Limnology Investigation of Lower Himalayan Water Pond

with Special Reference to Productivity

Submitted by
Sangeeta Devi, Shailja Devi Kapoor and Vaishnavi
Sharma

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 ABSTRACT
Life on which earth is not possible without water, it is most precious substance on earth.
Ponds which have been a traditional source of water. The present study investigate the
primary productivity of pond water ecosystem. The Light and Dark bottle method is used to
measure the primary production and it depends on the planktonic biodiversity. In the present
study monthly variations of physico-chemical parameters were statically analyzed and
graphically presented. The pond was selected for a period of three months March to May
2024. The different physico-chemical parameters like air temperature (23°C to 30°C), water
temperature (11ºC to 18ºC), EC (60 µS/cm to 76 µS/cm), T.D.S (31 ppm to 38 ppm),
alkalinity (21mg/l to 25 mg/l), hardness (31 mg/l to 34 mg/l), calcium hardness (4 mg/l to 4.8
mg/l), magnesium hardness (4.32 mg/l to 5.76 mg/l), Chloride content (2 ppm to 5 ppm), pH
(7.2 to 8) dissolved oxygen (6.80 mg/l to 13.90 mg/l) as well as Gross primary productivity
(GPP) (0.22 mg C/l/h to 0.33 mg C/l/h), Net primary productivity (NPP) (0.15 mg C/l/h to
0.37 mg C/l/h) and Community respiration (CR) (0.18 mg C/l/h to 0.56 mg C/l/h) were also
analyzed. The study concluded that the water of Sourabh van vihar, pond showed variations
in physico-chemical parameters and primary productivity as well as productivity status in
these three months.

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 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Water is vital for all life forms and is also known as liquid of life. The earth has been called
the water planet. Nearly three fourths of its surface is water. The earth’s water is present in
the form of rivers, ponds, lakes, oceans, streams and springs. Water is one of the most
essential natural resources for the survival and wellness of living organisms. Such water
becomes contaminated and abused as a handy dumping ground for trash and effluents of all
kinds, including agricultural, industrial, and home garbage.

India is the world's seventh largest country, covering an area of 3,287,263 square kilometers.
The country is endowed with a huge and varied expanse of open seas that exhibit remarkable
variation in their biotic and abiotic characteristics. The country has a 7,517-kilometer
coastline and a large river and canal system that spans approximately 19521 kilometers
Srinivasa et al. (2012). In addition, pond and tanks resources are estimated to be spread
throughout 24.14 lakh acres.

Water generally present in three forms i.e. solid, liquid and gas. Water is the most common
compound on earth, most of the water is in liquid form sloshing around in the oceans and
other water bodies. Because it’s so common and because it’s easy to use for so many different
purposes, liquid water is the part of our everyday lives. In the economy of world water plays
an important role. Human society has used freshwater from rivers, lakes, groundwater and
wetlands for many different urban, agricultural and industrial activities. About 70% of earth’s
surface water of which 97.5% is salty water and 2.5% is freshwater. Less than 1% of this
2.5% amount of fresh water is accessible for human use (Gleick et al., 2009).

The fresh water is any natural source of water, except sea water and brackish water. It
consists of water in the glacier, ponds, rivers, streams, and includes also underground water.
Freshwater resources are of major environmental, economic and social importance their
distribution varies widely among and within countries. Their availability and quality is
affected by water abstraction such as for public supply irrigation, industrial processes or
cooling of power plants. Limnology is the study of freshwater or saline water contained with
in continental boundaries. Limnology and the closely related science of oceanography
together cover all aquatic ecosystems. It covers lakes, ponds, reservoirs, streams, rivers,
wetlands and estuaries. Today limnology plays a major role in water use and distribution as
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well as in wildlife habitat protection. In limnology all aspects of water are being studied
either they are physical, chemical or biological. There are majority of organisms that need
freshwater ecosystem to live. This is because of the chemical parameters that also support the
life there.

The various inorganic components that are found in freshwater ecosystem are oxygen, carbon
dioxide, magnesium and calcium. They play an important role in sustaining a successful life
under water. Oxygen present in the water is in dissolved form and the aquatic organism
acquire this oxygen in this form through their gills, trachea or skin. Carbon dioxide also
present inside the freshwater ecosystem in dissolved form and help in the process of
photosynthesis. Other ecological factors like light and temperature also plays an important
role in sustaining the life under water. The light helps in photosynthesis and also heat up the
surface as well as the water beneath that which provide warmth to the organisms living there.

Due to varying light penetration of water bodies, there is differentiation of three layers which
depends on temperature known as thermal stratification.

Epilimnion: It is the upper warm layer of the pond that is most affected by sunlight making it
more warmer and less dense. The epilimnion has higher pH and higher dissolved oxygen
concentration then hypolimnion.

Hypolimnion: It is the dense bottom layer of water in a thermally stratified lake. It is the
layer that lies below the thermocline. It is the coldest layer of a lake in summer and the
warmest layer during winter.

Thermocline: It is the part of lake’s water column where water temperature changes rapidly
from warm to cold.

Aquatic ecosystem is further classified into two categories based on the movement of water.
These are divided on the basis of water residence time flow velocity. The velocity in a lotic
ecosystem ranges from 0.1 to 0.01 m/s (Wetzel, 2001; UNEP, 1996).

Lotic: This mainly refers to the rapidly flowing water that move in a unidirectional way
including the rivers and streams.

Lentic: The word lentic mainly refers to stationary or relatively still water. It includes all
standing water habitats. These water bodies are home to algae, crabs, shrimps such as frogs
and salamanders also including alligators and other water snakes. Lakes and ponds are the
main example of lentic ecosystem.
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The word ‘pond’ is originated from ‘Pound’ which means enclosure that is confined. Biggs
et al. (2005) described water body as pond with area between 1 m 2 to 20,000 m2 and they may
be seasonal or perennial. Pond is stable water body and are natural as well as artificial or man
made. Ponds are usually smaller than lakes and few animals make their habitat in them.

Ponds play an equally important role in aquatic biodiversity as rivers and huge lakes. Ponds
provide habitat for wide range of aquatic animals Fairchild et al. (2005) and Smith et al.
(2002). Researchers has been discovered that ponds are important hot spot of biodiversity in
relation to biological traits and species composition and plays an important role in providing
ecosystem services (Boix et al., 2014).

Ponds mainly comprises three zones: (a) littoral zone; belt close to shore line where light
reaches up to the bottom, supporting rooted plant, (b) limnetic zone; light intensity is
adequate and planktons are the dominant biota in this zone and (c) profundal zone; light is
inadequate or absent, only heterotrophs occur in this zone (Gupta et al., 2015).

Importance of primary productivity

Primary productivity is an important parameter that describes the energy potential of aquatic
organisms and determines the quality and self- purifying capacity of water environment. It is
crucial for the functioning of ecosystem as provides the fundamental source of energy for
food web and ecosystem.

