PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION The Leaf The leofis the plant structure where the process f photosynthesis takes place. Gas exchafge between the leaf cells and the atmosphere also takes place here. etailed structure of a leat ticle upper epidermis palisade mesophyll tissue vein alr space Na spongy mesophyll tissue lower epidermis stomata guard cell Features of the leaf that enables it to carry out its functions efficiently. + Supported by stem and petiole — this exposes as much of the leaf as possible to suniight and air. + Large surface area — this also exooses as much of the leaf as possible fo sunlight and air, * Culicle- is a thin waterproof layer covering the upper and lower epidermis. Its fun ctions are: oTo prevent excessive loss of water by evaporation from the surface of the leaves. oTo prevent unnecessary entry of water through the leaf surface. oProtects internal structures oHairy cuticles protect the leaves from predators. * Thin lamina - fo allow sunlight to penetrate to all cells quite easily and also allows to iffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out as fast as possible.+ Vascular bundles - contain two kids of cells ; xylem cells which bring water to the photosynthesizing cells from the plant roots and phloem cells that transport manufactured sugars away from the leaf to the rest of the plant. + Transparent epidermis ~ contain of a tightly packed thin cells which do not Contain chloroplasts so sunlight can easily pass through them to the palsacie cell which are the main synthesizing sites in a leaf, * The mesophyll layer — forms the middle part of the leaf. It consists of two tissues: Palisade mesophyll, the main site of photosynthesis and spongy mesophyll. Palisade cells are adapted to capture as much sunlight energy as possible by: ~ Containing lots of chloroplasts - Having a cylindrical shape which allows them to be closely packed. - Being arranged in a single layer so that sunlight can reach them without having to pass through other palisade cells. Cells in the spongy mesophyll layer are more spherical than palisade cells and are loosely packed, This means that there are large air spaces belween them which are essential for gas exchange. * Presence of stomata mainly on the lower side of the leaf- It allows carbon dioxide ‘and oxygen to diffuse in and out of the leaf. It also regulates the loss of water from the leaf. If the stomata are closed water loss from the leaf is reduced and when they open water loss is increased. Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells which conirol the closure and opening of the stoma. stomata nucleus chloroplast epidermal cell LoseThe stoma ta can be closed when no carbon dioxide intake is needed (in dark, for example). When a plant is shor! of water, the guard cells become flaccid, closing the stoma. When a plant has plenty of water, the guard cells become turgid. The cell wall in the inner surface is very thick, so it can not stretch as much as the outer surface. So as the guard cells swell up, they curve away from each other, opening the stoma. Potassium concentration in the vacuole helps in the opening and closing of the stoma. Parts of a mesophyll cell nucleus contairaing cell sap call wall | vacuole |___—- cell membrane |___-— eytoplasm chloroplast Parts and functions of a mesophyll cell Nucleus- controls cell activities Cell membrane- is made up of fats and proteins.it is semi-perme-able and hence allows small particles to pass across but others are not allowed because of their large size. Cell wall- if is only present in plant cells only. -is madle up of cellulose -is fully permeable, -it protects and supporis the cell. Vacuole- is found in plant cells mainly. contains an aqueous solution of sugars and other subs tances called cell sap.Miiochondria- can only be seen under an electron microscope. ~ _Asite for important chemical processes e.g. resp iration, - The inner surface is highly folded to increase the surface area on which chemical Processes occur. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER). - _|s essential assembly liner for making fats and proteins in a cel - Can only be seen under an electron microscope. Chloroplasts. = Foundin plant cells only = Contains chlorophyll. - _ISasite for photosynthesis. I! also stores starch. Ribosomes. - Can only be seen under an electron microscope. - . sasite for protein synthesis, The process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a chemical process in which green plants make food from weiter and carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight. Green plants are therefore called autotrophs and they have autotrophic nutrition because they make food on their own using simple inorganic substances. Necessary conditions for photosynthesis. * Water Carbon dioxide Sunlight Chlorophyl Glucose produced in the process is the main product and oxygen is a by-product {useful substance produced besides the main product]Word equation i Weter+Corbon dioxide———_SUNERt cuca se + Oxygen chlorophyll Chemical equation (balanced) sunlight 6HO + 600, —————_—> cH 0,+60 t 2 chlorophyll wigey* SOT STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS The process of photosynthesis occurs in two stages: + Light stage / photochemical stage 50 called because light is required to complete the reactions in the stage. Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and then changed to chemical energy. The chemical energy is used to split water molecules into hydragen and oxygen atoms by a process called photolysis. The oxygen atoms rearrange themselves to form oxygen molecules and released as oxygen gas. This oxygen gas is used for respiration or the excess oxygen diffuses out of the leaf. The requirements in this stage are for its completion are: waier, sunlight, and chlorophyll, + Dark / Carbon stage -lightis not needed at this stage cind that is why itis called the dark stage. The hydrogen atoms produced during the light stage combine with carbon dioxide by the us e of enzymes to produce glucose. The requirements in this stage for its completion are hydrogen atoms, carbon dioxide and enzymes. The dark stage is driven by ATP produced in the light stage. Summary of the process of photo synthesisLight stage Dark stage co J 7 Transferved eee tn ee Chlorophyll ght 7 i oO 2 CHD. NOTE: Both stages occur during the day, The source of oxygen released as a by- product of photosynthesis is water and the source of oxygen atoms present