ROAD/ RUNWAY CONSTRUCTION

Setting Out a Construction Site

SURVEY
If a road has to be constructed from point A to point B, several alignments are possible.
Although the shortest connection between two points is a straight line, the road leading from
point A to point B will very seldom be entirely straight. This is so for various reasons:
(a) A straight, short alignment may lead through villages, farms or public property. In
many cases this is not acceptable as it would be necessary to destroy high value crops,
buildings or public facilities to let the road through;
(b) Especially in rolling/hilly/mountainous terrain the gradients of a straight alignment
would often be too steep or the earthworks required would be excessive;
(c) The straight alignment may pass through extremely difficult terrain (rocks, swamps)
which, if at all possible, should be avoided to minimise construction costs;
(d) If a river or other obstacle has to be crossed another, alignment may be necessary to
cross at the most suitable place;
(e) It may be that, by choosing a slightly longer alignment, the road can be constructed on
a soil type more suitable for road construction.
In addition, the choice of alignment may be influenced by the location of suitable sources of
water, for the camp and construction, and the location of gravel deposits.
The final alignment will be chosen after all these points have been taken into account.
Naturally, when short rural roads are built to provide access to a certain area, it often happens
that existing tracks can be followed and only minor realignments may be required.
When, with the construction of a new road, several alignments are possible, the engineer will
take his decision based on an estimate of:
1. Construction costs - e.g. an alignment of a certain length with steep gradients up to 10
per cent (alignment 1) will be cheaper to construct than an alignment of the same length with
gradients up to 5 per cent (alignment 2). For the latter, the necessary earthworks will be far
more extensive.
2. Costs to future traffic - these costs will be greater for alignment 1 than for alignment 2.
More energy is used to climb steep gradients and more wear to brakes, etc. will occur when
descending. Stronger means of transport will be required for alignment 1.

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Note: for short rural roads when future traffic volumes are expected to be low, usually the
higher construction costs cannot be justified on the grounds of a decrease in cost to the future
traffic.
3. Maintenance costs - the costs to maintain steep gradients are higher than the costs to
maintain gentle gradients (Erosion, Drainage, etc.).
4. Social costs and benefits - in many cases the higher construction costs of a longer
alignment may be justified if the road would serve a public facility (e.g. school, health centre).
Also, the designer should consider:
(i) how the land over which the road alignment passes is used;
(ii) to whom the land.
Although compensation arrangements can normally be made, a careful consideration of all
possible alternatives at the design stage may avoid many problems.
It is extremely important to set out the centre-line of a new road well in advance of the start of
the construction works. This will allow the local people to sort out right of way problems and
will also ensure that no new crops are planted in the road area.

Instruments and Aids for Setting Out

The elementary aids and instruments used for setting out are the following:
1. pegs (reference, survey, and multi-purpose);
2. tape measure/measuring wire;
3. ranging rods;
4. boning rods;
5. triangle sets;
6. cross staff;
7. optical square;
8. gradient template;
9. straight-edge in combination with spirit level;
10. abney level;
11. dumpy level;
12. Water manometer; 13. tube water level;
14. Camber board.
1. Reference Pegs are used to mark the alignment and/or the levels of the road.

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Usually, they are made of wood. These pegs should have a length of approximately 40 cm and
a cross-section 5 cm round or 5 × 5 square. It is advisable to paint at least the top half of the
peg yellow or white so that it stays well visible even after a period of several months. The
chainage of the road will be marked on the reference peg (chainage shows the distance from
the beginning of the road).
Figure 1 shows a round peg which is placed 1,600 metres from the beginning of the road. The
chainage is written in km with 4 digits (1+600). Use wax crayon or pens with indelible
waterproof ink when writing on the reference pegs. Reference pegs have to be placed outside
the formation of the road in order not to be demolished during construction.
Ensure that these pegs are hammered deep into the ground so that it will be impossible for
children to remove them. This should be done even if it means a lot of work, as reference pegs
are vital during construction and very useful as references for maintenance afterwards.

Fig. 1.
Survey pegs show the centre-line of the road in flat terrain, when no fill or cut is required.
In hilly or mountainous terrain where side-long cuts have to be made the survey pegs show the
future level of the road.
When a cut has to be made the survey peg shows the limit and depth of the cut.
Multi-purpose pegs are used to stake out cross-sections, points of the centre-line between the
survey pegs, "tasks", levels, etc. They are usually sharpened wooden sticks of approximately 30
cm long. A string line can be used to make the straight line between the pegs visible, which is
especially useful with the setting out of tasks. Workers can then clearly see what they are
expected to do,
2. Tape Measure - A great variety of tape measures exist. The most common length of tape
measure used for setting out is 30 metres. The tapes are made of steel or linen. Although the
former is stronger, the numbers become illegible after a period of use.

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Note that the zero point is not always located at the same place with different types of tape
measure. A common type is shown in figure 2.

Fig. 2.
Obviously, the tape measure is most commonly used to measure lengths and widths. However,
the tape measure can be used for various other purposes, e.g. to set out a right angle.
Measuring wires, which are thin steel wires marked at certain distances, can be very useful in
road construction because they are far stronger and therefore more durable than the usual
type of tape measure.

Fig. 3.
3. Ranging Rods are sticks usually 2.5-3.0 metres long with a diameter of approximately
2.5 cm. They are made of various materials (metal, hard plastic or wood) and are usually
provided with a pointed metal end. Painted alternatively red and white they are clearly visible.
The length of the red/white sections varies: 25 cm, 30 cm or 50 cm as shown in figure 4.

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 Fig. 4.
4. Boning Rods - These are T-shaped and of a uniform height. They can be easily
manufactured by nailing a wooden lath of approximately 80 cm long and 10 cm wide on
another lath of approximately 150 cm long and 10 cm wide so that the end result looks like a
"T" (figure 5). A simple stand can be manufactured so that the setting out can be done by two
instead of three persons if necessary.