The productivity of the aquatic ecosystem depends on various parameters like physico-
chemical characteristics of water and presence of the primary producer and its consumers.
The primary producers of the aquatic ecosystem are phytoplankton, periphyton and
macrephytes (Deka, 2017). The organic material which is produced with the help of sunlight
by the producer from an inorganic material through the process of photosynthesis is called
primary production (Babar and Raje, 2015). The study of primary productivity helps to
understand the water quality, food chain, food web and the productivity of the ecosystem. The
primary productivity of an ecological system community or any part there of is defined as the
rate at which radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic and chemosynthetic activities of the
producer organisms in the form of organic substances which can be used as food materials.
The primary productivity is the first fundamental step of ecosystem function and it makes the
chemical energy and organic matter available to consuming organisms. The rate of carbon
fixation at the primary level currently provides the best assessment of the result for physical,

5
biological and chemical interactions determining the actual fertility of any environment
(Goldman and Wetzen, 1963).

Primary productivity is further distinguished as gross primary productivity (GPP) and net
primary productivity (NPP). GPP is the total rate of photosynthesis including the organic
matter used upon respiration during the measurement period. A certain portion of gross
primary production is utilized by plants themselves for maintenance (mostly respiratory
energy loss) and the remaining is called net primary production which appears as new plant
biomass. This is thus the rate of increase of biomass and is also known as apparent
photosynthesis or net assimilation. Recently increased importance has been given to the
phytoplankton productivity in relation to physical and chemical parameters of aquatic system.
It has been measured by different workers in diverse aquatic ecosystems throughout the
world. The productivity of the aquatic ecosystem also depends on the age of the water body.
Newly formed or oligotrophic water body has less productivity as compared to the older ones
(mesotrophic and eutrophic).

The method invented by Winkler in 1888 allows for the easy and precise measurement of
dissolved oxygen concentrations. Oxygen sensitive electrodes can also be used to determine
dissolved oxygen with precision however, such electrodes must be calibrated on a regular
basis with water containing known oxygen concentrations. They are especially beneficial in
contaminated water where the oxygen content might be quite high. Furthermore, their
sensitivity can be applied in situations with rapidly fluctuating oxygen concentrations.
However, electrodes are less reliable when oxygen concentration is exceptionally low. For
this reason the Winkler titration is frequently used to accurately determine oxygen contents in
aqueous samples. Studies on primary production and physicochemical parameters in aquatic
ecosystems can provide vital and relevant information about the current state of that
ecosystem.

The estimation of primary productivity of an ecosystem is of great importance for aquatic

animals as helps to understand the food chain and food web relationship that prevails in
ecosystem. By considering the importance of the primary productivity in an aquatic
ecosystem, present study was carried out at Saurabh van vihar, pond, Palampur, Himachal
Pradesh (Dhauladhar ranges of Himalaya) which is geographically located at 32.12 º N
latitude, 76.53º E longitude and an altitude of 1300 m above mean sea level to understand the
relation of productivity with physico-chemical parameters.

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The aim/objectives of the study are as follow:

 To assess the aquatic ecosystem’s health.

 To determine the effect of water quality on primary productivity.
 To determine the nature of the water body by using productivity.

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 CHAPTER-2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The main focus of the study is to find the primary productivity and the different physico-
chemical parameters of water such as pH, EC, TDS, water temperature, air temperature,
alkalinity, hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, chloride content and dissolve
oxygen of pond water (Saurabh van vihar, pond, Palampur). The present chapter highlights
the historical review of different aspects of study carried so far including the physico -
chemical parameters of pond ecosystem. The biology of ponds reasonably begins with its
productivity and periodicity thus the qualitative as well as the quantitative knowledge of
these organisms growing in an ecosystem is of fundamental importance (Hutchinson, 1967).

2.1 International level studies:

Jones (1990) stated that pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity and total hardness
are the main water quality parameters for an aquatic ecosystem. Water temperature is one of
the most important physical factor determining productivity and influences the rate of
metabolic activity of organism.

Ghatak and Konar (1992) studied the effects of various effluents on Damodar River
Ecosystem. He concluded that the drainage of various industrial effluents gradually affects
the physico -chemical and biological characteristics of river water. The concentrations of
dissolved oxygen and phosphate waste was significantly decreased but carbon dioxide was
increased at various sites which results in decrease of Phytoplankton communities of the river
water. Rosenzweig and Buikema (1994) reported phytoplankon colonization and seasonal
succession in new experimental pond, USA.

Cramer et al. (1995) has reviewed different models of NPP presented at the workshop held at
Potsdam in 1995. They concluded that productivity is different on different geographical
location hence it is difficult to examine. Most of the models predicted increased NPP
sometimes differed up to 200% between models.

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Rogan and Gross (1996) observed the nutrient dynamics plankton cycle that occur in an
artificial pond used in the production of oyster and demonstrated that the incoming water to
the pond is usually nutrient rich that resulted in increased population of diatoms.

According to Molden (1997), the physical mass production is measured in term of water
productivity or the economic value of production and measured against gross inflows, net
inflows, depleted water and process depleted water or available water. At basin level, crop
production and livestock production etc are multiple uses of water productivity.

Izaguirre et al. (1998) observed that some limnological features and structure of their algal
assemblages are strongly influenced by the eutrophication caused by activities of birds and
other animals around the area. Singh and Sharma, (1999) stated that the higher concentration
of free carbon dioxide during the months of winter can be attributed to the accumulation of
large quantities of organic matter.

Tallberg et al. (1999) investigated the implications of seasonal succession of phytoplankton

and zooplankton along a trophic gradient in a eutrophic lake for the management of the food
web in Hiidenvesi Lake in Finland. They found that eutrophication alters the physical and
chemical composition of the environment which may also alter the composition of
phytoplankton.

Urabe et al. (1999) examined light, nutrients, and primary productivity in a lake in japan.
Their findings indicated that primary production in this lake is regulated by phosphorus in
relation to nitrogen supply rates yet considerable portions of the lake’s epilimnion layer still
experience light limitation.

Swadling et al. (2000) observed that there is a statistically significant correlation between the
species composition and abiotic factors that cause variation in zooplankton communities. The
study focused on the composition of zooplankton communities in lakes located in the Yukon
and Northwest Territories (Canada) and how it relates to physical and chemical limnology.

Das et al. (2001) observed that the water temperature depends on sunlight depth and
transparency of water. Boyd et al. (2001) observed that the biological parameter viz.,
plankton and benthos which together determine the water quality, govern the aquatic
production individually and affect the survival and growth of all kinds of organism present in
aquatic ecosystem.

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Barker et al. (2003) laid down some of the concepts and complexities in economic analysis
related to increasing water productivity and showed that increased water productivity in one
sector might reduce the water productivity elsewhere – that is in economic jargon there are
significant externalities.

Omar, (2010) have also demonstrated the firm impact of nutrient loading on phytoplankton
biomass. Among the anthropogenic stresses in the water body, nutrient enrichment is one of
the most commonly observed stress among the chemical parameter, pH and DO are most
commonly and significantly important parameters for accessing the water quality (Enache
2010 and Sharma et al. 2010).

Baber and Raje (2011) investigated that the Kadwai reservoir is productive during post-
monsoon season. The GPP, NPP and CR of the reservoirs water varied in month-wise and
season wise. The GPP, NPP and Respiration were highest in the month of October and
November and lowest was found in the month of June, July and August, respectively. The
GPP and NPP were highest in the post-monsoon season. The temperature is raised in the
month of September and October which enhanced the release of nutrients from organic
sediments through decomposition and it provides favorable conditions for primary
production.

2.2 National level studies

pH is determined by the relationship between free carbondioxide and carbonates.