in glucose is carbon dioxide.LIGHT STAGE HYDROGEN OXYGEN HYDROGEN + CARB ON DIOXIDE DARK ap | Reduction division STAGE GLUCOSE Condensation reaction STARCH SUMMARY OF THE MAIN BIOCHEMICAL EVENTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Use of glucose produce during photosynthesis i.e fate of glucose atter tpeing produced, Used for respiration to produce energy for a number of processes such as growth, Forms cellulose for cell walls. Combines with other elements such as nitrogen and sulphur to form proteins. Forms lipids and vitarnins Forms larger insoluble starch molecules for storage. Functions of mineral elements in photosynthesis, ‘Mineral element Function ‘Magnesium, iron, Formation of chlorophyll | Potassium Opening and closing of stomata LL Phosphorus, Energy changes[ Nitrogen. sulphur Enayme formation ‘Carbon, hydrogen, Formation of glucose oxygen Type of pigments inteaves In plant cells, there are a number of pigments that co-exist. + Chlorophyll -responsible for the green colour in leaves. * Xanthophylls responsible for the yellow colour in many flowers ind fruits. + Carotenes -responsible for the orange colour in carrots and many flowers. Even leaves that are not green have chlorophyll but the chlorophyll is relatively in small mount, so its hidden by the mixing of the other colours. Investigation -Do green leaves have the other three pigments + Collect fresh leaves and arind them, * Squeeze the around leaves to obtain an extract. + Cuta stip of Fiter paper (20m x 10cm) + Puta drop of the extract on the strip about 4cm from the edge. + Dip the edge of the filter paper with the drop of the extract in cilcohol in a beaker (about 2cm from the spot of the extract). * The alcohol rises up the strip to the spot of the extract. + The pigments in the extract dissolve. + As the alcoho! passes the spot, the pigments move up with the alcohol at different rates. (smalier ones faster than the bigger ones) Importance of photosynthesis * Food production. = Oxygen production, » Reduction of carbon dioxide in the air. Plant products + Human food production * Medicine * Industrial products such as gums, oll, @.t. TESTING FOR STARCH IN A LEAF Testing for starch in ai plant leaf is a means of testing for photosynthesis. lodine solution is brown in colour anc produces a blue black compound when it reacts with starch, Starch test can not be conducted successfully on 0 green leat because: * The living plazi' leat is not permeable to iodine solution+ The green colour would hide any blue black colour that might form on the leaf. STEP'S AND REASONS FOLLOWED WHEN CARRYING OUT STARCH TEST ‘STEP REASON 1.Dip the leaf in boiling water for 2 minutes to kill the leaf cells so as fo prevent further chemical reactions. -to make the leaf more permeable. 2.Baill the leat in alcohol such as ethanol -to dissolve chlorophyll so that any colour changes can be visible when iodine solution is put on the leaf, 3.Dip the leaf in warm water for 2 minutes “to soften the leaf for easy spreading, -fo rinse the alcoho! from the leaf. 4, Spread the leaf on a white file andl add a few drops of iodine solution. ~the white file enables any colour changes en the leaf to be conspic uous. -the drops of iodine solution are added on the leaf in order to find out whether there is starch or not in the leaf, Destorching a plant This is putting a plant in the clark for 24 to 48 hours. This ensures that the leaves ha ve no starch at the beginning of the experiment. Some experiments on photasynthesis 1. Is CO» necessary for photo: plastic bag soctum hyckogencarbonate 2 plastic bag, ‘sodium hydroxide APOTTED PLANT + destarch the plant. + Put potassium hydroxide (or sodium hydroxicle solution} in a transparent plastic bag. Add sodium bicarbonate (or so dium hydrogen carbonate) in another transparent bag and cover anothe r leaf on your plant with this bag.* Leave the set- up in the sun for § hours. + Remove the plastic bag from each leaf and test each leaf for starch. . Why was s odium hydroxide used in the experiment? b. Why was s odium bicarbonate used in the experiment? c. Which leaf was a control? An experiment? light necessary for photosynthesis? aluminium foil POTTED PLANT Destarch the plant. Cover part of the leaf with an opaque material such as aluminium foil Leave the set up-in the sun for 5 hours, Pluck of the leaf and test for starch Results: the uncovered part turned blue black while the covered part was brown. Which part of the leaf was an experimental parl? Which part was a control? 3. Is.chk If thesis? green patch * ~ non-green patch The experiment requires the use of a variegated leaf.(a leaf which has green and non green patches on ity= First, destarch the plant. + Leave it in light for 5 hours + Pluck off one leaf and test it for starch. + Results: the patch that was green turned blue black while the patch that was not green was brown. 9. Which part of the leaf was a control? b. Suggest an advantage for using a variegated leaf. 4 ju jotosynthesis? gas collecting inverted test tube Inverted funnet | —— water enriched with CO. beaker pond weed + The set-up should be put in the sunlight. + Bubbles of gas appear from the cut stems and collect in the test tube. + The gasis tested by a glowing spiint; the burning splint bursts into flames. + Set acontrol in a similar manner but it should be placed in the dark cardboard : + The gas collected is not pure oxygen because some gases that dissolve in water may diffuse out into the test tube. -Why are water plants suitable for this experiment? The same apparatus can be used to investigate some environmental factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis{temperature, light, carbon dioxide }. -Design an experiment that can be used to investigate the above factors. FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS, a. Sunlight In dark, photosynthesis does not occur. In dim light it takes place slowly. As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases until the plant photosynthesizes as it can, At this point even if more light is available, the plant can not photosynthesize further because t is limited by a supply of carbon dioxide. uRate of photosynthests Light intensity b. Carbon dioxide The more carbon dioxide a plant is given, the faster it can photosynthesize up to the point but then the maxmum is reached. The amount of carbon dioxide in the ‘atmosphere is about 0.03% and it does not vary much. high carbon dioxide concentration low carbon dioxide concentration The limiting factor over range CIs carbon dioxide. “The limiting factor over range D Iz could be light, temperature, ete. Wecould check this by giving the plant more light or by Increasing the temperature. Another check could ba done by repeating the experiment. c. Temperature The process of photosynthesis slows down at lower temperature. This is because enzymes become inactive. If temperature increases to 40° C the rate increases because the enzymes become active. Beyond 40° C the rate starts to slow down and later stops because the enzymes involved are denatured by excessive heat. Rate of photosynthesis 40 TemperotureDIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT DIFFUSION. Is @ net movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. ce CONCENTRATION GRADIENT: Is a difference in concentration of substances between two regions. In o' mn |. Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide in and out of leaves through the stomata, 2. Absorption of some salts by root hairs from the soil. 3 Exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen in amoeba. 4, Absorptin of food molecules e.g. glucose into the blood stream. 5. Diffusion of gases in and out of the gills/lungs and blood. 6. Diffusion of substances in and out of the animal tissues. Factors that affect the rate of diffusion * Size of particles. ‘Temperature = Diffusion gradient — the steeper the gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion and vice + versa. OSMOSIS —Is net movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane from a dilute sotution to amore concentrated solution. It is a special kind of diffusion because it operates across a semi-permeable membrane and it also involves water molecules only. The importance of this process is that it brings water to cells. ‘Sugar molecules ‘Watermolecule —_Semi-permeable membrane -More sugar molecules concentrated sol - Less concentrated solution -Less concentrated water sol + More concentrated water molecules “Hypertonic solution - Hypotonic solution ‘Net movement of water molecules If the number of molecules going each way is the same, the two solutions are said to be ISOTONIC. This means there is no net movementOSMOTIC PRESSURE AND OSMOTIC POTENTIAL Demonstration of osmosis Copllary tube L—— Concerted stn ( regen lower water poke) ‘isking Bag =< Watertregin otigh walerpeni) * Water molecules will pass from the beaker to the visking bag. * Solution in the capillary tube will rise. * Concentration of water in the visking bag will increase accompanied by pressure which will swell the bag or burst it. This pressure is called Osmotic pressure * The more concentrated the solution, the higher is its Osmotic pressure. * Ifthe bag is removed from the water, there will be no osmosis and no pressure built up. = Even when separated, both the water and the solution have an osmotic potential because they can cause osmosis in appropriate situations. > the water has a higher osmotic potential, > the sugar solution has a lower osmotic potential, This is because the diffusion gradient for water molecules is from the pure water to the solution Experiments in plant and animal cells Y Conduct experiments with Irish potatoes ¥ Discuss experiments involving red blood cells, Y Suggest a reason why osmosis does not occur in boiled tissues. WATER RELATIONS IN PLANT CELLS Plant cells unlike animal cells are surrounded by a tough cellulose cell wall which does not stretch. This stops the cell from bursting. Instead the cytoplasm pushes the cellulose cell wall. This pressure is called turgor pressure. The cell wall pushes back. This pressure that pushes back is called wall pressure. When wall pressure is equal turgor pressure, osmosis stops, the plant cell now becomes turgid, Importance of turgor pressure It supports non-woody plantsPlant cells placed in pure water Plant cells placed in concentrated solution smosis ths space corals whitover is ouside the cal boas the cll walls ulypormable Asa cell loses more water, the contents of the cell shrink. Instead of being firm and stiff, the cell becomes sof. It is said to be flaccid. Ifa cell keeps on losing water, the cytoplasm continues to shrink until the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall. When this happens, the cell is said to be Plasmolysed. This condition can not be reversed because the cell membrane gets damaged. (Note: In ideal situations plants do not experience plasmolysis but in laboratory conditions) AssessmentEXPERIMENTS - OSMOSIS Investigation -1 Materials : Fresh irish potatoes 10% sugar solution Tap water 3 beakers Scalpel or razor blade Procedure: 1. Choose three fresh potatoes and cut their ends so that they will stand up 2. Peel off the sides near the cut ends of the potatoes. Then scoop out a cavityat the other end. 3. Stand two potatoes (potato A and potato B) in a dish containing a little tap water. Put a little tap water in the cavity of potato A. Put sugar in the cavity of potato B. 4. Stand the third potato (i.e. potato C) in a 10% sugar solution in a separate beaker. Pour water in the cavity. cto water a peeled sides of potato Sug Leave the experiment for 12 hours and draw the diagrams of the results in your exercise book. Explain the results the results you have obtained.Translocation Its the transport of soluble materials within the plant. This involves + Absorption of minerals from the soil by the roots and movement in xylem to growing point, leaves, etc. The movement of the salts in the xylem is upwards. + Movement of manufactured organic materials in the sieve tube, such os glucose,etc. The movement is upwards and downwards. Structure of a root showing the distribution of root hairs root hair f oS region of cell root hais aiferentiation a region of cell ———— elongation eae root cap division 1s Structure of a root hair cell cell wall cell membrane vaca nucleusHow water is absorbed by plant roots ose tt \ i. xylem vessel soil particles * Soil water is dilute {high water potential than the cell sap and the cytoplasm of the root hair cell) + Water moves from the soil > cell walls semi-permeable membrane -» cytoplasm and vacuole by osmosis. + Turgor pressure in the vacuoles rises, forcing water into the next cell {from cortex to endodermis) by osmosis and finally to xylem vessels. TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN PLANTS In plants, the two transport systems are the xylem vessels and the phloem tubes. The xylem vessels carry water and mineral salts absorbed from the soil, They are made of long hollow cells joined end to end and they run from the roots of a plant, right up through the stem. They branch out into every leat. The phloem tubes camry food materials manufactured by the plant. Facts about the xylem vessels, Have no cytoplasm. + Have no nucleus. + Their walls are made of cellulose and lignin. * The lignin is very strong that help to support the plants by keeping them upright. Wood is mainly composed of lignitied xylem vessels. * Consists of dead cells.