DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL

INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT

DNA MODEL
-BY NIKITHA SATHEESH
CLASS 12th A
Roll no. :
INDEX

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2. INTRODUCTION
3. STRUCTURE OF DNA MOLECULE AND
NUCLEOTIDES
4. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF DNA
5. WATSON CRICK MODEL
6. FEATURES OF WATSON CRICK MODEL
7. CONCLUSION
8. BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

I would like to extend my acknowledgement to several

individuals who have played crucial roles in the
successful completion of this biology project. Firstly, I
would like to thank our principal for providing us with the
opportunity to complete this project. My sincere gratitude
goes to my biology teacher for guiding me throughout
the project and providing me with valuable feedback.
I would also like to thank my parents for their
unwavering support and encouragement throughout this
journey. Furthermore, I want to express my appreciation
to my friends and classmates who have helped me a lot
in the completion of this project.
INTRODUCTION:

“DNA is a group of molecules that is responsible for

carrying and transmitting the hereditary materials or
the genetic instructions from parents to offsprings.”
DNA is known as Deoxyribonucleic Acid. It is an organic
compound that has a unique molecular structure. It is
found in all prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
DNA was first recognized and identified by the Swiss
biologist Johannes Friedrich Miescher in 1869 during
his research on white blood cells.
some viruses may have RNA as their genetic material,
while others have DNA as the genetic material.
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) contains
RNA, which is then converted into DNA after attaching
itself to the host cell.
Apart from being responsible for the inheritance of
genetic information in all living beings, DNA also plays a
crucial role in the production of proteins. Nuclear DNA is
the DNA contained within the nucleus of every cell in a
eukaryotic organism. It codes for the majority of the
organism’s genomes while the mitochondrial DNA and
plastid DNA handles the rest.
The DNA present in the mitochondria of the cell is
termed mitochondrial DNA. It is inherited from the
mother to the child. In humans, there are approximately
16,000 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA. Similarly,
plastids have their own DNA, and they play an essential
role in photosynthesis.
There are three different DNA types:
 A-DNA: It is a right-handed double helix similar to
the B-DNA form.
 B-DNA: This is the most common DNA
conformation and is a right-handed helix.
 Z-DNA: Z-DNA is a left-handed DNA where the
double helix winds to the left in a zig-zag pattern.

STRUCTURE OF DNA MOLECULE AND

NUCLEOTIDES:

The DNA structure can be thought of as a twisted

ladder. This structure is described as a double-helix, as
illustrated in the figure above. It is a nucleic acid, and all
nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides. The DNA
molecule is composed of units called nucleotides, and
each nucleotide is composed of three different
components such as sugar, phosphate groups and
nitrogen bases.
The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which
are composed of a sugar group, a phosphate group, and
a nitrogen base. The sugar and phosphate groups link
the nucleotides together to form each strand of DNA.
Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) and Cytosine
(C) are four types of nitrogen bases.
These 4 Nitrogenous bases pair together in the following
way: A with T, and C with G. These base pairs are
essential for the DNA’s double helix structure, which
resembles a twisted ladder.
The order of the nitrogenous bases determines the
genetic code or the DNA’s instructions
Among the three components of DNA structure, sugar is
the one which forms the backbone of the DNA molecule.
It is also called deoxyribose. The nitrogenous bases of
the opposite strands form hydrogen bonds, forming a
ladder-like structure.
The DNA molecule consists of 4 nitrogen bases, namely
adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and Guanine (G),
which ultimately form the structure of a nucleotide. The
A and G are purines, and the C and T are pyrimidines.
The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions.
These strands are held together by the hydrogen bond
that is present between the two complementary bases.
The strands are helically twisted, where each strand
forms a right-handed coil, and ten nucleotides make up
a single turn.
The pitch of each helix is 3.4 nm. Hence, the distance
between two consecutive base pairs (i.e., hydrogen-
bonded bases of the opposite strands) is 0.34 nm
The DNA coils up, forming chromosomes, and each
chromosome has a single molecule of DNA in it. Overall,
human beings have around twenty-three pairs of
chromosomes in the nucleus of cells. DNA also plays an
essential role in the process of cell division.
 Double helix structure of DNA

Components of DNA

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF DNA:

Deoxyribonucleic acid (abbreviated DNA) is the
molecule that carries genetic information for the
development and functioning of an organism. DNA is
made of two linked strands that wind around each other
to resemble a twisted ladder — a shape known as a
double helix. Each strand has a backbone made of
alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups.
Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine
(A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) or thymine (T). The two
strands are connected by chemical bonds between the
bases: adenine bonds with thymine, and cytosine bonds
with guanine. The sequence of the bases along DNA’s
backbone encodes biological information, such as the
instructions for making a protein or RNA molecule.