Fig. 5.
Paint the upper lath in a clearly visible colour. Different colours should be used for different
boning rods.
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When "level pegs" show two levels of the road "boning rods" can be used to establish a "line of
sight", which enables you to find additional levels in between or beyond the level pegs. This
"line of sight" is established by putting boning rods on top of the level pegs and looking over
the top of the boning rods. Figure 6 shows how the new level is found:

Fig. 6.
This man can see that boning rod 3 is too low. When the man in the middle moves uphill his
boning rod will come into the line of sight. He then moves his boning rod up (or down) until
the top is at the correct height. The bottom of the boning rod is then at the required new level.
Note that this method should not be used to set out new alignments in hilly terrain, but only to
find additional points between level pegs. Setting out in hilly terrain by an inexperienced
person can cause excessive and unnecessary earthworks.
5. Triangle Sets - These can be manufactured from three wooden laths to show different
angles.
They can be used for various purposes:
a. to set out a right angle to a centre-line (which has to be done when cross-sections are
set out);
b. to control or estimate the steepness of gradients (in this case a spirit level or plumbing
line is also required).
The steepness of gradients is described as a ratio: for example a gradient of 1:2 means that for
this gradient 2 metres in the horizontal direction have to be covered for every metre of vertical
rise (figure 7).

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 Fig. 7.
How to make triangle sets
Figure 8 shows a triangle set made from three wooden laths of 200, 200 and 283 cm lengths
respectively. This set shows a gradient of 1:1.

Fig. 8.
How to Measure a Gradient with a Triangle Set
Gradients can be measured with a triangle set if the top lath is horizontal. This can be achieved
either by placing a spirit level on the top lath or with a piece of string with an attached weight
(plumb line), fixed on the vertical lath. Figure 9 shows the measurement of a 1:1 slope (45°)
with a triangle set, controlled by the string method.

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 Fig. 9.
How to Set Out a Right Angle with a Triangle Set
When you wish to set out a cross-section at a right angle to a centre-line of a road you can use
any of the three types of triangle sets shown in figure 8, provided that you lay one of the two
short sides of the set exactly along the centre-line as shown in figure 10.

Fig. 10.
How to Set Out a Right Angle with a Tape Measure
Naturally, the longer the sides of your triangle set, the smaller is the chance to make mistakes.
A very good method is therefore to use a tape measure and pegs, measuring out a triangle with
legs of 3, 4 and 5 metres (figure 11). Lengths of 6, 8 and 10 or 9, 12 and 15 metres can also be

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used (in fact any three lengths of which the sum of the squares of the shorter two is equal to
the square of the longer: a2 + b2 = c2 with c naturally as the longest side).

Fig. 11.
The right angle is found as follows:
1. measure length A-B of 4 metres along the centre-line of the road (drive in pegs exactly
on point A and B);
2. circle a length of 5 metres around from point B;
3. circle a length of 5 metres around from point A;
4. point C is the point of intersection of both circles;
5. drive in a peg on point C;
B-C is now at a right angle to A-B.

A method to set out a right angle with only a piece of string is the following:
1. take a piece of string of a reasonable length (say 5 metres);
2. mark the exact middle with a ribbon or knot;
3. put the piece of string along the centre-line with the knot or ribbon on point B (figure 12);
4. drive in pegs on points A and D;
5. circle the full length of the string around from point A;
6. Circle the full length of the string around from point D; 7. Point C is the point of
intersection of both circles; 8. B-C is now at a right angle to A-D.

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 Fig. 12.
6. Cross-staff
How to set out a right angle with a "cross-staff"
The "cross-staff" (figure 13) consists of two pieces of timber about 30 cm long, set at right
angles on top of a pole.

Fig. 13.
As shown, each piece of timber is fitted with a sight made up of two pieces of thin metal, one
fitted at each end. One piece is cat to a point, the other to a V-slot. When manufacturing this
instrument its accuracy should be checked by comparing a right angle set up with the staff in
one orientation with that in the complementary orientation.
The pole is placed in the ground so that the sights are level. One sight is set along the surveying
line. The line of the other sight is at a right angle to the surveying line.

7. Optical Square
How to Set Out a Right Angle with an Optical Square
The optical square is more accurate than the cross-staff.
It allows the user to see an object at a right angle to the line of survey by the use of either a
mirror or prism system. The rays of light are reflected as shown in figure 14.

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 Fig. 14.
The observer can see point B through a narrow opening left in the optical square and at the
same time point C in the mirror or prism.
When two ranging rods are placed in point B and C the observer will see ranging rod B direct
and ranging rod C reflected (figure 15A).
When points A and B on the survey line are known and point C has to be found (angle CAB
being a right angle) (figure 14), the person holding ranging rod C should move forwards or
backwards until the observer sees the reflection of rod C in one line with his direct view of rod
B (figure 15B).

Fig. 15A.

Fig. 15B.

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8. Gradient Template is a device which can be easily manufactured on site. With a gradient
template a line of sight can be established at a particular angle.
To use the gradient template for finding a new level you need to:
(i) Know the required gradient;
(ii) have one level point.
The gradient template can also be used to determine what the gradient is when two level
points are known.
To manufacture the gradient template you need:
(i) four pieces of wooden lath (length approx. 60 cm);
(ii) A plumb line (a piece of strong thin wire with a suitable weight);
(iii) a stand (figures 16 and 17) approximately 1.5 metres high.
The engineer or surveyor will mark the gradients on the bottom edge of the triangle.

Fig. 16.
Two nails fixed on the middle lath, as shown in figure 16, establish the line of sight.
When you look along this line of sight to the top of a pole held by an assistant, you can see
whether the point where he has placed this pole is at the right level. If this is not so, you tell
him to move the pole upwards or downwards until the right level has been found.

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 Fig. 17.
Note: 11 = 12
The stand is not a tripod but should have two legs to make it easier for the operator to hold the
template stable while looking along the line of sight.
9. An easy way to measure a gradient (short distanced) is to use a straight-edge in
combination with a spirit level and a tape measure.
Figure 18. shows how a gradient of 1:1.5 is measured. The straight-edge is usually about 5
metres in length and is set horizontally with a spirit level. This method should be used for the
measurement of gradients which continue only for short distances, e.g. culvert beds.

Fig. 18.
10. Abney Level - This instrument can be used for the measurement of vertical angles as
well as for setting out levels. Vertical angles are measured as follows: the sight is taken on to a
point which should be at the same height above the ground as the eye of the observer. The line
of sight will then be parallel to the ground surface between A and B (figure 19).