‘STRUCTURE OF XYLEM VESSEL (WOODY VESSELS) ts thick walls with lignin ‘which isin spirals spiral thickening space with no eytoplasm Types of xylem vessels. a. Woody vessels (Vessel elements). - Have holes in their end walls formed afer losing their protoplasm forming a continuous dead tube. The common type of the secondary thickening is the spiral type which gives more rigidity to the vessels, giving the wood its characteristic strength. b. Tracheids. These are long ond thin cells with tapered ends.These cells overlap one another so that water can stil flow from cell to cell through holes called pifs found on the side walls, c.. The packing cells ~ These cells ore not specialized to conduct water. Facts about the phloem cells. Have cytoplasm and do not have nucleus. + Their walls are not lignified. * They are made of living cells called sieve elements. * Their end walls are not completely broken down, instead they form sieve plates which have small holes in them + Each sieve tube element has a companion cell next to it. The companion cell has nucleus and many other organelles.‘STRUCTURE OF A PHLOEM VESSEL sieve plate companion cell (carry some life processes of the sieve tube) sieve tube no nucleus, nucleus sieve plate Types of phloem tissue. ©. Sieve tube. - The cross walls between these cells have small holes or perforations called sieve plates - Transport organic materials {sugar). b. Companion cells, Do not transport sugar but carries out some life processes of the sieve tubes. VASCULAR BUNDLES A vascular bundle is made up of xylem and phloem vessels with cambium in between them.The cambium is a region of active cell division that process new xylem and phloem cells. 2xylem phloem ed cambium Arrangement of vascular bundles A. Ina dicotyledonous stem e.d. a bean stem epidermis cambium pith phloem cortex xylem 8. Ina monocotyledonous stem e.g. a maize stem 21oat cortex Note that the vascular bundies in a dicotyledonous stem are arranged in a ring near ‘outside while in a monocotyledonous stem the vascular bundles are scattered. Transpiration This the loss of water from plants mainly through leaves. Transpiration occurs through: * Stomata (85%) * Cuticle (10%) * Lenticels(5%) Transpiration generates a force which helps to pull water up from the roots towards leaves. This force is called transpiration pull. TRANSPIRATION STREAM water Is carried up the stem and Taf tn xylem water absorbed by roots TR Feet "Water evaporates from the mesophyll cells and later diffuses out through the stomata. = The cell sap becomes more concentrated than the neighbouring cells. Water is drawn from these cells by osmosis= From cell to cell and later from the xylem water is drawn. Importance of transpiration * Cools the plant. = Transports water which is used by the plant in various ways: As a raw material in photosynthesis, Maintains the shape of the cells (turgidity of cells) 's a medium in which chemical reactions take place. 's a solvent for organic and inorganic compounds. Transports materials such as mineral salts. Cooling the plant. 's one of the constituents of a cell {70 to 90%) NS ReONS Factors that affect the rate of transpiration 1. Humidity of the atmosphere. When the atmosphere is saturated with water vapour, litle water can be absorbed from the plants, and transpiration will be reduced. In dry environments transpiration will be rapid. 2. Temperature. Ahigh temperature increases the capacity of the air to absorb more water vapour, hence transpiration increases. When the leaf becomes warm, evaporation from it occurs more rapidly. 3. light. Light causes stomata to open while darkness Causes the stomata to close. Therefore transpiration is generally higher during the day than at night. 4. Air movement. gir around a transpiring leaf causes accumulation of water vapour, and the air around the leaf becomes saturated. This slows down transpiration. As the air can not absorb more water vapour from the leaf, If air is moving around the leaf, the transpired water is swept away so that more water vapour diffuses from the leaf and transpiration continues rapidly. 5. Water supply. if water is in short supply, the stomata close. This will cut down the rate of transpiration. Transpiration increases when water supply increases because the guard cells gain water and they become turgid. This opens the stomata. Measuring transpiration A potometer is used to measure the rate of absorption of water by a plant and not the rate of absorption. Because the rate of transpiration is proportional to the rate of of water absorption therefore measuring rate of water absorption also measures rate of transpiration indirectly.A POTOMETER reservoir How to set and use the potometer "Cut the shoot under water. This prevents blockage of the xylem by ai. + Insert he shoot through the hole in the cork of the potometer as seen in the diagram. * Smear vaseline around the region of the shoot that passes through the cork to make the apparatus air tight. "Open the tap of the reservoir to fill he graduated tube with water. Close the tap when the tube is full. = As the shoot transpires, it absorbs water from the potometer. * This causes the water column in the capillary tube to move from B to A. = The rate of movement of water column gives the rate of water absorption by the: shoot. "Note the reading of water column at B. Record the time taken for the end of the water column to move from B to A. * Calculate the rate of transpiration Suggest altemative methods which can be used to measure the rate of transpiration. The potometer can also be used to investigate factors that affect the rate of transpiration. Design an experiment to investigate this. 4"TROPISMS IN PLANTS ‘Tropism is plant growth response in a definite direction. Nastic movements — these are non-directional plant responses since the stimulus is applied equally on all sides of the plant. Tropic responses are co-ordinated by hormones. Plants produce a number of hormones, some of