Carbondioxide concentration is generally observed higher during the winter season while
negligible values can be found during summer and rainy season (Desai, 1991 and Mishra and
Saxena, 1991). Gupta (1991) studied the primary productivity of Daya reservoir and
concluded that the primary productivity of a shallow pond of southern Rajasthan inferred the
higher biological production in the pond during the month of April. Kumar (1995) recorded
high dissolved oxygen concentration in the pond during summer season owing to increased
solar radiation and resulting into production of considerable standing crop of phytoplankton.

Saha et al. (2001) observed that there is a significant direct correlation between the Gross
Primary Productivity, Net Primary Productivity and total alkalinity of Subhas Sarovar Lake in
East Calcutta. This correlation was observed in relation to a few selected physicochemical
parameters. The importance of biotic habitat components in the production process of Indian
reservoirs was explored by Bandyopadhyay (2002), he also reported that high levels of
nutrients were connected with high GPP values and Nygaard tropic status indices.

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Archana et al. (2003) demonstrated that pH values between 6.5 and 7.9 are most suitable in
pond water for aquatic animal. The low photosynthesis value lead to low pH value whereas
higher photosynthesis drives the pH toword the alkaline side. Chandrasekhar et al. (2003)
investigated the influence of urbanization on the Bellandur Lake in Bangalore. The analysis
indicated greater alkalinity, BOD, COD as well as low levels of dissolved oxygen indicating
that the lake is polluted.

Awasthi and Tiwari (2004) investigated seasonal change in abiotic variables at Govindgarh
Lake Rewa, Madhya Pradesh. They proved an inverse link between dissolved oxygen and
Awasthi temperature. The lake was perennial and alkaline by nature. Temperature, pH,
dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, chloride and phosphates have been shown to vary significantly
with the season.

Pandey et al. (2004) investigated seasonal fluctuations in zooplankton community and

physicochemical characteristics in Kishanganj’s river Ramjan, Bihar. Rotifera dominated the
collections followed by copepods and cladocera. Rotifera showed a negative correlation with
pH, dissolved oxygen and transparency while copepods showed a negative correlation with
pH, transparency and phosphates. This suggests that various abiotic factors have a significant
influence on zooplankton abundance.

Sachidan and Yajurvedi (2004) worked on monthly variation in water quality parameters of
perennial lake in Mysore city. They analyzed that the water productivity varied with season
and BOD was minimum in winters than in summer due to decrease in temperature.

Sharma and Sarang (2004) conducted a physiochemical limnology and productivity study at
Jaisamand Lake, Udaipur. Water clarity was found to be positively correlated with pH, total
alkalinity, electrical conductivity and net primary production while, free carbon dioxide and
nitrates were negatively correlated.

Devaraju et al. (2005) studied the Muddar Lake Karanataka and concluded that the
agricultural runoff entering the lake had enriched the trophic status and lake has become
mesotrophic. Paulose and Maheshwari (2007) conducted a comparative study of Jalmahal and
Ramgarh lake of Jaipur with special reference to plankton diversity. Nitrogen content of these
water can be correlated with high density of phytoplankton and high rate of organic
decomposition. Mishra (2008) studied the Gohad reservoir of district Bhind and categorized
it as a meso-eutrophic reservoir.

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Laskar and Susmita, (2009) stated that the density of phytoplankton was at its peak in January
and April which was dominated by diatom and green algae. Diatom can be used extensively
in environment assessment and monitoring because they have high ranges and tolerance for
environment variables like pH, flow regime, nutrient concentration, suspended sediment and
different type of human disturbances.

Mohan et al. (2009) recorded that inflow of water during the monsoon into pond is the prime
factor that influences input of the nutrients and appear to enhance the primary production
during monsoon.

Chandra et al. (2011) observed that the fresh water availability was decreased at a greater rate
with increased pollution in river Ram Ganga at Baroilly. Dash et al. (2011) suggested that
GPP, NPP and their corresponding seasonal variation key component to understand both the
function of living ecosystem and their effects on the environment. Generally increased trend
in the values of GPP was observed from winter to summer. Spatial and seasonal primary
productivity of Kharasrota river in India was studied by (Dash et al., 2011).

Tidame and Shinde (2012) analyzed the physicochemical parameter of water sample from the
pond surface for one year (February 2010 to January 2011). They found that the temperature
of water varied with the season as lowest in winter and highest in summer. The pH value was
lowest in winter. Dissolved oxygen was minimum in winter and highest in monsoon. They
also analyzed the Pearson’s correlation coefficient and showed that they are related to each
other.

Jabde and Rokade, (2014) studied the primary productivity of Mosam river in Maharashtra
state. They concluded that the productivity was high in July, August and decreased in
September due to heavy rain and clouding. The primary decrease in productivity during
monsoon is because of the influx of rain water and suspended solid particles. Sahoo and Patra
(2015) done a study on primary productivity at seasonal level in Odisha. They estimated that
maximum values on NPP and GPP were recorded in summer season and minimum during
monsoon.

Kamboj et al. (2016) studied and compared the primary productivity of different parts of
Yamuna River canal by investigating different parameters like pH, temperature, total
dissolved solid and dissolved oxygen. The overall average values of GPP and NPP in
Yamuna River canal based on the data of all three stations were 142.46 mg Cm -3 and 55.59

12
mg Cm-3 NPP, respectively. He analyzed the quality of water and pollution level by
estimating net primary productivity.

Singh and Rawat (2016) observed the primary productivity of high altitude Lake Nachiketa
Tal of Garhwal Himalaya. During the study period the mean gross primary productivity,
respiration & NPP were 18.77 g C/mᶟ/hr, 11.26 g C/mᶟ/hr and 150.10 g C/mᶟ/hr respectively.
Primary Productivity was higher in winter and spring whereas, it was lower in monsoon and
summer.

Parag (2017) demonstrated the variation of primary productivity in terms of NPP, GPP and
community respiration of fresh water aquaculture ponds at Guwahati. In the pond, high
density of planktons was recorded in monsoon season. Rao et al. (2019) investigated the
status of fresh water pond of Hyderabad and measured pH, turbidity and few more physical
properties.

2.3 State level studies:

Jindal et al. (2013) studied Phytoplankton dynamics and species diversity in a shallow
eutrophic, natural mid-altitude lake in Himachal Pradesh (India) and concluded that there is
correlation between the physico-chemical parameters and phytoplankton groups of the lake.

Jindal and Thakur (2014) observed the biodiversity on Kuntbhyog Lake (Himachal Pradesh)
on species composition and population dynamics of phytoplankton productivity in relation to
seasonal variations in physico-chemical parameters of water. The planktons were abundant
during summer and post monsoon while, minimum number was recorded during winter.

Sharma and Walia (2015) investigated the water quality of the Gobind Sagar Lake, Bilaspur,
Himachal Pradesh (India) using physico- chemical parameters of the lake. For this study the
samples were collected in summer season and important parameters viz., water temperature,
pH, hardness, carbondioxide, chloride, T.D.S and alkalinity were taken. The results revealed
that the different conditions of Gobind Sager Lake showed fluctuations in some physico-
chemical parameters. Water of the lake was polluted due to nutrient enrichment because of
agricultural activities and its runoff in and around catchment area of the lake.