WATSON AND CRICK MODEL:

 Watson and Crick presented a model for the DNA’s
double-helix structure.
 A nucleotide polymer makes up the DNA molecule.
 A nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose),
and a phosphate group are found in each nucleotide.
 There are two purines (adenine and guanine) and two
pyrimidines in the DNA (cytosine and thymine).
 Two strands of DNA make up a DNA molecule.
 Each strand is made up of nucleotides that are
covalently linked by their phosphate groups and
deoxyribose sugars.
 The bases grow out of this backbone.
 Hydrogen bonds connect the bases of strands.
 Adenine is always linked with thymine, while cytosine is
always linked with guanine.
 The two strands wrap around each other in a shape
termed the ‘double helix’ because of the bonding.
 The second nucleic acid found in the cells is ribonucleic
acid (RNA). RNA is a nucleotide polymer with a single
strand.
 It also contains sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose and
nucleotide uracil instead of thymine.
 RNA molecules play a role in the formation of proteins
using DNA’s genetic code.
 Prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome with
double strands.
 Eukaryotes have chromosomes that include double-
stranded linear DNA
molecules.
 Nucleosomes are formed when the DNA helix wraps
around proteins.
 Protein coils get progressively more coiled, and the
chromosomes become even more coiled throughout
mitosis and meiosis to make movement easier.
 Chromosomes feature two unique regions that may be
differentiated by staining and are determined by whether
the DNA in a region is expressed (euchromatin) or not
(heterochromatin).

FEATURES OF WATSON-CRICK MODEL:

The Watson-Crick model of DNA has the following important

characteristics:
 In a DNA molecule, a right-handed double-helix is made
up of a series or strands of two polynucleotides spirally
wrapped around each other and twisted along a
common path.
 The two strands run in opposing directions, with the
fifth ending of one chain facing the third ending of the
other. In other words, they are antiparallel.
 The sugar-phosphate backbones remain on the exterior,
while the purines and pyrimidines bases are located at
the centre of the helix.
 The two series are kept together by hydrogen bonds
formed between the purines and pyrimidine bases of
the opposing strands.
 Adenine (A) will always couple with thymine (T) through
two hydrogen interactions, while guanine (G) will always
pair with cytosine (C) via three hydrogen bonds. This
complementary nature is known as the rule of the base
pair. As a result, the two chains are complementary to
each other.
 The base sequence varies throughout a polynucleotide
chain. A certain sequence of bases carries genetic
information.
 The constitution of the base of the DNA follows
Chargaff’s assumptions (E.E. Chargff, 1950), according to
which A = T and G = C. As a corollary, ∑ purines (A+G) = ∑
pyrimidines (C + T). Also, (A + C) = (G + T). The rules also
put forth the ratio of (A + T) and (G + C) as constants for
a species (range 0.4 to 1.9).
 The DNA has a diameter of 20 nm, or 20Å. The adjoining
bases are 0.34 nm or 3.4Å along the axis apart. The
length of a full helix turn is 3.4 nm or 34Å, implying that
there are 10b/turning.
  A small groove, called the minor groove (1.2 nm), and a
deep groove, known as the major groove (2.2 nm), run
across the DNA helix

CONCLUSION:
Watson and Crick postulated the “double helix” molecular
structure of the DNA. The precise pairing of nucleotides is a
critical aspect of the Watson and Crick model of DNA. Each
DNA strand, in this case, is linear and long and is made up of
smaller units known as nucleotides that link together to form
a chain
BIBLIOGRAPHY

● www.byjus.com
●www.genome.govt
●www.wikipedia.com

● NCERT biology textbook for class 12th.

THANK YOU.