Fig. 19.

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Holding the abney level in this position (the cross hair intersects the target), the air bubble in
the tube of the abney level should be positioned in the middle against the cross hair by turning
the milled head. The angle of the line of sight with the horizontal can then be read on the arc
(figure 20).
The abney level can also be used to set out certain gradients. The arc should be set at the
required angle or gradient (e.g. 5°40' or 1:10) and a line of sight established.
This is done as follows:
The person using the abney level tells the assistant holding the boning rod in which direction
and how much to move up or down. The operator can do this by looking through the
instrument while keeping the bubble in the middle of the mirror. He directs his assistant until
the top of this person's boning rod is at the right height.
Finally, the abney level can be used to measure distances and to transfer heights. The degree of
accuracy that can be achieved, however, is not very high so that it is recommended to use tape
measures for the former and levelling instruments for the latter.

Fig. 20.

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11. The Dumpy Level - This instrument is used to measure the difference in level between
two or more points. It is used in combination with levelling staffs. The instrument is set
roughly mid-way between these staffs of which one is placed on a bench-mark. Since the
dumpy level is equipped with a telescope, levels can be transferred or new levels can be
established very accurately over distances up to 100 metres. It is very important that the
instrument is positioned horizontally by turning the adjustment screws. There are several types
on the market with different methods of use which should be practised thoroughly before the
instrument is used.
It is possible to manufacture a simple dumpy level on site from suitable timber and a standard
wooden-cased spirit level. The spirit level is clamped on to a pole or tripod by drilling a hole
through the spirit level and attaching it to a support with a bolt and wing nut (figure 21). If a
pole is used the lower end should be sharpened so that it can be driven into the ground.

Fig. 21.
Sighting can be done along the line of the level, or through a pair of simple sights formed from
sheet metal. An angled mirror can be set above the glass tube of the level to check the position
of the bubble while viewing through the sights.
The level should be placed in the ground so that the pole is approximately vertical. The level is
adjusted until the bubble is exactly between the centre marks. The sighting is done along the
line of the level to the levelling staff held by an assistant. Since the operator will have to take
readings without optical aids the range of this instrument is normally limited to about 10
metres.
Taking readings is easier if the operator can sight on a moveable horizontal target on the
levelling staff (figure 22).
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 Fig. 22.
12. Water Manometer - An even simpler method of manufacturing a crude levelling
instrument is to replace the spirit level with a length of rubber tube with two lengths of glass
tube at each end (figure 23).

Fig. 23.
This instrument is called a water manometer.
The rubber tube should be approximately 40 cm long and the glass tubes 10 cm each. The two
glass tubes are clamped to a piece of wood about 50 cm long.
The clamps can be made from strips of inner tube nailed to the wood through hardboard pads.
Simple sights cut from sheet metal are attached to the ends of the length of wood. The length of
wood is attached to a mounting block on top of a pole or tripod by means of a. bolt and wing

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nut. If a pole is used, its lower end should be sharpened so that it can be driven into the
ground. The U-tube is filled with water to within about 30 mm from the top. The ends may be
fitted with stoppers to prevent loss of water. The instrument is placed in the ground so that the
pole is approximately vertical. It is levelled by adjusting the angle until the line of the two
water levels is parallel to the top surface of the length of wood. Sighting is along the line of the
instrument to the levelling staff held by a second operator.
13. Tube water level - A very accurate and simple instrument for measuring the level
differences of two points is the "tube water level".
This level, illustrated in figure 24, consists of a length of clear plastic pipe clipped at each end
to a wooden levelling staff. The two levelling staffs should be of the same length., about 1.5 ID
long. A graduated tape is attached to each stave, with the zero level with the top end of the
stave. The tube is filled with water until the level is about 1 m high from the ground. The ends
of the tube are fitted with rubber stoppers to prevent loss of water. The total length of tube,
which defines the range of the instrument, is variable, but is usually limited to about 15 m by
the difficulty of moving the level around.

Fig. 24.
The two standpipes are brought together at the starting point, the stoppers removed and the
readings taken level with the bottom of each meniscus. The readings should be the same (e.g.
reading A -= 50 cm, reading B = 50 cm). The headman takes his standpipe to the point being
measured and takes another reading. The difference between the two readings is the difference
in level (e.g. now reading A = 30 cm and reading B = 70 cm, the difference in level is now 70
- 30 = 40 cm,
Range is limited only by the convenience of being able to carry the tube. The two points whose
difference in level is being measured do not need to be in sight of one another. The level gives
accurate results and with care can be used for setting level lines or slopes not less than 1 in
1,000.

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14. A Camber Board is used to control the camber of the road. Its length is usually the
distance centre-line shoulder. In cases where the shoulder has the same gradient as the
running surface the length of the camber board can also include the shoulder.
Figure 25 shows a 2.50 metre long camberboard showing a gradient of 5 per cent (1:20).

Fig. 25.
The camberboard is used in combination with a spirit level. If the spirit level is placed on top
and is level, the under side of the camberboard shows a gradient of 5 per cent.

Fig. 26.
Setting Out Of Horizontal Alignments
On flat and rolling terrain the horizontal alignment can be set out as a number of straight
lines. These straight lines are later on joined by curves. Figure 27 shows how this initial stage
looks as viewed from above (plan). Most public works departments have standards for the
horizontal alignment (e.g., for each type of road a certain minimum radius has to be applied
for curves). When a road becomes more important higher standards are necessary.

Fig. 27.
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In hilly and mountainous terrain the horizontal alignment is more difficult to deal with. In this
type of terrain the alignment is to a great extent determined by the gradients of the future road.

Setting Out Of Straight Lines

On flat ground the centre-line of the road is set out initially as a series of straight lines.
Ranging rods and pegs are used for this purpose. The distance between the centre-line pegs
should not be more than 20 metres.

Fig. 28.
Setting Out Of Curves
There are various methods to set out curves. However, when rural roads designed for low
traffic volumes are set out it is usually sufficient to follow existing tracks and to improve
existing curves where necessary. Figure 29 shows how a circular curve with a 30 metre radius
is set out. This method can only be applied when the area around the curve is easily accessible.

