Structure and Function of DNA
Submitted by: Deepak Singh
Class: XII – Biology
School: SIMPKINS SCHOOL AGRA
Session: 2024–25
Introduction
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is the fundamental molecule responsible for
carrying genetic information in nearly all living organisms. It acts as a blueprint
for the development, functioning, reproduction, and evolution of all known life
forms. DNA’s role is not just limited to inheritance; it also governs the synthesis
of proteins, which are the building blocks of life. This double-helical molecule
stores information in the form of sequences, allowing cells to perform precise
biological functions. Understanding the structure and function of DNA has been
one of the greatest scientific achievements of the 20th century, revolutionizing
biology, medicine, and biotechnology.
Historical Background
The journey to discover DNA’s role began in the 19th century. Friedrich
Miescher first isolated a substance he called “nuclein” in 1869, now known as
DNA. In the 20th century, scientists like Griffith, Avery, MacLeod, and
McCarty performed experiments showing DNA could transform the properties
of cells. The most definitive evidence came in 1952 from the Hershey-Chase
experiment, proving that DNA, not proteins, carried genetic information.
The most significant breakthrough came in 1953 when James Watson and
Francis Crick, with crucial help from Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray
crystallography, proposed the double-helix model of DNA. This model
explained how DNA could replicate and store genetic information.
Chemical Composition of DNA
DNA is a polymer made up of repeating units called nucleotides. Each
nucleotide consists of three components:
A phosphate group
A deoxyribose sugar (5-carbon sugar)
A nitrogenous base
There are four nitrogenous bases in DNA:
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T)
These bases fall into two categories:
Purines: Adenine and Guanine
Pyrimidines: Cytosine and Thymine
In the double helix, adenine pairs with thymine via two hydrogen bonds, and
guanine pairs with cytosine via three hydrogen bonds. This base pairing is
essential for DNA replication and information transfer.
Structure of DNA
DNA is structured as a double helix, resembling a twisted ladder.
Each side of the ladder is made of alternating phosphate and sugar
units, and the rungs are pairs of nitrogenous bases. The two strands of
DNA are antiparallel, meaning they run in opposite directions — one
from 5’ to 3’, the other from 3’ to 5’.
The complete turn of the helix occurs every 10.5 base pairs and spans
about 3.4 nm. The DNA molecule is extremely stable due to the
hydrogen bonds between base pairs and hydrophobic interactions
among the bases inside the helix.
Types and Forms of DNA
While most DNA in cells is in the B-DNA form (the classic right-handed
double helix), it can adopt other forms:
A-DNA: Right-handed, more compact than B-DNA.
Z-DNA: Left-handed, occurs under high salt conditions.
Circular DNA: Found in prokaryotes and mitochondria.
Linear DNA: Found in the chromosomes of eukaryotic cells.
DNA can also be supercoiled, which helps in compact packaging within the
limited space of the nucleus or cell.
DNA Packaging
DNA in human cells is incredibly long — about 2 meters per cell — yet fits
inside the microscopic nucleus. This is achieved through complex packaging
mechanisms.
DNA wraps around proteins called histones, forming nucleosomes.
Nucleosomes coil into chromatin fibers.
During cell division, chromatin further condenses into chromosomes.
There are two types of chromatin:
Euchromatin: Loosely packed and transcriptionally active.
Heterochromatin: Tightly packed and transcriptionally inactive.
DNA Replication
DNA replication is a semi-conservative process by which cells copy their DNA
before division. It ensures each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the
genetic material.
Key steps:
1. Initiation: Helicase unwinds the double helix.
2. Elongation: DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides to the 3' end of the
template strand.
3. Termination: Ligase joins DNA fragments on the lagging strand
(Okazaki fragments).
Replication is highly accurate and includes proofreading mechanisms. Errors
are rare but can result in mutations.
Enzymes Involved in DNA Replication
Helicase: Unwinds DNA strands.
Primase: Adds RNA primers.
DNA Polymerase: Synthesizes new DNA strands.
Ligase: Joins fragments.
Topoisomerase: Prevents supercoiling and tension.
9. Proofreading and Repair
DNA polymerase has proofreading ability to correct mistakes during
replication. Other repair mechanisms include:
Base excision repair
Nucleotide excision repair
Mismatch repair
These systems are vital for genetic stability. Defects in repair can lead to
mutations, some of which may cause cancer or genetic disorders.
The Genetic Code
The genetic code is a set of instructions within DNA that determines how
proteins are made. It is read in sets of three nucleotides called codons.
Start codon: AUG (codes for Methionine)
Stop codons: UAA, UAG, UGA
The code is universal and degenerate, meaning multiple codons can code for
the same amino acid, providing protection against mutations.
Transcription – DNA to RNA
In transcription, a section of DNA is used as a template to make RNA:
1. Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to promoter.
2. Elongation: mRNA is synthesized.
3. Termination: RNA polymerase detaches at terminator sequence.
RNA Processing
In eukaryotes, the primary transcript (pre-mRNA) undergoes modifications:
Splicing: Introns removed, exons joined.
5' cap and 3' poly-A tail added for stability and export from nucleus.
Translation – RNA to Protein
Translation occurs in the cytoplasm at ribosomes:
1. Initiation: Ribosome assembles at start codon.
2. Elongation: tRNA brings amino acids.
3. Termination: Process ends at stop codon.
Proteins synthesized perform structural, enzymatic, and regulatory roles in the
cell.
Regulation of Gene Expression
Gene expression is controlled at various levels:
Transcriptional control: Promoters, enhancers
Post-transcriptional control: Splicing, RNA stability
Translational control: Ribosome activity
Epigenetic regulation: DNA methylation, histone acetylation
This regulation ensures the right proteins are produced at the right time.
Mutations
Mutations are permanent changes in the DNA sequence. Types include:
Point mutations: Substitution of one base
Insertions and deletions: Cause frameshifts
Duplication and inversion: Large segmental changes
Mutations can be:
Silent: No effect
Missense: Change one amino acid
Nonsense: Introduce a stop codon
While some mutations are harmful, others are beneficial and drive evolution.
Role of DNA in Inheritance
DNA is passed from parents to offspring. Genes (segments of DNA) determine
traits. Variations in DNA result in genetic diversity. During meiosis,
recombination and independent assortment ensure that offspring have unique
DNA combinations.
DNA and Biotechnology
DNA technology has many applications:
Recombinant DNA: Inserting foreign genes
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): Amplifies DNA
Gel electrophoresis: DNA separation
DNA sequencing: Determines exact sequence
CRISPR and Gene Editing
CRISPR-Cas9 is a powerful gene-editing tool:
Can target and modify specific genes
Used to correct genetic diseases
Has applications in agriculture and medicine
Ethical concerns exist regarding gene editing in humans.
DNA in Forensics and Medicine
DNA is used to:
Identify individuals (DNA fingerprinting)
Test paternity
Diagnose genetic disorders
Trace ancestry
It has revolutionized criminal investigations and personalized medicine.
Conclusion
DNA is the cornerstone of molecular biology. Its double-helix structure allows
it to replicate accurately and carry genetic information. Its function governs the
synthesis of proteins, the regulation of genes, and the inheritance of traits. From
the structure of the helix to applications in forensics and gene therapy, DNA has
changed the way we understand life. Continued research into DNA holds
promise for curing genetic diseases, improving agriculture, and exploring the
origins of life itself.