which influence plant growth. Some of the plant growth hormones in plants are Auxins. Auxins are made in the tips of the plants. From the tips auxins diffuse downwards to other parts of the plant where they affect length and division of cells. Removal of plant tips therefore prevents auxin production which eventually affects growth of plants and their response to stimulus. ‘Types of tropisms There are five types of tropisms namely; (@)Phototropism This is a growth movement or bending of plant part in response to unequal stimulation by light, Plant shoots bend towards light, hence they are positively phototropic. Roots are negatively phototropic because they grow away from the stimulus of light. (b) Geotropism It is a plant growth response to the stimulus of gravity. When a seedling is placed horizontally, its shoot curves upwards and the root curves downwards. The root is positively geotropic and the shoot is negatively geotropic. (©) Hydrotropism It isa plant growth response to the stimulus of water.Plant roots are positively hydrotropic because they grow towards water. @ Chemotropism ~ a plant growth response to the stimulus of chemicals. (€) Thigmotropism —Is a plant growth response to the stimulus of touch Effects of Auxins (1) on shoot - it stimulates growth i.e. promotes cell elongation ) in roots - it inhibits grvth. ic. slows down growth awHow light affects growth Mechanism of phototropism Ughe from one side Leh from all sides ‘Auninis produced at —} the tip and diffuses slowiy down the plent, Cells on bath sides Upht reduces the are affected equally concentration of auxin and the shoot grows, onthe illuninsted side ‘call on the dark side straight The cells sbsorb less recelve more auxin They + | water, and so swell ess absorb more water and so than the roma. The ‘nerease in sae more than urinated side ‘rormal. The dark side therefore grows less therefore grows more quietly and the shoot quickly and the shoot bends towards light. bbends away from the dark, ‘Le towards the light If a plant shoot is exposed to light from one source, the Auxins migrate to the darker areas away from light. The bending of the shoot is caused by differential grwth rates of the shoot on the different sides. There is a reduced growth on the illuminated side and an increased growth on the shaded side. This is because the shaded side has a higher concentration of Auxins which stimulates higher growth rate by encouraging cell division and elongation. Advantage of phototropism ~(a) Plants get light energy for photosynthesis (b) Flowers are exposed to pollinators (©) Seeds are exposed to agents of dispersal Mechanism of geotropism Gravity influences distribution of Auxins in a similar manner to light. Due to gravity the lower side of the shoot and root (in a plant placed horizontally ) has a higher concentration than the upper side. The shoot grows and bends upwards. The side of the root with higher auxin concentration grows more slowly and bends upwards. The side of the root with higher concentration grows more slowly as Auxins inhibit elongation and division os cells in roots. This results into the root growing and ‘bending that side. | Aes gah here aztec etna yin erst causes upward Cue yt and casses a doveward corvature 2%‘Advantages of geotropism (a) roots absor’ water and tnineral salts from the soil. (b) anchorage ‘Some practical uses of plant hormones 1. Some synthetic hormones promote rapid root growth in stem cuttings. 2. Synthetic hormones are used as weed killers 3, Some hormones prevent sprouting of potatoes during transport and storage. 4, some delay ripening in fruits, such as bananas, tomatoes.e.tc. ON TROPI L Geotropisms i in young roots (i.e to find out how plant roots respond to gravity ) ‘Germinate some bean seeds in the dark (Choose a few seedlings with straight radicles * Divide them into two groups * Cut about 2 mm off the tips of one group of seedlings and leave the other group intact, + Place both groups of seedlings in one container with their radicles pointing in different directions between the beaker and the wet filter placed inside the beaker as below. + Invert a box over the beaker to exclude the influence of light. * Leave the apparatus for one day and observe. 2. To find out the part of the shoot which is sensitive to light. + Germinate some maize seedlings in a pot. * Choose the seedlings with straight coleoptiles (shoots). * Cut off the tips of some (at least 3em from the top) * Cover some uncut tips completely with aluminium foil cups (to prevent light from reaching the tips) Leave the rest untouched, «Place the pot in a cardboard box with a hole from one side to allow light to pass through, * Record observations after one day. 3. To find the region of curvature of the shoot + Germinate some maize /bean seeds in a pot. * After germination choose the seedlings with straight coleoptiles or shoot sheath (1 - 1.5 em long ) + Mark each coleoptile from the tip downwards with horizontal lines about 1 mm apart using ink, + Place the tin in a box with a hole from one side, * Observe the shoots after one day. a. Explain the results bb. What conclusion can be drawn from the experiment? 4. To find out how plants respond to fight Take 5 tins of growing maize seedlings. * To the scedlings in the first tin fit aluminium caps. + To the seedlings in the second tin , fit aluminium collars so that the tips of the seedlings are free, nwhich light enters . * Inthe next 6 - 24 hours observe what happens. Cut off the tips of the seedlings of the 3" tin. Leave the seedlings of the 4" and S" free and intact, Place the 5" tin of intact seedlings on a rotating clinostat, Cover all the five sets of seedlings with dark boxes each with a hole through = Record the results in the table below. ‘TREATMENT OBSERVATION EXPLANATION ‘Seedlings with caps Seedlings with collars Cat seedlings Intact seedlings Seedlings on the clinostat enENVIRONMENT HUMAN POPULATION Population Growth Given the right conditions e.g. plenty of food, right temperature and no predators, a population can grow to its maximum rate. Such a growth starts off slowly and then increases rapidly, producing an exponential or J~ shaped growth curve, Population size J- Shape Time Factors affecting human population growth Birth rate and fertility rate Birth rate is the number of individuals that are born in a population in a certain unit time. It is generally expressed as a percentage. E.g. Birth rate of 5% means that for every 100 individuals, 5 more would