Fig. 29.

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Points B and C are called tangent points.
B-D and C-D are called tangents.
A parabolic curve can be set out as shown in figure 30. This curve should be set out from equal
tangents, so that the steeper portion is not pushed nearer to one tangent than to the other.

Fig. 30.
The method of setting out is as follows:
(1) the point of intersection of the tangents (D) is determined. Then, the most suitable length of
the tangents is set out and measured;
(2) pegs are put to show the tangent points B and C;
(5) each tangent is divided into equal number of parts and numbered as shown above;
(4) the points on the curve are found as the intersections of lines 1-1 with 2-2, 2-2 with 3-3
and 3-3 with 4-4.
After the centre-line of the road has been established, reference pegs are placed 1 metre
outside the formation as shown in figure 31. The chainage is marked on these pegs, which are
used to plan, organise and measure the work during the construction period.

Fig. 31.
After the road has been constructed these pegs will serve as useful references to the
maintenance supervisors.
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Setting Out Of Vertical Alignments
The vertical alignment, sometimes called the longitudinal section of the road, shows the level of
the road. As with the horizontal alignment, most public works departments have standards for
the vertical alignment (e.g., for each type of road minimum as well as maximum gradients
have been established). Of course, these rules concerning the gradients greatly influence the
alignment of the road and the amount of earthworks required.
The setting out of the vertical alignment of a road in hilly and mountainous terrain calls for a
lot of experience. Major earthworks can be avoided if the contours of the terrain are followed
to the greatest extent possible. This can often be done in the case of rural roads. Naturally the
maximum allowable gradients should not be exceeded.
The vertical alignment of rural roads in hilly/mountainous terrain can, in principal, be set out
with an abney level and boning rods. In this type of terrain the survey pegs show the future
level of the road.

Fig. 32.
When the survey pegs have been set out it is the task of the supervisor to place the pegs
showing where the excavation has to start. It is good practice to place such pegs a fixed
distance (say 0.5 metres) outside the area where the excavation has to take place (figure 33).
To guide the workers, multi-purpose pegs can be set at the exact place where excavation has to
start. These pegs are then connected with strings.
The place where this upper line of pegs will have to be set depends on:
(i) the width of the future road;

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(ii) the angle of the hillside slope;
(iii) the angle of the face of the cut.
"Slots" showing (i) the level of the road (ii) the area of excavation can be dug into the hillside
(see hatched areas of figure 55) to facilitate the supervision and the setting of tasks. Slots are
discussed in detail in module M-9 "Earthworks".

Fig. 33.
Where "cuts" or "fills" have to be set out the survey pegs should be marked to indicate how
much will have to he dug or filled (figure 34). When level measurements are written on the
peg always measure from the top of the peg.

Fig. 34.
The pegs are set outside the area of filling/excavation so that they will not be lost during the
work. (Multi-purpose pegs can of course be put at the exact limits of excavation/fill.)
The width of cut or fill is determined by the formation width of the road and the angles of the
side slopes of the excavation/embankment.

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Multi-purpose pegs should be set while the work goes on to show the workers where to dump
or excavate the soil.
Triangle sets can be used to check whether the slopes have the correct angle and are handy
when new pegs have to be placed.

Setting Out Of Cross-Sections, Including Cuts and Fills

A cross-section of a road shows:
 where the different parts (ditch, slope, shoulder, running surface) of the road are located;
 how much and which type of work (cut, fill) has to be carried out to construct the road at a
particular point.
When a cross-section is set out in the field, survey pegs and multi-purpose pegs show:
 the centre-line of the road (flat terrain, figure 35);
 the level of the road (flat/hilly/mountainous terrain, cut, fill);
 the location of the ditches (flat terrain, figure 35);
 the limit of excavation (cut, side long cut);
 the foot of the embankment (fill).
All cross-sections should be set out at right angles to the centre-line of the road.

Cross-Section of Standard Formation (Flat Terrain)

In this case, the survey pegs serve to mark the centre-line as well as the road level. When it is
necessary to cut or fill to reach the required level, this is shown on the peg (figure 36)
The level is written as a three-digit number, showing the required cut or fill in metres (e.g.
+0.20 means that a fill of 20 centimetres is required). When the level is indicated always
measure from the top of the peg.

Fig. 35.

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 Fig. 36.
Cross-Section of Side Cut
Here the survey peg marks the road level. After the road has been excavated to level, the
centre-line and ditch slope pegs will be placed.

Fig. 37.
Cross-Section of Cut to Fill
Again, the survey peg marks the future level of the road. Figure 38 shows that the volume of
the excavation is approximately twice the volume of the fill and that a bench-notch should be
dug to provide a stable foundation for the fill side of the road.

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 Fig. 38.
Cross-Section of a Fill
The survey pegs on both sides of the road show the height to be filled. The fill height is marked
on the peg and measured from the top of the peg. Note that with a slope of 1:1 on both sides,
the formation width can be calculated by adding hF1 and hF2 to the road width.

Fig. 39.
Hairpin bends
Description and Function
In mountainous terrain where very steep slopes are encountered it is sometimes unavoidable to
use hairpin bends. These are bends with a very small radius continuing in some cases until the
direction of the road has changed 180°. When a number of hairpin bends are constructed it is
possible to descend a slope where little space for road construction is available. However,
hairpin bends are not only difficult to construct and maintain but also difficult for traffic to
use. Therefore, they should be avoided if alternative solutions exist.

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Setting Out Of Hairpin Bends
Figure 40 shows a longitudinal section of a hairpin bend. As you can see, the bend joins two
sloping road sections but is nearly flat itself. This is necessary to provide a
"rest" point to climbing or descending vehicles while they are negotiating the bend.