Sharma (2017) carried an investigation at pongdam, also known as Maharana Partap Sagar
Lake, a wetland, declared at Ramsar convention situated on the river Beas in Himachal
Pradesh, India. The analysis of water quality parameters such as alkaninity, pH, water

13
temperature, hardness, (calcium and magnesium hardness) and chloride content was done
during summer and winter seasons.

Sharma (2018) studied on the primary productivity of lentic and lotic water systems. The
light and dark bottle methods were used to measure the primary production. The result
depicted by her helps to determine the trophic level of various aquatic ecosystem and the
primary productivity of any aquatic ecosystem . The present study estimated the pond’s NPP,
GPP and Respiration as 50mgL mˉˡ hˉˡ, 75mgL mˉˡ hˉˡ, 0.36mgL mˉˡ hˉˡ, respectively. The
highest primary productivity and planktonic activity was found at lentic water as compared
to lotic water. The low productivity could attribute to the low nutrient level.

Kumar et al. (2019) concluded that in Renuka Lake of Himalaya, India, large sized algae as
well as phosphorus are considered as main limiting factor for increasing productivity and
trophic state gauge while social activity must be controlled in order to recover the Renuka
Lake due to its social and ecological significance.

Kalyani et al. (2019) observed the pollution status of fresh water pond ecosystem under sub
– temperate condition of Palampur. The surface water samples were collected from the pond
at the monthly intervals and found that concentrations of free carbondioxide, chlorides and
dissolved oxygen throughtout the study period were high indicating the deteriorated water
quality of pond ecosystem.

Kumar et al. (2022) studied on a perennial stream with 40 Km length located in district
Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India. Physico-chemical parameters of the water samples were
collected form this stream on monthly intervals. The water samples were collected from
sampling stations and analyzed for temperature, pH, EC, hardness, calcium hardness,
magnesium hardness, alkalinity, chlorides and dissolved oxygen. The results on seasonal
basis viz., summer, winter and monsoon seasons were compiled and compared. The mean
values of physico – chemical parameters was also recorded.

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 CHAPTER-3
STUDY AREA

STUDY AREA

Himachal Pradesh is a northern state in the Himalayas. It is a bordered by state of Jammu and
Kashmir on the north, Punjab on the west, Haryana on the southwest, Uttarakhand on the
southeast and Tibet on the east. Himachal is in the western Himalayas covering an area of
55,673square Kilometer. It is situated between 30°45’55” East to 79°04’20” East. The
drainage system of Himachal is composed both of rivers and Glaciers. Himalayan rivers
criss-cross the entire mountains chain. Himachal Pradesh provides water to both the Indus
and Ganga basins. The drainage system of the region is the Chandra Bhaga or the Chenab, the
Ravi, the Beas, the Satluj and the Yamuna.

Himachal Pradesh has 12 districts and one of them is district Kangra. It is the most popular
district among all district of the state. According to 2011 census district had population of
1,510,075 of which male and females were 750,591 and 759,484, respectively. Kangra is
situated in the western Himalayan ranges 31°2’ to 32° N and 75° to 77°45’ E. The district has
a Geographical area of 5739 km square and the altitude ranges from 427 to 6401m MSL.

Saurabh van vihar is a very popular tourist place located at Palampur town of District Kangra
in Himachal Pradesh, built in memory of Kargil hero, the late Captain Saurabh Kalia. The
Vihar is built and managed by the Forest Department of H.P. Palampur is a popular hill
station situated about 35 km away from Kangra. The town is surrounded by beautiful tea
gardens and a forest of pine and deodar trees. The Majestic Dhauladhar Mountain Range and
small streams which flow through the mountains to the plains create a mesmerizing
experience for the witnesses. Saurabh van vihar is a nature park lying in the lap of snow-clad
Dhauladhar Mountains, surrounded by lush green forest.

15
Location: The Park has been built at a distance of 5 km away from Palampur, covering an
area of over 35 acres. It is situated on hill side bank of rivulet Neugal Khad in a village
named Kwath. It takes around 1-2 hours to roam around the place.

Timings: 9:30 AM – 6:30 PM (All Days).

Entry Fee: 20 INR per person.

PLATE 1. Map of the Saurabh van vihar,

Pond

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PLATE 2. Sourabh van vihar, Pond

17
 Chapter-4
Material & Method

Present investigation entitled “Limnological investigation of lower Himalayan pond water

with special reference to productivity” was conducted during March to May 2024. The study
was carried out based on analysis of Saurabh van vihar, pond water Palampur by the student
of Zoology, Sri Sai University, Palampur. The experiment was carried out in departmental
laboratory of IPH department Palampur (Panchrukhi), Himachal Pradesh.

Study sample

Water sample was collected from study area i.e. Saurabh van vihar, pond, Palampur. The
sampling was carried out during morning hours between 10 am to 12 pm. Analysis of water
sample two times a month at fortnight interval for testing. To measure the productivity of
water three BOD bottles were taken from the lab, out of which two were transparent (white)
and one was black in color. One white and one black BOD bottle was tied up with rope and
incubated inside the pond water for two hours. After the duration of two hours the bottles
were taken out and the samples were analyzed.

Analytical Method

Parameters such as TDS, EC, pH, water temperature and air temperature were monitored on
the study area. The water temperature was measured with the help of digital thermometer and
were used to measure the EC, TDS and pH.

Some other tests viz., dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium
hardness and chloride content were tested in laboratory. For the analysis of chemical
variables, the method prescribed by Strickland and Parson (1972) were used and for analysis
of dissolve oxygen the method prescribed by Sexena (2001) was followed.

Winkler method

Take a glass stoppered BOD bottle of known volume (100-300ml) and fill it with sample
avoiding any bubbling. No air should be trapped in bottle after the stopper was placed. Open
the bottle and pour in it 1ml of each manganous sulphate reagent (b) and alkaline potassium
iodide (reagent C) solutions by using separate pipettes. If the volume of sample is over
100ml, then instead of 1ml use 2ml of each reagent. Sample at this stage can be stored for a
18
few days, if required. Add 2ml of sulphuric acid (reagent E) and shake thoroughly to dissolve
the precipitate. Transfer gently (avoiding bubbling) whole content or a known part of it, in a
conical flask. Put a few drops of starch indicator (reagent D). Titrate against sodium
thiosulfate solution (reagent A) and note the end point when initial blue color turns to
colorless.

Estimation of productivity

The productivity was estimated using the light and dark bottle methods. Three BOD bottles;
two white and one black bottle were used for the sampling process sample were taken and
analyzed as a protocol directed by Sexena (2001).

Sexena method

Fill one set of three BOD bottles (2 light and 1dark) with the sample of water from the depth,
avoiding bubbling. Immediately determine the oxygen content (in mg/l) in one of the light
bottles as described earlier. Suspend a set of one light and one dark bottle at the depth from
which the sample was taken and let them incubate for 24 hours. On completion of incubation
period, take out the bottles and determine oxygen in each (in mg/l). Some workers prefer
incubation of 12 hours a day.

19
 CHAPTER-5
RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Table 1. Physico – Chemical variable of pond water (Saurabh van vihar)

situated in District Kangra H.P. (March 2024 - May 2024). Values are
expressed in mg/l in water, except otherwise mentioned.