be added by birth within a particular period so that there will be now 105 individuals. Fertility rate is the age at which one starts to reproduce. This factor is controlled by such factors as education, importance of children, living costs, infant mortality, average age of marriage, availability of birth control methods, religious beliefs = Death rate This is the number of individuals that die in a population in a unit time. The deah rate is expressed as a percentage. E.g. a death rate of 3% means for every 100 individuals, 3 individuals would die within a particular period so that there will be now 97 individuals. This factor is controlled by a population, nutritional diseases, medical services. = Population age structure This factor classifies the population according to the young people, adults and old people. For example if‘a population consists of more of old people, the growth rate will be lower than if the population consisted of more individuals who are at the reproductive rate. + Urbanisation Growth ofa population is high in towns because people go there to seek ‘employment, to trade, e.t.. + Migration 2This is the movement of individuals from one place to another for various reasons. When individuals move out itis called emigration and when they ~ move into a population it is called immigration. Problems associated with rapid population growth Depletion of resources e.g trees, water, ete Pressure on social services such as schools, hospitals, etc Spread of diseases such as cholera,etc Pollution of water, land, ete Increase in crime rate ‘Unemployment Controlling the problems associated with rapid human population growth = Reducing birth rate through birth control methods and education * Conservation of resources such as trees * Improved sanitation * Reducing over consumptionECOSYSTEMS Ecosystem is an interacting group of living things with their physical evnironment Major components of an ecosystem 1. animal communities 2. plant communities 3. physical factors 1 and 2 are biological or biotic factors and 3 is abiotic factor. Kinds of ecosystems 1. Fresh water ecosystems 2. Tropical savanna woodland ecosystems Physical factors in fresh water and tropical savanna woodland ecosystems. * Light intensity Water Temperature pH humidity mineral salts amount of oxygen Hydrophytes — These are plants growing in fresh water ecosystems. Some benefits that hydrophytes gain by growing in aquatic environments * get support from water "greater uniformity of temperature * abundant water containing dissolved salts Some disadvantages that hydrophytes face as they grow in water, Shortage of oxygen in the soil and water. Lack of adequate light in deep waters. ‘Water currents may break plants and carry them away. Nutrients are in dilute form, Problem of pollination throu; stem of a phyte 31Adaptations of plant communities in fresh water ecosystems Have flexible stems which can sway with current Have air cell tissue which store oxygen and give buoyancy ‘Small and thin leaves to facilitate exchange of gases and absorption of light May have waxy or hairy leaves to keep away water Some have erect leaves with narrow petioles to give less resistance to water current. Adaptations of animal communities in fresh water ecosystems «| Have fins to solve the problem of movement + Have webbed fect (e.g. in birds, amphibians and swimming mammals) * Streaming of their bodies to reduce drag. * Use of gills for gas exchange Some adaptations of animals living in tropical woodland ecosystems ‘a.Carnivores (structural adaptations) + have prominent eye sight e.g. vultures ~ hooked claws = muscular body + hooked beak (in birds) bHerbivores ~ have necks f various sizes to feed on a variety of plants - have specialized teeth to cope with different types of food — grinding, cutting teeth, e.t.c. Some basic ecological concepts (terms) Habitat It is a place where an organism lives i.e. where it obtains food and shelter and where it reproduces. Population size It is a number of individuals of a particular species living in a particular habitat at a particular time, Community It is an association of plants and animals that live together in the same habitat and affect each other. Sample It is part of the whole which is under study. Quadrat Il is a square frame placed randomly on the ground and the plants of a particular species are sampled. Alien species ~ A species occurring in an area to which it is not native. »STUDYING POPULATIONS = The size of a population can be known by simply doing physical counts of the organisms in a given area if the individuals are large and few in number. For example you can find the population of orange trees in an orchard by just counting the orange trees, You can also find the population of antelopes in a game reserve by simply counting the antelopes. Tn most cases the population size you get is exact. Sometimes it is not easy to find the actual size of a population of some organisms in a particular area because of their numerous numbers. For example it is very difficult to count all the Tridax procumbens plants growing in a school garden or to count all the grasshoppers found in an old maize garden, In this case you can only calculate an estimate size of the populations of such types of organisms by using sampling methods.A Sample gives a better picture of the entire population and more samples give a better representation of the whole community. Sampling Methods Ecological methods used to study ecosystems. A. How to estimate plant population ‘There are various methods that are used to estimate the population of plants and all the methods give an estimate size of a population, not exact because the distribution of plants is not uniform. Using quadrats A student would find it difficult to count small plants such as grass on a school playing field. He can only count the plants in a small are, such as a square metre, chosen at random, using a quadrat. Usually quadrats have sides Im or 0.5m, The quadrat is placed over a chosen area and the plants of a particular species are counted. Procedure = Have a known size of a field, for example 10m by 10m Have a known size of a quadrat, for example 0.5m by 0.5m. Throw the quadrat in the field at random and count the number of plants enclosed and record the number = Make several throws and count, and record the number of plants enclosed after each throw Find the average number of plants enclosed Divide the area of the field by the area of the quadrat and multiply