Fig. 40.
Figure 41 shows how the hairpin bend looks as viewed from above (plan). The survey pegs,
which serve as road level pegs, are placed as shown on the plan during the initial survey of the
road. Point "X" is the intersection point of the two level lines ZX and YX. From this point the
inner curve can be set out.
In the example used (radius of inner curve 3 m and road width 6 m) a cut of 12 metres will
have to be made from point X inwards. (2 × 3 m + 6 m; see cross-section A-A.) In the example
the radius of the outer curve is chosen to be 9.5 metres. However, to provide more space to the
vehicles the centre of the inner and outer curve is not on the same spot. The plan shows that
the centre of the outer curve has been moved 2 metres inwards.
To provide good drainage and safety, the outer curve of the bend is set out to be higher than
the inner curve. This means that the road will be sloping inwards, so that, when the surface is
slippery, vehicles will never slip towards the dangerous outer side of the curve. Also, all
surface water will be collected at the inner side of the bend, so that erosion on the outer side is
minimised.

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 Fig. 41.
Figure 42 shows the three cross-sections A-A, B-B, C-C which are indicated on the plan.
These cross-sections can be set out after the road levels have been determined. Since hairpin
bends normally only occur in mountainous terrain, the normal camber is usually not applied,
but the road is sloping towards the mountain to provide more safety and better drainage.
The percentages of cross-fall are shown in the plan (figure 41).

Fig. 42.

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Setting Out Of Tasks
For the purposes of setting out, it is sufficient to know that certain quantities of work will have
to be set out before the work is started. This should be done to show the individual worker (or
groups of workers in some cases) how much work he will have to carry out as his daily task.
Pegs and strings are normally used to set out lines or areas, not volumes. While it is therefore
easy to stake out tasks for certain road construction activities, such as bush clearing and
grubbing, it is more difficult for other activities such as excavation to level, ditching and
sloping. In the latter cases you will have to use additional setting out aids (triangle set, boning
rods, templets, or measuring stick) to check the work after a certain area is covered.
When, for example, you have set out a certain length and width of ditch to be excavated, you
will have to check the depth with a measuring stick of a predetermined length after the Job has
been completed.
You should remember that clear setting-out of a task is extremely important if the work is to be
executed as planned and disputes are to be avoided.
You can accomplish this by using many multi-purpose pegs at short intervals or connecting
the pegs with strings. This will clearly define and show what the worker has to do.

EARTHWORKS
Earthwork involves the loosening, removal and handling of earth quantities in the construction
process. Earthworks are carried out to provide a level terrace or "bench", with an even,
longitudinal slope, on which the drainage and camber can be built.
The earthwork is usually the most costly operation in the road construction, often accounting
for more than half of the construction costs.
The principal activities in earthworks are:
- measuring and calculation of volumes;
- excavation which includes levelling, cut to cross fill, U-cut and borrow excavation;
- loading, hauling and unloading;
- Filling, including spreading and compaction.
Earthwork is very suitable for incentive schemes like task work because the volume of work
can be easily measured.
Suitable "tasks" can be determined after the basic soil properties, e.g. hardness and
cohesiveness, have been defined.
.

28
Measuring volumes
A rough assessment of the volumes of earth to be moved should be made at a very early stage to
facilitate planning ("before construction is started). However, in order to use incentives such as
task work the volumes of earth to be excavated have to be measured and calculated accurately.
There are basically two ways of accurately determining the volumes to be excavated:
 using the traditional way of measuring the levels with a levelling instrument and
drawing the cross-section to scale. The volume can then be calculated;
 using the slotting technique which enables the measurements to be taken with a ruler
or tape on the cut itself.
The slotting technique is developed specifically for labour-based road construction and is a
method that can be used without elaborate survey equipment. The slotting method is
recommended for projects which do not have a special survey team and is described below.

The Slotting Technique

The slotting technique is a practical way of measuring the volumes to be excavated. It consists
of excavating a 0.3-1.0 metre wide slot at right angle to the centre-line up to the pre-
determined road level and width. The bottom of the slot is horizontal and at the formation level
of the road to be built. The slot thus shows exactly how much will have to be excavated at a
particular point.
The exposed surface can then be easily measured with a tape or folding ruler and provides the
data necessary for the calculation of the volume of the earthworks.
The slot also serves as an indestructible bench-mark and gives valuable information about soil
type, existence of bedrock or other hidden obstacles to the excavation.
The slot should only be as wide as necessary for its excavation and measuring. A higher slot has
to be wider to enable the worker to excavate it to the required level.
The level and width of the slot should be so that the exact cross-section of the future road is
shown. Close and constant supervision is necessary and it is therefore advisable to do the
excavation of slots on a daily work basis, i.e. not as an incentive work.
Slotting has to be done well ahead of the excavation; the less excavation there is to be done per
linear metre, the further ahead should the slotting be. It should be allowed to be less than 100
metres ahead of the excavation only in cases when big quantities of earth per linear metre have
to be excavated. The distance between the slots should not exceed 20 metres but depending on
the volumes, shorter distances may be necessary. The maximum volume between two slots
should be such that it can be effectively excavated by a gang of 10 workers in a one-day task.

29
It must be remembered that over-crowding a site means reduced productivity. Each worker
must have ample room to work, a distance of 2 metres between the workers should be allowed.

Fig. 1.
For roads which are expected to carry low traffic volumes the straightness of the vertical
alignment may well be not very essential. For such roads it may well be feasible to follow the
existing terrain to a great extent.
In such circumstances a quick method to determine the most economic alignment can be to dig
the slots in such a way that cut and fill in the slot are balanced, so that at all times the
excavated material is just sufficient for the fill (in the lateral direction). After a number of slots
have been dug in this way, the engineer/supervisor can check the levels of the various slots
and make adjustments where necessary.
The slotting, measuring and calculation of the volume is done as follows:
1. Set out the slot from the level peg of the road to the excavation peg which marks the limit of
excavation on the uphill side of the road. The slot is marked with pegs and, if necessary,
strings. Its minimum width should be 50 cm.
2. Excavate the slot to the level indicated by the level peg at the beginning of the slot. Check
that the bottom of the slot is level using a spirit level and a straight board. When three slots
or more have been excavated check with boning rods that their levels follow the set out
gradient of the road. If necessary the slots should be adjusted to the correct level and depth
by either excavating or filling soil.