Sr. No. Month → March March April April May May

1 2 1 2 1 2

Parameters↓

1 Air Temperature (°C) 27 25 24 23 29 30

2 Water Temperature (°C) 13 15 12 11 17 18

3 TDS (ppm) 38 34 33.5 31 32.2 35

4 Electrical 76 72 66 60 64 70
Conductivity(µs/cm)

5 pH 8 7 7.6 7.2 7.4 7.5

6 Dissolved Oxygen(mg/l) 13.90 11.11 10.14 10.76 7.58 6.80

7 Hardness 30 33 32 34 31 34

8 Alkalinity 20 24 22 25 21 23

9 Chloride 5 3 2 3 4 2

10 Calcium Hardness 4.8 4.3 4.4 4 4.5 4.1

11 Magnesium Hardness 4.32 4.70 5.04 5.76 5.08 4.90

20
Table 2. Monthly analysis of Productivity status of Pond (March 2024 -
May 2024). Values are expressed in mg C/l/hour.

Sr.no. Parameters GPP NPP Respiration

Month

1. March 1 0.22 0.16 0.56

2. March 2 0.24 0.20 0.40
3. April 1 0.21 0.37 0.37
4. April 2 0.33 0.31 0.18
5. May 1 0.20 0.16 0.37
6. May 2 0.20 0.15 0.56

21
 Air Temperature (°C)
35
Air Temperature (°C)

30

25

20

15

10

0
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.1. Periodic Variation in the Air temperature of pond water from

March 2024 to May 2024

Water Temperature (°C)

20
Water Temperature (°C)

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.2. Periodic Variation in the Water temperature of pond water from

March 2024 to May 2024

22
 TDS (ppm)
40
35
30
TDS (ppm)

25
20
15
10
5
0
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.3. Periodic Variation in the TDS of pond water from March 2024 to
May 2024

Electrical Conductivity (µs/cm)

80
Electrical Conductivity

70
60
50
(µs/cm)

40
30
20
10
0
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.4. Periodic Variation in the Electrical conductivity of pond water from

March 2024 to May 2024

23
 pH
8.2
8
7.8
7.6
7.4
pH

7.2
7
6.8
6.6
6.4
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.5. Periodic Variation in the pH of pond water from March 2024 to May
2024

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l)

16
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.6. Periodic Variation in the Dissolved Oxygen of pond water from

March 2024 to May 2024

24
 Hardness (mg/l)
35
34
Hardness (mg/l)

33

32
31

30
29

28
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.7. Periodic Variation in the Hardness of pond water from March 2024
to May 2024

Alkalinity (mg/l)
30

25
Alkalinity (mg/l)

20

15

10

0
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.8. Periodic Variation in the Alkalinity of pond water from March 2024
to May 2024

25
 Chloride (mg/l)
6
5
Chloride (mg/l)

4
3
2
1
0
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.9. Periodic Variation in the Chloride Content of pond water from

March 2024 to May 2024

Calcium Hardness (mg/l)

5
Calcium Hardness (mg/l)

4.8
4.6
4.4
4.2
4
3.8
3.6
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.10. Periodic Variation in the Calcium Hardness of pond water from

March 2024 to May 2024

26
 Magnesium Hardness (mg/l)
7
Magnesium Hardness

6
5
4
(mg/l)

3
2
1
0
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.11. Periodic Variation in the Magnesium Hardness of pond water from

March 2024 to May 2024

GPP (mg C/I/hour)

0.35

0.3
GPP (mg C/I/hour)

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.12. Periodic Variation in the Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) of pond

water from March 2024 to May 2024

27
 NPP (mg C/I/hour)
0.4
0.35
NPP (mg C/I/hour)

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.13. Periodic Variation in the Net Primary Productivity (NPP) of pond

water from March 2024 to May 2024

Respiration (mg C/I/hour)

0.6
Respiration (mg C/I/hour)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
MAR.(1) MAR.(2) APR.(1) APR.(2) MAY.(1) MAY.(2)

Month

Fig.14. Periodic Variation in Respiration (R) of pond water from March

2024 to May 2024

28
5.1 Physico-chemical Parameters

The study focus on the variations of physico-chemical parameters of Saurabh van vihar, pond
The study of the physico-chemical parameter is carried out for three months i.e. March to
May 2024. The various study domains are discussed below:

5.1.1. Air temperature (Table 1 & Fig. 1)

Air temperature effects the surroundings of water body and plays an important role.
Maximum temperature was recorded in second half of May 30ºC while minimum
temperature was recorded in the second half of April i.e. 23ºC.

5.1.2. Water temperature (Table 1 & Fig. 2)

Water temperature is an important factor of water body it effects the other parameters such as
alkalinity, total dissolved solid, electrical conductivity and dissolved oxygen etc. Maximum
water temperature 18ºC was recorded in second half of May although minimum temperature
11ºC was recorded in second half of April.

5.1.3. Electrical Conductivity (Table 1 & Fig. 3)

Electrical conductivity is the measurement of dissolved material in an aqueous solution which

is related to the ability of the material to conduct electrical current through it. It is a numerical
value and measured in units called seimens per units area. The maximum value of electrical
conductivity was recorded in first half of March i.e. 76 (µS/cm) and minimum value was
recorded in second half of April i.e. 60 (µS/cm).

5.1.4. Total Dissolved Solid (T.D.S) (Table 1 & Fig. 4)

Total dissolved solid is the oldest determination in water analysis and has apparently always
been represent the amount of organic and inorganic material dissolved in water. The
maximum value of T.D.S i.e. 35ppm was observed in second half of May and minimum value
31ppm was recorded in second half of April.

5.1.5. Power of Hydrogen (pH) (Table 1 & Fig.5)

pH is a measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a water based solution. A lower

pH means that there are more hydrogen ions in liquid whereas, higher pH indicates fewer
hydrogen ion in the liquid. The maximum value 8 was observed in the first half of March and
minimum value of pH was in second half of April i.e.7.2.

29
5.1.6. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (Table 1 & Fig. 6)

Dissolved oxygen refers to the level of free, non-compound oxygen present in water or other
liquid. Dissolved oxygen concentration is the most important water quality parameter because
of its direct effect on the food consumption and metabolism of aquatic animals. The
maximum value i.e. 13.90 mg/l was observed in second half of March while, minimum
value i.e. 6.80 mg/l was observed in the month of May.

5.1.7. Alkalinity ( Table 1 & Fig. 7)

Alkalinity is a chemical measurement of a water’s ability to neutralize acids. Alkalinity is

also a measure of a water’s buffering capacity or its ability to resist changes in pH upon the
addition of acids and bases. Maximum value i.e. 25 mg/l was observed in second half of
April i.e. 25mg/l while, minimum value 20 mg/l was observed in first half of March

5.1.8. Chloride (Table 1 & Fig. 8)

Chlorides are present in almost every kind of water body such as ground water, canal water,
ponds, reserviors and rivers etc. Normal concentration of chloride in fresh water body is
about 1-100ppm and sea water usually contains 35,000 ppm Chloride Contents. The
maximum value of Chloride Content was observed in first half of March and minimum
Chloride Content was observed in second half of May (5 ppm and 2 ppm, respectively).

5.1.9. Hardness (Table 1 & Fig. 9)

Hardness is the most important component of water quality. Hardness represents the overall
concentration of divalent salts (calcium, magnesium and iron) etc. Calcium and Magnesium
are the most common source of water Hardness. In the present experiment maximum value
was recorded in the second half of May i.e. 34mg/l and minimum value was recorded in first
half of March i.e. 30 mg/l.