the result by the average number of plants in a quadrat i.e, Estimated population = Area of field « Average ‘Area of quadrat 3ii, Using transects ‘ Using this method, a piece of string with marks every metre is laid across the site of sampling and sampligg_is carried out at regular intervals along the transect using a quadrat Procedure * Identify a particular species of plant to investigate = Select a known area of the field where plants are growing e.g. 10m by 10m * Lay apiece of string across the area. The string is a transect line "Using a metre or half a metre quadrat collect data from 10 quadrats placed along the string Calculate the average density of the species per m? * Divide the area of the field by the area of the quadrat and multiply the result by the average density to find the estimated population of the plants B. How to estimate the population of mobile organisms (animals) ‘There are several methods that are used to estimate the population of mobile organisms, But all the methods involve trapping the animals in various ways, including pitfall traps, water traps ( for aquatic animals), nets, e.t.c. The traps are placed at regular interval across the habitat and examined regularly. Every organism caught is counted, marked and then released, One of the ecological methods used to estimate the population of mobile organisms is called ‘ Mark, release, recapture technique’, For example, if one wants to estimate the population of grasshoppers in an old maize garden, he/she must carry out the following procedures (steps). Choose a method to use in order to capture a sample of the grasshoppers Capture a sample, count and record the number of grasshoppers caught Mark each of the captured grasshopper with ink .,c.t.c. After marking the grasshoppers, release them on the same grounds.Allow a day to pass before recapturing them. This period will allow the grasshoppers to mix freely with the rest of the population. * Capture a second sample, Count the total number and the number of the marked ones + Work out the estimated population of the grasshoppers using the Lincoln Index: Population size(P)= No. of grasshoppers in ]* sample » No. of grasshoppersin 2". catch No. of marked grasshoppers caught in the 2" sample This method works best with animal populations whose movements are limited by geographical barriers i. a stable population such as fish in a pond, It is also important to assume that: > marking the animais does not interfere with their movements nor increase their chances of being caught by predators. > Changes in the population size due to death, birth, immigration and emigration are insignificant during the period of sampling > Marked animals will not lose their marks, MEnergy transfers in fresh water and tropicalsavanna woodland ecosystems Living things can be divided into: a. Producers ‘These are organisms that are able to make their food from simple substances such as water and carbon dioxide b, Consumers ‘These are all animals because they can not make their own food Types of consumers @® Primary consumers — These are herbivores , they eat producers Gi) Secondary consumers — These are animals (consumers) that eat herbivores. (iii) Tertiary consumers — These are carnivores that eat secondary consumers. Decomposers — These are microbes that break down the dead remains and release the chemicals for the plants to use again Wate sunlight a son an, 8 Tinerals and 0, a ‘humus S%, PRODUCERS DECOMPOSERS SE a ucens acteria and fungi Qe consumes eZ Fioure 25.8 Recycling in an ecosystem Food chains and food webs One important way in which organisms depend on each other is in terms of food. Each ‘organism belongs to a specific trophic (feeding) levelFood chains Itis a single link of a feeding relationship which indicates Which organisms eat what in a community. They show the movement of energy from one organisra to another. Figure 2. Afood chain Food web Afood web is made up of several food chains. It gives a more complete picture of how organisms relate to each other in a community in terms of feeding. If some event interferes with a food web, all the organisms in it are affected in some way. For example, if the rabbits in the figure below were (o die out, the foxes, owls and stoats would eat more beetles and rats. Figure 3. A food web 6Pyramid of numbers and Biomass et ast a. Pyramid of number It shows the numerical relationship in the population of organisms at succeeding feeding levels . For example the food chain in figure---- will produce the pyramid of number below. owt Blue tts Coterpillars Plant leaves Pyramid of numbers would not always show the same effect. One problem with the pyramid of numbers is that they do not take into account size of organisms at each feeding level . Because of this some pyramids can have unusual shape. Corisider the food chain below: Tree + Caterpillar. ———_——» Bird The pyramid of number constructed from the food chain would look like this: f] Birds An Odd-shaped Caterpillars Pyramid ‘Trees This shape is obtained when the producers are large in size but few in number so that they support many herbivores. One way to overcome the problem of size is to measure biomass instead of numbers. b, Pyramid of biomass Biomass is the weight of living material . Biomass shows the actual weight/mass of living things at each trophic level.Steps to draw biomass : © Collect samples from each trophic level and weigh them.(dry mass gives bette results). ‘© Find the average mass of the organisms at each trophic level. ‘© Maltiply the average mass by the estimated number present at each trophic level. Consider the food chain: Trees —_____———+ Caterpillars —________+ Birds Birds | Caterpillars The pyramid of biomass would look like the figure below:Plants and animals can also benefit from others in various ways as outlined below. ‘* Mutualism — It is a symbiotic relationship where two organisms live together and both partners benefit from the relationship. eg ; a bee and a flower, a bee collects nectar from the flower and so get food in the process. A bee carries pollen from ‘one flower to another, therefore pollinates the flower which benefit the flower. * Some examples of interactions that benefit one organism are; a. Predation- This relationship involves an animal catching and eating another animal ( eg, a snake eating a mouse ). The animal that catches another animal is a predator, while the one caught and eaten is called a prey. bi Parasitism- It is a close symbiotic relationship where one organism gets all the benefits , while the other gets nothing .For example the dog has a tick , the tick uses the dog as a source of food. The dog is getting no benefit at all from the tick. The tick is called a parasite. Energy flow (transfer ) between organisms AEnergy flow through producers The energy in all ecosystems originally come from the sun. In photosynthesis, green plants convert sunlight energy into chemical energy stored in sugars.Most of the sunlight that falls on leaves is not absorbed by the leaf surface.For example, some of itis reflected and some may also just pass straight through the leaf . Only a small part of the light is usefull and can be absorbed by chlorophyll. The overall efficiency of energy transfer during photosynthesis is less than 10% .