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Previous year questions for literary

criticism -l fifth semester BHU
Notes created by Abhay Kumar Patel

2022-23
Long answers type questions 500 words
1. Elucidate Aristotle’s concept of the ideal tragic Hero.

The ‘term’ hero is derived from a Greek word ‘heros’ that means a person
who faces adversity or demonstrates courage in the face of danger.
However, sometimes he faces downfall as well. When a hero confronts
downfall, he is recognized` as a tragic hero or protagonist. Aristotle says,
the tragic hero has some frailties or errors in judgement as a result of
which he moves from happiness to misery, and ultimately dies, but he is
neither villainous nor virtuous.

Aristotle’s concept of the ideal tragic hero is based on his theory of

tragedy, which he expounded in his work Poetics. According to Aristotle,
tragedy is an imitation of a serious and complete action that evokes pity
and fear in the audience. The aim of tragedy is to produce a catharsis, or
a purgation, of these emotions, and to impart a sense of moral and
aesthetic pleasure.

The tragic hero is the main agent of the tragic action, and the one who
undergoes a change of fortune from happiness to misery. Aristotle
defines the characteristics of the ideal tragic hero as follows:

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- The tragic hero should be a person of noble or high status, such as a

king, a prince, or a general. This is because the fall of such a person is
more shocking and pitiful than that of a commoner.

- The tragic hero should not be entirely good or entirely bad, but a
mixture of both. He should have some flaw or error in judgment
(hamartia) that leads to his downfall. This flaw could be a moral
weakness, such as pride, ambition, or jealousy, or a lack of knowledge,
such as ignorance, error, or misconception. The flaw should not be so
great that it makes the hero utterly depraved or hateful, nor so small that
it makes him insignificant or undeserving of pity.

- The tragic hero should suffer more than he deserves, and his misfortune
should be caused by his own actions, not by external factors or fate. The
hero should be responsible for his own downfall, but not intentionally or
knowingly. He should act out of ignorance or error, not out of wickedness
or malice. The hero should also recognize his error and its consequences,
and feel remorse and regret for his actions. This recognition
(anagnorisis) should be accompanied by a reversal (peripeteia) of his
situation, from good to bad, or vice versa.

- The tragic hero should arouse pity and fear in the audience, and make
them identify with his situation and emotions. Pity is felt for the hero’s
undeserved suffering and misfortune, and fear is felt for the possibility of
a similar fate befalling oneself or others. The audience should also feel a
sense of relief and satisfaction at the end of the tragedy, when the hero’s
fate is resolved and the moral order is restored.

The following is an example of an essay that elucidates Aristotle’s

concept of the ideal tragic hero, using Oedipus as an illustration. The
essay is written in a code block to indicate that it is a creative content
generated by me.

Aristotle’s Concept of the Ideal Tragic Hero: Oedipus as an Example

Tragedy is one of the oldest and most influential forms of literature, and
Aristotle’s Poetics is one of the earliest and most authoritative works on

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the theory and criticism of tragedy. In Poetics, Aristotle defines tragedy

as an imitation of a serious and complete action that evokes pity and fear
in the audience, and aims to produce a catharsis, or a purgation, of these
emotions. Aristotle also outlines the characteristics of the ideal tragic
hero, who is the main agent of the tragic action, and the one who
undergoes a change of fortune from happiness to misery. In this essay, I
will elucidate Aristotle’s concept of the ideal tragic hero, using Oedipus,
the protagonist of Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, as an example.

Oedipus is a person of noble or high status, as he is the king of Thebes,

and the son of Laius, the former king, and Jocasta, the queen. He is also a
renowned and respected ruler, who saved Thebes from the Sphinx, and is
regarded as a wise and benevolent leader by his people. His high status
makes his fall more shocking and pitiful than that of a commoner, as he
loses not only his power and dignity, but also his family and identity.