5.1.10. Calcium Hardness (Table 1 & Fig. 10)

Calcium hardness is a measurement of amount of calcium ions present in the water. The
maximum value was recorded in the first half of May 4.5 mg/l while, minimum value was
recorded in the second half of April 4 mg/l.

30
5.1.11. Magnesium Hardness (Table 1 & Fig. 11)

In Saurabh van vihar, pond the maximum value of hardness was observed in second half of
April i.e. 5.76 mg/l although minimum value has observed in first half of March i.e. 4.32
mg/l.

5.2 Productivity

It is the amount of organic material produced by an organism with the unit of time.

Productivity is of two type:

Gross primary Productiviy (GPP)

Net Primary Productiviy (NPP)

5.2.1. Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) (Table 2 & Fig. 12)

Total photosynthesis or total assimilation is the energy stored in the food material synthesized
by the green plant or total rate of photosynthesis including the organic material used up in the
respiration. During the study period maximum value of GPP was observed in pond at second
half of April (0.33) while, minimum value was observed in month of May (0.20).

5.2.2. Net Primary Productivity (NPP) (Table 2 & Fig.13)

It is the total gross productivity energy used up in the metabolic processes. It is also known as
apparent photosynthesis or net assimilation. During the study period maximum value of NPP
in pond was observed during the first half of April i.e. 0.37 and minimum value was observed
in May i.e. 0.15.

5.2.3. Respiration (R) (Table 2 & Fig. 14)

It is the rate at which the biomass energy is used during the respiration by the organism of
higher trophic levels like primary consumers and secondary consumers. During the study
period maximum value was observed in the month of March and May i.e. 0.56 while,
minimum value was observed in the month of April i.e. 0.18.

31
 Water Calcium
Air Hardnes Alkalinit Chlorid
Parameters temperatur TDS EC pH DO hardnes
temp s y e
e s
Air
temperatur 1.000 0.982** 0.947* 0.920* 0.781NS 0.689NS 0.727NS 0.542NS 0.365NS -0.351NS
e
Water
temperatur
1.000 0.884* 0.832NS 0.706NS 0.639NS 0.691NS 0.460NS 0.251NS -0.457NS
e

TDS
1.000 0.973** 0.925* 0.832NS 0.848NS 0.756NS 0.606NS -0.287NS

EC
1.000 0.878NS 0.765NS 0.769NS 0.697NS 0.621NS -0.068NS

pH
1.000 0.972** 0.967** 0.947* 0.836NS -0.255NS

DO
1.000 0.996** 0.966** 0.864NS -0.285NS

Hardness
1.000 0.944* 0.816NS -0.352NS

Alkalinity
1.000 0.931* -0.200NS

Chloride
1.000 0.162NS

Calcium
Hardness 1.000

Magnesium
hardness
Table 3. Correlation between physical and chemical parameters of pond water.

32
Parameters Air Water TDS EC pH DO Hardness Alkalinity Chloride Ca Mg
temp. temp. hardness hardness

GPP

0.271 NS
0.217NS 0.162NS -0.022NS 0.124NS -0.081NS 0.004NS 0.010NS 0.689NS 0.737NS 0.960**

NPP
0.272NS 0.218NS 0.163NS -0.022NS 0.124NS -0.080NS 0.005NS 0.012NS 0.688NS 0.738NS 0.960**

Table 4. Correlation between productivity v/s physico-chemical parameters of the pond

water.

33
Correlation

Among various Physico-chemical Parameters

Air Temperature showed positive significant co-relation with Water Temperature, TDS and
EC. The correlation of Air Temperature is non-significant with pH, DO, Hardness, Alkalinity
and Chloride Content. Calcium and Magnesium Hardness has negative correlation with Air
Temperature.

Water temperature is positively influenced by Air Temperature, TDS, EC, pH, DO,
Hardness, Alkalinity and Chloride Content. Although the correlation is positive and highly
significant in case of TDS and Air Temperature and non- significant in case of EC, pH, DO,
Hardness, Alkalinity and Chloride Content. The Water Temperature is negatively non -
significantly influenced by Calcium Hardness and Magnesium Hardness.

T.D.S showed positive and highly significant correlation with Air Temperature, Water
Temperature, EC and pH while the correlation of T.D.S is positive non- significant with DO,
Hardness, Alkalinity, and Chloride Content. Total dissolved solid also exhibit negative co-
relation with Calcium Hardness and Magnesium Hardness.

EC is positively non-significantly influenced by pH, DO, Hardness, Alkalinity, Chloride and

Magnesium Hardness (non-significant) and negatively influenced by Calcium Hardness while
its correlation with Air and Water Temperature is positive and highly significant.

pH is strongly influenced by TDS, Dissolved Oxygen, Hardness and Alkalinity while

positively non-significantly influenced by Water Temperature, Air Temperature and Chloride
Content and negatively non-significant influenced by Calcium Hardness and Magnesium
Hardness.

DO is positively significantly influenced by Hardness and Alkalinity except Chloride Content

which showed non-significant correlation and is negatively influenced by Calcium Hardness
as well as Magnesium Hardness. This negative correlation is non-significant.

Hardness It showed positive significant relationship with pH, DO and Alkalinity, a non-
significant relationship with Air Temperature, Water Temperature, TDS, EC and Chloride

34
Content and a negative non-significant correlation with Calcium Hardness and Magnesium
Hardness.

Alkalinity exhibited positive significant relation with pH, DO, Chloride Content, Hardness
and positive non-significant relationship with Air Temperature, Water Temperature, TDS and
EC while, the correlation is negative non-significant with Calcium and Magnesium
Hardness.

Chloride content has positive significant co-relation with Alkalinity, positively non –
significant co-relation with Air Temperature, Water Temperature, TDS, EC, pH, DO and
Hardness and has positive non-significant correlation with Magnesium Hardness.

Calcium Hardness is positively non -significantly influenced by Magnesium Hardness and

Chloride Content. It possess negative non-significant co-relation with Air Temperature, Water
Temperature, TDS, EC, pH, DO, Hardness and Alkalinity.

Magnesium Hardness is positively non-significant co-relation with Calcium Hardness and

Chloride Content while, negatively non-significant co-relation with Air Temperature, Water
Temperature, TDS, EC, DO, pH, Hardness, Alkalinity.

Productivity

Gross primary productivity (GPP) showed non-significant relationship with Air

Temperature, Water Temperature, TDS, pH, Hardness, Alkalinity, Chloride and Calcium
Hardness. GPP showed negative correlation with EC and DO while the correlation is highly
significant with Magnesium Hardness.

Net Primary Productivity (NPP) showed non-significant relationship with Air

Temperature, Water Temperature, TDS, pH, Hardness, Alkalinity, Chloride Content and
Calcium Hardness while, they showed negatively non-significant correlation with EC and
DO and highly significant relationship with Magnesium Hardness.

35
 Discussion

Variation in various physico-chemical parameters and productivity during the study period
and their correlation with other parameters and productivity are discussed below:

5.5.1 Air Temperature

Temperature is the measurement of how hot or cold the air is. It is an physico-chemical
parameters that describes the kinetic energy of the gases found in air. Atmospheric heat
transfer occur at the water surface and the temperature of water has an essential effect on
productivity. During our experimental research period, highest air temperature recorded was
30ºC in May and lowest was 23ºC in April.