30
3. Measure the area of the slot as necessary for the calculation of the area of the cut. Write
down the measurements on the slot form. If necessary make a small drawing of the shape of
the area.
4. Calculate the area of the slots on the slot form and get the "average" area by adding the two
areas of slots next to each other and dividing by two. The volume is then calculated by
multiplying this "average" area by the distance between the two slots. This is all to be
recorded on the slot form.
5. Transfer the calculated volumes to a simple "Bill of Quantities Book".

Fig. 2. Slot form

Excavation
Excavation is the loosening of the soil from its natural, in situ, stage. When the soil is moved
over relative short distances the word excavation is often also used to cover the transport or
moving of the soil, especially when this is done by the same person.
The basic types of excavation are:
- levelling;
- cut to crossfill or spoil (side long cut); - U-cut; - borrow.
All excavation should be organised in such a way that the loading or throwing activities can
also proceed smoothly.
Levelling
This word is used to describe a situation where only a levelling of bumps and depressions is
necessary to provide a sufficient width for the road at a uniform level.
Levelling is best carried out with hoes, rakes and shovels as the soil only has to be moved over
short distances. The humps and ridges are cut and the soil is raked, pushed or thrown into the
31
holes and depressions with the hoe. Deep holes should be compacted with hand-rammers after
they have been filled.

Fig. 3.
Cut to Crossfill (Side Long Cut)
Cut to crossfill means that the soil is excavated (cut) from one side of the road and used as fill
material at the other. If the excavated soil is not used, it is going to spoil, i.e. it is dumped
outside the embankment. Cut to crossfill is an effective form of balancing cut and fill in rolling
terrain without long haulage.
In very mountainous terrain where the crossfall is usually very steep, the fill portion is likely to
be unstable. In this case it will be necessary to cut the whole road into the hillside; the
outcoming excavated material will now all be spoil.
Where such sections are encountered, the road width is usually reduced to the minimum
standard width and instead of building up a camber formation, the road will be super elevated
towards the hillside. This provides some safety to vehicles when the road surface is slippery.

Fig. 4.
32
The height of the side cut can vary considerably, from a few centimetres to a number of metres
and the methods of work have to be adapted accordingly. In low cuts, up to approximately one
metre, the excavation of the whole cut area is done as one task on the same day. The
excavation should be started from the beginning of the cut towards the hillside, throwing the
soil backwards towards the fill. The final placing of the excavated soil is then done with
shovels by the shovellers of the gang. The upper limit of the excavation is best marked with a
string between the slots.
After the excavation is completed, the level of the excavated area should be checked with
boning rods placed in the slots. The third boning rod is placed in between the slots and can be
moved around to check the levels of the excavated area.
The final excavation task is the excavation of the back slope of the cut (figure 5). This can be
done as a separate task after the rest of the excavation is completed.

Fig. 5.
High cuts
In high cuts, where the volume to be excavated is very high, the excavation is more difficult to
organise. It is especially difficult to allow the workers enough space to work. It is therefore

33
advisable to excavate in steps. Each step is the excavation of approximately one metre,
providing a "bench" for the next days’ work. (Figure 6). In these cases the slotting will have to
be done on a day-to-day basis. Figure 6 shows a good approach to the excavation of a high cut.
If the work is organised in this way slots and calculations can be made without interrupting
the work of the excavation gang. The number of steps depends on the total height, the best
excavation height is around one metre and should not exceed 1.3 metres in normal cases.
Example (see figure 6a and 6b)
A 3.4 m high and 5 m (at the base level) wide cut is going to be excavated. It is necessary to do
it in steps because of the height.
The slots (A, B, C, D) have been excavated to a depth of one metre and the distance between
them is 20 m.
The volume for day 1 section A is:

We assume that the volume is 35 cubic metres (m3). The supervisor judges that

3m3 per man/day is the fair task rate and thus assigns say 12 workers to do the
excavation on day 1.
For day 2 the volume of section B down to level 1 is calculated and the excavation done.
On day 3 when excavation is done in section C down to level 1, the slots A and B are excavated
down to level 2.
On day 4 when section A is excavated down to level 2, slots C and D are excavated down to
level 2.
The work continues in this way until the whole cut is finished.

Fig. 6a.

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 Fig. 6b.
U-Cut
The U-cut is a cut which is roughly shaped as a U. The road is cut through e.g. a hillcrest, in
order to reduce the gradient. Haulage will be necessary if the U-cut is deeper than one metre.
For access roads carrying low traffic volumes it is good practise to minimise excavation and
hauling as much as possible by adopting a minimum road width in U-cuts.
Figure 7 shows the stages in which a U-cut can be excavated, first a rectangular cross-section
and then the side slopes, the gradient of which should depend on the type of soil but should not
be steeper than 3:1. If U-cuts are deeper than one metre the excavation should be organised in
several steps.

Fig. 7.
35
Borrow
Suitable soil has to be "borrowed" from outside when the excavated soil within the road width
is not sufficient for a fill or embankment. Borrow areas parallel to the road should be drained
wherever possible to ensure that ponded water will not seep through and weaken the
embankment or fill.
The borrow area should be well planned and laid out so that haulage (with wheelbarrows or
tractors/trailers) can be organised properly and can be implemented without people or
machines waiting.
Figure 8 shows a situation where the soil along the road is suitable to be used for an
embankment. The borrow areas serve as ditches.

Fig. 8.
Soil
The characteristics of the soil have great influence on the productivity and it is important to
determine and use the correct task norms. Soil-testing instruments are usually not available
and the supervisor has to use his experience and practice skill in determining the correct task
norm; this will be practised during the field training and apprenticeship period. The slot is also
useful here since it gives a good idea of the composition and the hardness of the soil when it is
excavated. Nevertheless, there can be unforeseen difficulties like hidden boulders or roots in
the soil to be excavated. If such difficulties occur it should not be the duty of the task-working
group to remove them, but this should be done by workers on daily paid basis.
Excavation is usually easier when the soil is fairly moist. Moist soil also compacts easier. The
excavated soil should therefore be used in the fill directly. Stockpiling will cause the soil to dry
out.
Tools
The choice of tools will greatly affect the productivity. It depends on the soil type which tools
should be used for excavation:

36
hoe - soft/medium soil without stones; forked
hoe - medium stony to hard soil; pickaxe - hard
stony soil; crow bar - hard stony soil; mattock
- soil with many roots; hard soil.