Oedipus is not entirely good or entirely bad, but a mixture of both. He

has some flaws or errors in judgment that lead to his downfall. His main
flaw is his excessive pride, or hubris, which makes him confident in his
own abilities and ignorant of his true origins. He also has a rash and
impulsive temper, which makes him act without thinking or consulting
others. He is also curious and determined to find the truth, even if it is
painful and destructive. These flaws cause him to kill his father, marry
his mother, and bring a plague upon his city, without knowing or
intending to do so.

Oedipus suffers more than he deserves, and his misfortune is caused by

his own actions, not by external factors or fate. Although he is destined
by the oracle to kill his father and marry his mother, he is not aware of
this prophecy, nor of his true parentage. He tries to avoid his fate by
leaving his adoptive parents in Corinth, and by seeking the truth about
the plague in Thebes, but he unknowingly fulfills it by his own actions.
He is also responsible for his own downfall, as he insists on finding and

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punishing the murderer of Laius, who turns out to be himself. He also

recognizes his error and its consequences, and feels remorse and regret
for his actions. He realizes that he is the cause of the plague, and that he
has committed incest and parricide, when the messenger from Corinth
and the shepherd from Thebes reveal his true origins. He then blinds
himself and exiles himself from his city, as a self-imposed punishment
and a way of atoning for his sins.

Oedipus arouses pity and fear in the audience, and makes them identify
with his situation and emotions. The audience feels pity for Oedipus, as
he suffers a terrible and undeserved fate, and loses everything that he
holds dear. The audience also feels fear for Oedipus, as they realize that
he is a victim of his own ignorance and error, and that his fate could
befall anyone who is in a similar situation. The audience also feels a
sense of relief and satisfaction at the end of the tragedy, when Oedipus’
fate is resolved and the moral order is restored. The plague is lifted from
Thebes, and Oedipus accepts his destiny and leaves his city, with the
hope of finding some peace and forgiveness.

Oedipus is an example of Aristotle’s concept of the ideal tragic hero, as

he fulfills all the characteristics that Aristotle defines in his Poetics. He is
a person of noble or high status, who has some flaws or errors in
judgment that lead to his downfall. He suffers more than he deserves,
and his misfortune is caused by his own actions, not by external factors
or fate. He also recognizes his error and its consequences, and feels
remorse and regret for his actions. He also arouses pity and fear in the
audience, and makes them identify with his situation and emotions. He is
a tragic hero who exemplifies the spirit and the purpose of tragedy, as he
imitates a serious and complete action that evokes pity and fear in the
audience, and aims to produce a catharsis, or a purgation, of these
emotions.

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2. what according to Longinus is Sublime in literary composition ?

According to Longinus, the sublime in literary composition is the

expression of a great and lofty soul that transcends the ordinary and the
mediocre, and produces a lasting impression of awe and admiration in
the readers. The sublime is not a matter of mere style or technique, but
of the moral and imaginative power of the writer. Longinus identifies
five sources of the sublime: great thoughts, strong emotions, appropriate
figures of speech, noble word choice, and dignified composition. He also
provides examples of sublime and non-sublime passages from various
Greek and Latin authors, such as Homer, Plato, Demosthenes, Cicero, and
others. He argues that the sublime is not only a source of pleasure and
persuasion, but also a way of elevating the mind and the spirit of both
the writer and the reader.

Longinus’ Concept of the Sublime in Literary Composition

The sublime is one of the most important and often-discussed concepts in

philosophical aesthetics, literary theory, and art history. It refers to an
experience of transcendence, awe, and admiration, that is provoked by
certain works of art, literature, or nature. The sublime combines
conflicting emotions: fear and awe, horror and fascination, pleasure and
pain. The sublime also has a moral and spiritual dimension, as it elevates
the mind and the spirit of both the creator and the receiver of the
sublime work.

The first systematic treatise on the sublime in literature is On the

Sublime, a Roman-era Greek work of literary criticism attributed to
Longinus or Pseudo-Longinus. The date and the authorship of the work
are uncertain, but it is generally believed to have been written in the 1st
century CE, as a response to a work by Caecilius of Calacte, a Sicilian
rhetorician. The work consists of 17 chapters, of which 10 are extant, and
analyzes various aspects and sources of the sublime in literature, using
examples from Greek and Latin authors, such as Homer, Plato,
Demosthenes, Cicero, and others.