Temperature is an important biological significant factor, which place an important role in the
metabolic activities of the organism (Sirajndeen and Mubashir, 2013). Air temperature
reaches its maximum during summer and minimum during monsoon and winter.

5.5.2 Water temperature

Water temperature is an important factor that influences the concentration of dissolved

oxygen in the water. Water temperature promotes the growth and reproduction of biological
organisms. Temperature of Saurabh van vihar ranged from 13ºC to 18ºC. The lowest water
temperature was recorded in April (11ºC) and highest was recorded in first half of May
(18ºC).

Water temperature usually depends on the season, geographic location, sampling period and
temperature of effluents entering in to the stream (Ahipathy, 2006).The variability is
primarily related to atmospheric temperature and wheather condition (Adebowale et.al.,
2008)

Water temperature has a strong positive correlation with salinity, chloride, sulphate content,
electrical conductivity, alkalinity and pH (Tripathi et al., 2014).

5.5.3. Total dissolved solid (TDS)

36
Total dissolved solid (TDS) content of fresh water is calculated by adding the concentration
of dissolved major ions (Allan and Castillo, 2007). These parameters are helpful in defining
the chemical elements of water and can be described as a general edaphic relation that
contributes to the productivity within the water body (Gohor, 2002).

During our study period the highest values of TDS was recorded in first half of March 38ppm
and lowest was observed in April at 31ppm.

5.5.4 Electrical conductivity

Water has ability to transport electric current which is known as electrical conductivity and it
is used to assess the water purity (Murugesan et al., 2006). Electrical conductivity values are
mainly determined by ionic concentration or dissolved inorganic compound (Mohanraj et al.,
2000). In our experiment maximum value of electrical conductivity in Saurabh van vihar
pond water was observed in the month of March i.e. 76 µS/cm and minimum values was
observed in the month of April i.e. 60 µm/cm.
Maximum electrical conductivity was observed the summer and minimum in monsoon
season. In a study conducted on physico-chemical parameters of Yedshi Lake in Mangarulpir
tehsil of Washin district, Maharashtra (Kedar et al., 2007). Similarly maximum electrical
conductivity in Basavan bole tank at Shimoga district was also observed in the summer
season (Narayan et al., 2005).
Conductivity is measured in simple and effective way to monitor temporal or spatial
variations in salt concentration, such as those that occur in salinized catchment (Tanish and
Boughtn, 1994).

5.5.5. pH (Power of Hydrogen)

pH measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in water. An ion is an atom or molecule that
gain or lose electrons and thus has a negative or positive charge. The pH scale measures the
concentrations of those charges assigning them a value from 0 to 14. Pure water at room
temperature (77 degrees Fahrenheit) has pH of 7.0 and is considered as neutral. Water with a
pH below 7 is defined as an acid and above 7 is alkaline.

The pH of a water body has importance in determination water quality as it chemically reacts
with remaining factors (Fakayode, 2005). The pH value increased due to activity of algal
photosynthesis, which consumes carbondioxide dissolved in water (Kang et al., 2001).

37
In Saurabh van vihar, pond maximum value of pH i.e. 8 was observed during the month of
March and minimum value i.e. 7.2 was seen in second half of April.

5.5.6. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

The amount of dissolved oxygen in water depends on the surface area exposed, temperature
and salinity. Where organic matter is very high has very little amount of dissolved oxygen
and self purification of water system depends on the presence of sufficient amount of oxygen
dissolved in it. Solubility of oxygen is dependent on temperature and it increases with
decreases in water temperature (Clarke, 1965). Higher amount of dissolved oxygen during the
winters have also been reported by Vyas and Kumar (1968) and (Bhatt et al. 1985). Minimum
content of dissolved oxygen was observed during the rainy season and summer, same result
was observed by Verma and Munshi (1987).

During the observation period in Saurabh van vihar, pond maximum value of dissolved
oxygen was recorded in the month of March (10.5mg/l) and minimum was observed in May
(5.65mg/l). Dissolved oxygen affects the nutrient availability resulting in altered productivity
of the entire water body (Solanki et al., 2006).

5.5.7 Hardness

In present investigation the value of hardness ranged from 31mg/l to 34mg/l. Maximum value
of hardness was recorded in March i.e.30mg/l. Total hardness of water is due to the presence
of bicarbonate, sulphate, chloride and nitrates of Ca and Mg (Kumar et al., 2010).

Hujrare (2008) observed that the total hardness was higher in summer than in the monsoon
and winter seasons. Summer hardness values are high due to decrease in water volume and an
increase in water evaporation rate.

5.5.8 Alkalinity

Alkalinity of water is it ability to neutralize strong acids and is primarily determined by the
carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide content created as a result of carbon dioxide dissolved
in water (Dallas and Day 2004 and Verma et al., 2010).

In our experiment maximum value of alkalinity was noticed in the month of April i.e. 25mg/l
and minimum value was observed in month of March (20mg/l). Lower value of alkalinity in
lakes may be related to rainfall during those months (Trivedi and Goel, 1992). Higher
alkalinity results could be related to the addition of detergents and sewage due to overflow
and leakage (Singh et al., 2008).
38
Alkalinity exhibited positive significant relation with chloride content and negative and non
significant relationship with calcium and magnesium hardness.

5.5.9 Chloride

Chloride play a very important role to determine the water quality in a water body, indicates
the presence of high organic matter. Chloride occur in most fresh water, as the salt of sodium
or calcium. Chloride ions are essential for plant and animals.

In our experiment the minimum value of chloride was obtained in the month of May i.e.
2mg/l and maximum value of chloride was recorded in March i.e. 5mg/l. Chloride has
positive non- significant correlation with magnesium hardness same results are also reported
in different studies by Swarnalatha and Rao (1998) and Umavathi et al. (2007) showed that
higher concentration of chloride indicates the increased levels pollution in water bodies.

5.5.10 Calcium hardness

Calcium is the basic element required for formation of shell in freshwater mussels (John and
Raghavan, 2002). The optimum level of calcium reported was 16 ppm for rearing freshwater
mussels (Das, 1995). Janaki Ram and Tripathi (1992) reported that in freshwater pearl culture
ponds, calcium salts concentration should be in the range of 20 to 54 ppm. However,
Sengupta et al. (2000) opined that pearl culture pond water should have calcium
concentration of 10 to 25 ppm.

During the analysis, the magnesium hardness was observed to be minimum i.e.4.32 in the
month of March and maximum was recorded 5.76 in the month of April.

5.5.11 Magnesium hardness

Like calcium, magnesium is also found in all natural water sources and is generally low in
concentration then calcium. Magnesium is a necessary constituent of chlorophyll without
which no ecosystem could operates (khuhawar et al., 2009).

During the analysis, the magnesium hardness was observed to be minimum i.e.4.32 in the
month of March and maximum was recorded 5.76 in the month of April.

5.5.12 Productivity

39
The light and dark bottle method is commonly used to evaluate phytoplankton primary
productivity (Garder and Gran, 1997). Primary productivity is the first fundamental stage in
ecosystem function and producing chemical energy and organic matter (Bhaumik, 2013).The
higher rate of primary productivity during summer has also been reported by Williams and
Murdoch (1966). Primary productivity also known as gross primary productivity and it is the
total rate of photosynthesis which includes the organic matter used in respiration. The higher
value of NPP and GPP is related to increased light intensity penetration which gives a faster
rate of photosynthesis and ultimately the productivity (Sharma and Giri, 2018).