Fig. 9.
Other local tools might be available, e.g. digging sticks, and can be suitable.
Ensure that all tools are ordered and procured well in advance so that they are available in
time and in sufficient number. When in use, see to it that they are maintained and repaired.
The cutting edges should be kept sharp and repaired with whetting stones and steel files and
the handles must be properly fitted, if necessary with wedges (see M-6).

Loading, hauling and unloading

The hauling, with the loading and unloading, is an extremely important part of the
earthworks. The haulage (transport) of the soil can be done in many ways from carrying in a
basket or a stretcher to using big dump trucks. For earth roads carrying low traffic volumes
and constructed using labour-based methods, wheelbarrows and tractor-trailer combinations
have proven to be very effective up to a hauling distance of 8 km. For this type of road, the cut
to cross fill method can be used and haulage can be minimised. In flat areas where the road
needs to be elevated the soil can often be taken from pits alongside the road (borrow pits).
Generally, the optimal or "best" mode of haulage depends on the haulage distance (the distance
from the excavation to the dumping place). The following table gives a general picture of the
modes of haulage at different distances.
HAULING DISTANCE MODE OF HAULAGE MATERIAL TO BE MOVED
0 - 10 m Shovelling Soil
0 - 50 m Stretchers Stones, big clods of soil

37
10 - 150 m Wheelbarrows Soil, stone
150 - 500 m Animal carts Soil, stone, water
500 - 8 000 m Tractor-trailers Soil, stone, water
All the different modes of haulage are usually not available and then the "second best" solution
has to be used. Tractor-trailers are for instance often used for much shorter hauls than 500 m
because no other alternative is available. On the other hand, there exist a lot of other types of
haulage which may have a tradition of use in a specific area/region. An example is the moving
of soil in donkey panniers on the back of donkeys. These have not been listed here but the
engineer/supervisor should be open-minded and always try to find the cheapest and best way
of hauling possible.
An important thing to remember is that the loading must be matched to the haulage so that
neither loaders nor haulage equipment have to wait unnecessarily.
If machines, animal carts or great numbers of wheelbarrows are to be used, inform the
engineer in charge long in advance so that he can plan accordingly.

Tractors and Trailers

Tractors and trailers can be used effectively together with manual loading at hauling distances
from 500 metres to 8 km. Each tractor should have two or three trailers and while the tractor
hauls one trailer the other(s) is(are) being loaded. The tractor and its trailers are expensive
pieces of equipment and the waiting time (idling) must be minimised. This can only be done by
proper organisation and strict supervision of the work. The organisation and supervision of
tractor-trailer haulage should be done by a specially trained supervisor.

Wheelbarrow Works
It is extremely important that wheelbarrow works are properly organised and supervised.
Before the actual hauling can start, the following preparations have to be made:
- estimate the volume of soil to be transported;
- obtain sufficient wheelbarrows and excavation tools;
- set out the place where the soil has to be dumped (fill); - locate the source of fill material and
prepare the borrow area; - prepare wheelbarrow runs.
The highest productivity is reached when the number of wheelbarrows is bigger than the
number of haulers. When a worker returns with an empty wheelbarrow to the loading place
there should always be a loaded one waiting. The proportion of wheelbarrows per hauler
varies with the hauling distance but 1 ½ - 2 wheelbarrows per hauler is generally sufficient.

38
Each worker should work on only one activity at the time. He either excavates, loads, hauls,
spreads or compacts. Ensure however that the workers work on different activities. For
example, if 200 wheelbarrows are to be filled and hauled by two workers, change hauling and
loading after 100 wheelbarrow loads have been done, Rotation distributes the workload within
the gang and breaks the monotony of a single activity. The wheelbarrow runs are tracks or
planks over which the wheelbarrows are pushed. They are necessary to avoid wheelbarrows
getting stuck in loose soil and help to get the site properly organised. The runs can be built
either by levelling and compacting an earth path or by placing planks as runners. There must
be different paths for going to and from the dumping site to avoid confusion and workers
waiting for each other. The paths should form a circuit.
The unloading (dumping) and spreading of the soil should always start at the point furthest
away from the loading place. Dumping and spreading should be done in two separated halves
of the road in order to minimise the interference between the haulers and
spreaders/compactors (figure 10).

Fig. 10.
Loading
When loading, the loading height should be the minimum possible. This is of course most
important when loading trailers, which often have loading heights of 1 ½ m or more. The
loading height can be reduced by making loading bays for the trailers (figure 11) and placing
the trailers in the lowest spot of the loading area.

Fig. 11. - Step 1.

39
 Fig. 11. - Step 2.
It is better not to open the tailgate in order to simplify the loading. The capacity of the trailer
will be decreased and the soil will have to be moved again to the front of the trailer. The trailer
should be loaded up to the top of the trailer sides (struck capacity). Ensure that enough space is
available for loading; on flat ground 1 ½ -2m between the trailer and the loader is required to
load a trailer (with a loading height of 1.3-1.5 m).
Shovels are usually the most efficient tool to use when loading soil and gravel. When gravel or
stone is loaded, a loading pan or two-man stretcher can also be effective.
The loading pan is a tray which, when on the ground, can easily be filled with a hoe.
It is then placed on the shoulder or head, carried over a short distance, and emptied. Loading
pans can be particularly effective for the loading of medium-coarse sized material into trailers
or lorries. The stretcher (a thin metal plate with four handles) can be useful to transport rock
in a quarry.

Unloading
How the material is unloaded varies with the mode of haulage. Wheelbarrow loads are
dumped closely together in rows, beginning at the far end of the fill.
When trailers or Lorries are used the load can be partially spread if the vehicle moves forward
while the load is dumped (note that there are tractor-trailer combinations which have
hydraulic systems which do not permit this). Trailers with fixed bodies, i.e. non-tipping, have
to be unloaded with shovels, over the sides or at the back. Some trailers have "drop sides", sides
which can be opened for the unloading.

