardener
• No stop bath between developer and fixer as rollers ✓ Glutaraldehyde: added to automatic processing to
removes the chemicals. control the swelling of the emulsion.
• Higher temperature are used for automatic processors.
Therefore, some different chemicals are required for Other Components:
automatic processing.
• Additional hardener is added to the developer solution in • Benzothiosole – organic restrainer which is added to
automatic processing. PQ developer to prevents the action of Phenidone to
• Dark-room is not required when automatic daylight Sliver Halide Crystals which is not restrained by
loaders are used. bromide.
• Automatic processors allow “dry to dry” process • Sequestering Agent – (EDTA and CALGON) prevents
because of its dryer system. precipitation of calcium sludge which would show up as
chalky deposits on the film or cause scaling of the tank.
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING • Solvent – (water) stimulate uniform development by
1942: reducing surface tension.
• Anti-Fothan / Anti-Foaming – prevents bubble
- The first automatic x-ray film processor was introduced formation on the solution and aerial oxidation.
by PAKO • Fungicides – fights fungi which develops in complete
- 120 films per hour with the use of special film hangers darkness and moisture.
- Total processing time of 40 minutes
Factors affecting Developing Time:
1956:
• Temperature of Solution
- Eastman Kodak Company introduced the first roller • Size of the film
transport system • Size of grains of the film
- 10 ft long and weighed about a ton • Agitation of Developer
- $350,000 • Exhaustion of Developer
1965: Time/Temperature Relationships in Mechanical
Processing:
- Eastman Kodak Company introduced the 90-second
Time Temperature
rapid processor
18 sec 92 F
- This type of automatic film processing remains the
22 sec 90 F
standard
26 sec 88 F
IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM
COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
• Plexiglas or Acrylic Plastic
FIXING: • Plastic Polyester
30 sec 86 F • Phenolic Resin – most sensitive
Functions: • Stainless Steel
• To neutralize the developer • Rubberized Plastic
• To clear away undeveloped silver halide crystals Transport Rack Subassembly:
• To shrink and harden the gelatin
- Most of the rollers in the transport system are positioned
Fixer Composition: in a rack assembly.
• Fixing Agent - These racks are easily removable and provide for
✓ Ammonium Thiosulfate, Sodium Thiosulfate: convenient maintenance and efficient cleaning of the
removes undeveloped silver halide crystals processor.
• Neutralizer, Acidifier, Acitvator, Starter • Guide Shoe: a curved metal lip with smooth grooves
✓ Acetic Acid: provides acid medium and neutralizes guides the film around the bend.
the developer using the film. • Turnaround Assembly: consist of master roller,
• Preservative, Stabilizer, Anti-Oxidant planetary roller located at the bottom of the transport
✓ Sodium Sulfite: maintains equilibrium, prevent rack assembly.
oxidation and precipitation • Crossover Rack: the crossover rack is a smaller rack
• Hardening Agent, Tanning Agent, Strong Hardener assembly that is composed of rollers and guide shoe
✓ Potassium Aluminum: hardens and shrinks the Drive Subsystem:
emulsion, prevents too much absorption of water,
enhances archival quality - controls the speed of the transport system
• Sequestering Agent:
✓ Boric Acid, Boric Salts: anti-sludging agent, removes Three (3) means od transferring power to the transport rack.
aluminum ions
• Belt and Pulley
• Buffer
• Chain and Sprocket
✓ Acetate: maintains proper pH
• Gears
• Solvent
✓ Water Temperature Control System
Developer:
WASHING:
- Very important for archival quality because it removes - temperature most critical
residual chemical from the fixer. - temperature is usually maintained at 35C (95 F)
- 5 degree F to 3 degree C below developer temperature
to stabilize developer temperature. Wash Water:
- Fresh tap water is piped into the tank at the bottom and • uses low power laser beam to create latent image
overflows out the top. • latent image is converted to manifest image using
thermal processor
12 L/min (3 gal/min) • 125 C with 15 seconds dwell time
- The minimum flow rate for the wash tank in most Chemical Recovery Units
processors. Precipitation of Silver
REPLENISHMENT SYSTEM - produces chemical sludge
Meters the proper quantities of chemicals into each tank to
maintain volume and chemical activity. Replacement of Silver by Another Metal (Steel Wood)
1) Blower • Simplest
2) Ventilation Ducts • Fixed Lead Opening
3) Drying Tubes • Fixed IR Size
4) Exhaust System • Constant SID
• Heating Coils – 2300 to 2500 W capacity
• Air Blower – 100 to 300 ft3/min Cones and Cylinders
• 60 to 80% - electricity consumed
• Modification of Aperture Diaphragm
ALTERNATIVE PROCESSING METHODS • Difficult to Use
1) Rapid Processing
Variable Aperture Collimator
- 30 seconds processing time
- More concentrated chemicals and higher • Most common beam restricting device
developer and fixer temperatures
2) Extended Processing Positive Beam-Limiting Devices
- 3 minutes processing time
- Useful in mammography • Electrically interconnected to the potter-buck diaphragm
Advantages: • Collimator automatically adjust to the size of film placed
➢ increases contrast (15%) in the bucky tray
➢ increases film sensitivity (30%)
RADIOGRAPHIC GRIDS
➢ reduces PX dose (30%)
Moving Grid
3) Daylight Processing
- 15 seconds loading & unloading time ➢ Reciprocating Grid
- 2 minutes total processing time -Motor – drives grid back and forth several times
Advantages: during exposure
➢ elimination of darkrooms speed - Total distance of drive is 2cm
4) Dry Processing ➢ Oscillating Grid
Advantages: - oscillates in a circular fashion around the grid
➢ elimination of chemicals frame.
➢ no darkroom required
➢ no plumbing required Parallel Grid
➢ less environmental impact
- non-focused grid
➢ reduced capital cost
- always produces cut-off
➢ reduced operating cost
- lead strips are parallel to each other and focused to
infinity
- has an infinite focal range
IMAGE PRODUCTION EVALUATION | A REVIEWER FOR BOARD EXAM
COMPILED BY KATE JOANNA A. TAGALA
1. The higher the grid ratio, the higher is the bucky factor Type of Grid Misalignment Result
2. The bucky factor increases with increasing kVp Off-Level grid cutoff across image;
underexposed, light
Contrast Improvement Factor image
Off-Center grid cutoff across image;
• reveals the ability of the grid to improve image underexposed, light
contrast. This property of the grid is specified by the image
contrast improvement factor (k) Off-Focus grid cutoff toward edge of
image
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑
𝑘= Upside-Down severe grid cutoff toward
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 edge of image
Off-Center + Off-Focus grid cutoff on one side of
Off-Focus Grid
image
- using an SID outside the focal range creates a loss
of exposure at the periphery of the radiograph
GRID CONSTRUCTION
GRID CONSTRUCTION • Interspace Material
GRID DIMENSIONS - maintains precise separation between lead strips
• Consists of;
• Thickness of the Grid Strip (T) - Aluminum
• Width of the Interspace Material (D) - Plastic Fiber
• Height of the Grid Strip (h)
Focused Grid
Off-Center Grid
- designed to minimize grid cut-off
- if the center of the x-ray beam is not aligned from - has a specific focal range
side to side with the center of a focused grid, grid
cut-off occurs. GRID CONSTRUCTION
- also called “lateral decentering” Grid Strips
Upside-Down Grid - The ratio of the height of the lead strips to the width
of the interspace material
- placing a focused grid upside-down on the IR - Indicates efficiency in removing scattered radiation
causes the lateral edges of the IR to be highly
underexposed.
Off-Level Grid