°So only about 8% of the sunlight energy Fnreaching the plant is transferred into usefiit chemical energy. This chemical energy is used for respiration and growth. B Energy flow through consumers Transfer of food energy from producers to primary consumers also involves ‘wastage’. For every 100g of plant material available, only about 10g ends up as part of the animal tissue to contribute to growth. Reasons for this 90% energy loss between trophic levels © Some of the food is unchewed and will come out of the animal unused as excreta. * Some underground parts and stems may not be eaten. ¢ A lot of food is used in respiration * Some energy may be lost to decomposers Similar losses of energy occur between other trophic levels. ‘Some camivores achieve a 20% conversion efficiency . this is because proteins are more efficiently digested than are carbohydrates and animals contain more proteins than plants do. The losses of energy in food between feeding levels explain why a food chain rarely has over five feeding levels. This is because the remaining energy after losses can not support other more feeding levels. 30% lost as eneray 60% digested | Figure 4. Energy transfer from plants to animals Impact of human activities on fresh water and tropical savanna woodland ecosystem Some of the major activities include the following: a, Soil pollution- This results from use of poor farming methods, bush fires, overgrazing and deforestation. b.. Air pollution ~ It results from the release of nitrogen which is highly toxic and imitates the breathing system and it also reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere and water forming nitric acid an ingredient for acid rain, which may increase soil pH that affects performance of microbes in recycling processes in nature. Increase release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a result of burning of fuel impacts the green house.The green house form a basis for average temperature. It acts as a blanket that shield the ultraviolet radiation to infrared radiation. The increased burning of fuel 3”causes global watming which brings about changes in climate, rise in average temperature on earth, more drought floods, more violent winds, death of many animals and plant species that will not adapt the warmer climate. ¢. Water pollution- There are many ways from which water pollution can occur. For example, Effects of sewage and chemical fertilizers (Eutrophication) when discharged in a river or pond, the following occur: Algae and other surface plants grow very rapidly and block out light to plants rooted on the bottom of the river or pond. ~The rooted plants die and their bodies decompose by bacteria. |The population of bacteria increases rapidly . As they multiply, the bacteria utilize lots of oxygen for aerobic respiration. Fish and other living organisms can not obtain enough oxygen ; they leave the ‘area or if they stay , they die.The situation is worsened further by the decomposition of their bodies. 12 ow mero arte reproauc Snagrow recy ar CMe oo sega ies soe Cite a tw i § 9 2 oa oman we de sa Since done Siar yom ma raonan Seger Saar FigureS. Effects of eutrophication 4. Effects of some pest killers. “The concentration of pesticides increases as it passes along a food chain. In the figure below Clear Lake in California was sprayed with DDT to kill mosquito larvae. The insecticide made a weak solution of 0.015 parts per million (ppm)in the lake ‘water,The microscopic plants and animals which fed in the lake water built up Concentrations of about Sppm in their bodies.The small fish which fed on the microscopic animals had a concentration of 10ppm.The small fish were eaten by larger fish which in turn were eaten by birds like grebes. The grebes were found to have 1600 ppm of DDT in their body fat and this high concentration killed large numbers of them. onFigure6.Pesticides may become more concentrated as the move along @ food chain e..Industrial wastes For example, waste gases may damage plant and animal life. = Global pollution by carbon dioxide produced in- industries increases in the atmosphere may affect climate change. = Industrial accidents such as petroleum floating on water surface can cut off ‘oxygen supply to water life and the oils also stick to feathers of water living birds preventing them flying and therefore die. £. Over fishing In Malawi, fish is the major source of protein forming 70% of protein intake in the country. Besides, fish also provides a tourist attraction as there are hundreds of different species of Cichlids which are found no where else in the world. However, ove fishing has drastically reduced fish population in the country. The practice has become so common in the country due to several factors: © Changes in fishing patterns — many fishermen are using nets of mesh size of less than half an inch. This means that many small fish are caught before the fish have a chance to breed. * High human population growth has increased the demand for fish. * Deforestation results into soil erosion which degrades the quality of water and hence provides unsuitable environment for the survival of fish. * The clearing of marshes at the edges of some lakes destroys some breeding places of some fish species. + Some fishermen do not observe the ban of fishing during the closing season. f.lntroduction of alien species. When species of plants or animals are to be introduced in an area or country for the first time careful studies are made before introduction to avoid upsetting the smooth operation of an ecosystem. So the introduction of alien species without proper scrutiny cartied out upon them brings negative impacts on the environment, For example, Water a