Fig. 12.
40
Fill (spreading, compaction, erosion protection)
To "fill" is to place soil/stones at specific places along the road in order to reach the required
road level.
There are several types of fills:
- crossfill where the soil needs to be excavated on the higher side of the road and shovelled
across to the lower side of the road (side sloping terrain);
- embankment fill, either in flat areas where an elevated embankment has to be built up or in a
valley to reduce the gradient of the road between two hills.
Cross fills must be secured against sliding. This protection can be in the form of notches or
benches made in the natural ground (figure 4). If the side slope exceeds 1:2 the risk for land
slides is so big that the whole road needs to be cut into the hillside (M-7, figure 37).
Embankment fills in flat terrain can sometimes be made from soil immediately next to the fill
area (figure 8), however, often the soil has to be transported with wheelbarrows from a
suitably placed borrow area.

Spreading
The dumped soil is spread with heavy rakes or hoes to an even layer which then is compacted.
This is repeated layer by layer until the final height is reached. The layers should not be thicker
than 15 cm after spreading, since otherwise compaction becomes very difficult (unless heavy
rollers are used).
The spreading should partly be done when dumping by moving the vehicle while the soil is
dumped. In order to do so effectively the fill has to be well organised and the haulers must
know where to dump their loads. The area over which the load has to be dumped should
therefore be clearly marked with pegs. For example, to reach a thickness of 15 cm with a load
of 3m3 an area of 3:0.15 = 20m2 should be set out.
Clods of soil should be broken (big sledge-type hammers of wood are easy to make and more
effective than the back of a digging hoe).

Compaction
A well compacted road can stand erosion and traffic better than a loose embankment.
Compaction decreases the volume of the soil by causing the soil particles to come closer to each
other, in other words decreasing the space between the particles. This can be done
mechanically by vibrating or non-vibrating rollers of different weights, but other methods

41
which are quite effective for low traffic roads are natural consolidation, traffic compaction and
hand-ramming.
Natural Consolidation means that the fill is left undisturbed until the soil, by its own weight,
rainfall and passing pedestrian and animal traffic, has consolidated (become compact) enough
to carry the traffic load. This method is normally used only on very low fills (such as the crown
on the road which is formed by the soil from the ditches) and is most effective if the fill initially
is very moist and allowed to dry out. This can however take considerable time, up to six
months. If vehicles are allowed on the road during that period reshaping will be necessary
before the surfacing layer is placed.
Traffic Compaction can be effective if the traffic can be directed to drive in different tracks
during the initial stage. This is often only possible with project transport vehicles such as
lorries, U-wheel drive jeeps or tractor-trailers.
Hand-Ramming is a form of compaction where a weight, the rammer, is lifted by hand and
dropped repeatedly. Hand-ramming is mostly done around culverts and on high fills. The
layers should be less than 15 cm thick if the ramming should be most effective.
The design of the rammer is very important, it must be comfortable to handle and have the
correct diameter in correspondence to the weight. With a diameter of 10 cm, the weight
should be 7-8 kg (see module M-6).
Other forms of compaction which can be employed are dead weight, human or animal drawn
rollers usually made of metal (oil drums) and filled with sand or water.
For higher fills small pedestrian vibrating plate or drum rollers can be effective. Ensure that
layers of filling are not thicker than 15 cm.
For compaction the soil should be rather moist. Watering can be done by sprinklers on water
trailers, water tankers or even sprinkling by hand from water cans. The watering can be
minimised if the soil is hauled/thrown straight from the excavation to the fill and not allowed
to dry out.
Too much water should be avoided, muddy soil is very difficult to compact.
Protection against erosion
Newly formed embankment slopes can be damaged easily (by run-off surface water, cattle,
etc.). It is therefore advisable to protect the slopes as soon as they have been formed.
The protection can be of different types, the most common being planting grass or other types
of deep rooting vegetation. A more expensive but fast and very effective method is to use
stones/logs for protection.

42
Grass
Grass can provide very effective protection against erosion if the right method of planting and
the right type of grass is used.
The planting can be done in three different ways:
(a) by planting grass runners;
(b) by covering the whole area with turfs; (c) by sowing grass.
If grass seed is available the last method is the easiest, but since this is rarely the case, only the
first two methods are described here.

(a) Planting grass runners

The grass to be used should be of a strong, fast growing and spreading variety with a deep root
system. Grass which has been removed by the grubbing gang can often be used if it is dug out
properly and kept moist. It should be protected from direct sun.
The runners are cut in pieces of approximately 20 cm in length and planted in rows in 10 cm
deep holes with a distance of not more than 30 cm. To get the best results, the rows should be
skewed so that a zigzag pattern is obtained. The soil should be compacted around the runner
by hand.
The newly planted grass should be protected from cattle by a layer of thorny bushes, twigs,
branches etc. and be watered if necessary until it has taken root.
It is useful to have a 30 cm long stick for measuring the distance between the plants and to
make the holes.
This method can be used for large slope surfaces but will not provide instant protection. It can
take several weeks before an effective cover is obtained. The planting itself is fairly fast, one
man can plant some 200 m2 per day (with a plant distance of 30 cm).
(b) Turfing
Placing whole turfs gives an immediate and more effective protection to slopes than runners
but is much more time consuming to carry out. Therefore it has normally to be limited to
slopes which are very prone to erosion.
As with runners, the turfs can often be cut as part of the grubbing activity. To be easy to
handle, the turfs should be around 20 × 20 cm. Care must be taken when cutting the turfs so
that the roots are not cut off, and the turfs have to be kept damp and protected against the sun.
Before placing the turfs, the soil should be watered if it is dry. It is important to cover the
whole slope and to make sure that the newly planted turfing is not undercut by heavy rain.

43
"Aprons". Where erosion is expected to be particularly severe, e.g. at bridge abutments or on an
embankment near flooding rivers, it may be necessary to provide heavier protection than grass
coverage. Such protection can be made of a stone "apron" or in the form of gabions (which are
big rectangular boxes made of mesh wire and filled with stones). The stones for gabions should
be as big and rough as possible to grip each other so that the gabion is stable. When laying an
apron of stones, the outer layer should be made of big and rough stones which cannot be
moved by run-off water. The smallest stones should be used for the layer closest to the
embankment. On steep slopes it can be necessary to place mesh wire over the stone apron to
hold the stones in place.

44