Primary productivity decreases at high temperature due to cloudy weather, high turbidity, low
light penetration and low phytoplankton density as reported in Renuka wetland Sirmour
(Jindal et al., 2005). According to Sultan et al. (2003) temperature, solar radiation and
available nutrients, all are important limiting factors for primary production and contribute to
variations in the seasons in any aquatic ecosystem.

Net primary productivity is the rate of organic matter storage in plant tissues that exceeds the
plant’s respiratory rate during the measuring period and is known as apparent photosynthesis
or net assimilation (Sontakke and Mokashe, 2014).

Bandyopadhyay (2002) also observed high phytoplankton pulses in monsoon and spring
season associated with high level of nutrients. Community respiration is the process of
reducing net primary productivity from gross primary productivity and converting it into
carbon dioxide emission (Sontakke and Mokashe, 2014). Chinnaiah et al. (2010) reported
that seasonal records of respiration was higher in winter and summer while lower in monsoon
seasons at Darmasagar lake in Adilabad.

40
 CHAPTER-6
SUMMARY

SUMMARY

Abiotic parameters and productivity of Saurabh van vihar, pond Palampur, Himachal Pradesh
was studied from March 2024 to May 2024. The primary goal of this study was to investigate
the interrelationships between the parameters and productivity. The full study was
summarized below:

1. In Saurabh van vihar, pond maximum air temperature was observed in the month of May
i.e. 30°C while the minimum air temperature was observed in the month of April i.e. 23°C.

2. The maximum value of water temperature was recorded in the month of May i.e. 18°C
whereas, minimum temperature of the pond i.e. 11°C was recorded in the month of April.

3 . During the study period, the maximum TDS of the Saurabh van vihar, pond water was
noted in March i.e. 38ppm while the minimum TDS was observed in the month of April i.e.
31ppm.

4. The maximum value of EC was observed in the month of March i.e.76µs/cm and the
minimum EC was stated in the month of April i.e. 60µs/cm.

5. The value of pH was recorded maximum in month of March i.e. 8 and the minimum value
was observed in the month of April i.e. 7.2.

6. In Saurabh van vihar, maximum value of dissolved oxygen was seen in the month of
March i.e. 13.90 mg/l and the minimum value was noticed in the month of second half of the
May i.e. 6.80 mg/l.

7. During the study period the maximum value of hardness was detected in the month of
May 34 mg/l and minimum value was observed in the month of March i.e. 30 mg/l.

8. The maximum alkalinity was recorded in the month of April i.e. 25 mg/l and the minimum
in the month of March i.e. 20 mg/l.

41
9. During the study period maximum value of chloride content was observed in the month of
March i.e. 5 and minimum value was noted in the month of May i.e. 2.

10. In Saurabh van vihar, pond the maximum value of calcium hardness was recorded in the
month of March i.e. 4.8 mg/l and minimum value was recorded in the month of April i.e.
4mg/l.

11. During the study period the maximum magnesium hardness was observed in the month of
April i.e. 5.76 mg/l and the minimum value was seen in the month of March i.e. 4.32 mg/l.

12. In Saurabh van vihar, pond the maximum and minimum value of Gross Primary
Productivity was recorded in the month of April i.e. 0.33 mg C/1/hour and May i.e. 0.20 mg
C/1/hour, respectively.

13. The maximum value of Net Primary Productivity (NPP) was observed in the month of
April i.e. 0.37 and the minimum in the month of May i.e. 0.15.

14. Maximum value of Respiration was recorded in May i.e. 0.56 and the minimum value
was noted in April i.e. 0.18.

Correlation

Among various Physico-chemical Parameters

Air Temperature showed positive significant co-relation with Water Temperature, TDS and
EC. The correlation of Air Temperature is non-significant with pH, DO, Hardness, Alkalinity
and Chloride Content. Calcium and Magnesium Hardness has negative correlation with Air
Temperature.

Water temperature is positively influenced by Air Temperature, TDS, EC, pH, DO,
Hardness, Alkalinity and Chloride Content. Although the correlation is positive and highly
significant in case of TDS and Air Temperature and non- significant in case of EC, pH, DO,
Hardness, Alkalinity and Chloride Content. The Water Temperature is negatively non -
significantly influenced by Calcium Hardness and Magnesium Hardness.

T.D.S showed positive and highly significant correlation with Air Temperature, Water
Temperature, EC and pH while the correlation of T.D.S is positive non- significant with DO,
Hardness, Alkalinity, and Chloride Content. Total dissolved solid also exhibit negative co-
relation with Calcium Hardness and Magnesium Hardness.
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EC is positively non-significantly influenced by pH, DO, Hardness, Alkalinity, Chloride and
Magnesium Hardness (non-significant) and negatively influenced by Calcium Hardness while
its correlation with Air and Water Temperature is positive and highly significant.

pH is strongly influenced by TDS, Dissolved Oxygen, Hardness and Alkalinity while

positively non-significantly influenced by Water Temperature, Air Temperature and Chloride
Content and negatively non-significant influenced by Calcium Hardness and Magnesium
Hardness.

DO is positively significantly influenced by Hardness and Alkalinity except Chloride Content

which showed non-significant correlation and is negatively influenced by Calcium Hardness
as well as Magnesium Hardness. This negative correlation is non-significant.

Hardness It showed positive significant relationship with pH, DO and Alkalinity, a non-
significant relationship with Air Temperature, Water Temperature, TDS, EC and Chloride
Content and a negative non-significant correlation with Calcium Hardness and Magnesium
Hardness.

Alkalinity exhibited positive significant relation with pH, DO, Chloride Content, Hardness
and positive non-significant relationship with Air Temperature, Water Temperature, TDS and
EC while, the correlation is negative non-significant with Calcium and Magnesium
Hardness.

Chloride content has positive significant co-relation with Alkalinity, positively non –
significant co-relation with Air Temperature, Water Temperature, TDS, EC, pH, DO and
Hardness and has positive non-significant correlation with Magnesium Hardness.

Calcium Hardness is positively non -significantly influenced by Magnesium Hardness and

Chloride Content. It possess negative non-significant co-relation with Air Temperature, Water
Temperature, TDS, EC, pH, DO, Hardness and Alkalinity.

Magnesium Hardness is positively non-significant co-relation with Calcium Hardness and

Chloride Content while, negatively non-significant co-relation with Air Temperature, Water
Temperature, TDS, EC, DO, pH, Hardness, Alkalinity.

Productivity

Gross primary productivity (GPP) showed non-significant relationship with Air

Temperature, Water Temperature, TDS, pH, Hardness, Alkalinity, Chloride and Calcium

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Hardness. GPP showed negative correlation with EC and DO while the correlation is highly
significant with Magnesium Hardness.

Net Primary Productivity (NPP) showed non-significant relationship with Air

Temperature, Water Temperature, TDS, pH, Hardness, Alkalinity, Chloride Content and
Calcium Hardness while, they showed negatively non-significant correlation with EC and
DO and highly significant relationship with Magnesium Hardness.

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