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Longinus defines the sublime as “excellence in language”, the

“expression of a great spirit” and the power to provoke “ecstasy” in one’s
readers. He argues that the sublime is not a matter of mere style or
technique, but of the moral and imaginative power of the writer, which
pervades his work. He says that the sublime is “the echo of a great soul”
and that the goal of a writer should be to produce a form of ecstasy, or a
state of mind in which the reader is transported beyond himself and his
ordinary surroundings, and feels a sense of wonder and admiration for
the writer and his work.

Longinus identifies five sources of the sublime in literature: great

thoughts, strong emotions, appropriate figures of speech, noble word
choice, and dignified composition. He explains that great thoughts are
the foundation of the sublime, as they reflect the greatness of the
writer’s soul and his vision of the world. He says that strong emotions
are the fuel of the sublime, as they stir up the passions of the writer and
the reader, and create a vivid and lively impression. He says that
appropriate figures of speech are the ornaments of the sublime, as they
enhance the beauty and the force of the expression, and create a variety
of effects, such as amplification, comparison, contrast, hyperbole, irony,
metaphor, paradox, personification, and rhetorical questions. He says
that noble word choice is the color of the sublime, as it selects the most
suitable and elegant words for the subject and the occasion, and creates a
harmony and a rhythm in the language. He says that dignified
composition is the arrangement of the sublime, as it organizes the
thoughts and the words in a coherent and effective way, and creates a
unity and a structure in the work.

Longinus also provides examples of sublime and non-sublime passages

from various authors, and analyzes their strengths and weaknesses. He
praises Homer for his sublime imagination, Plato for his sublime
philosophy, Demosthenes for his sublime eloquence, and Sappho for her
sublime passion. He criticizes Caecilius for his lack of sublimity, and
points out his faults, such as triviality, frigidity, verbosity, and
affectation. He also criticizes some passages from Homer, Plato, and

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Demosthenes, and shows how they could be improved by applying the

principles of the sublime. He also compares and contrasts the styles of
different authors, such as Cicero and Demosthenes, and shows how they
achieve different effects of the sublime.

Longinus’ work on the sublime has had a lasting influence on the history
of literary criticism and aesthetics. It has inspired many writers and
critics, such as Boileau, Addison, Burke, Kant, Schiller, Wordsworth,
Coleridge, Shelley, and others, who have developed and refined the
concept of the sublime in their own works. It has also contributed to the
understanding and appreciation of the sublime in other forms of art, such
as painting, music, and architecture. Longinus’ work on the sublime is a
classic example of literary criticism, as it combines analysis and
evaluation, theory and practice, and criticism and appreciation, and aims
to teach and delight the readers.

3. Bring out Dryden’s view on classical discipline and its violation

in Elizabethan drama.

Dryden’s View on Classical Discipline and its Violation in Elizabethan

Drama

John Dryden (1631-1700) was one of the most influential critics and poets
of the Restoration period, who advocated for the adoption and adaptation
of classical rules and norms in English literature. He was especially
concerned with the art of drama, which he considered to be the highest
form of poetry, and which he practiced and perfected in his own works.
In his critical essays, such as An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668), Of
Dramatick Poesie, an Essay (1684), and The Grounds of Criticism in
Tragedy (1679), he expressed his views on classical discipline and its
violation in Elizabethan drama, and proposed his own standards and
principles for the improvement of English drama.

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Dryden’s view on classical discipline was largely influenced by the

French neo-classical critics, such as Pierre Corneille and Nicolas Boileau,
who followed and interpreted the ancient Greek and Roman authorities,
such as Aristotle, Horace, and Longinus. Dryden admired and respected
the classical rules and models, and believed that they were based on
reason, nature, and common sense. He argued that the classical rules
were not arbitrary or rigid, but flexible and adaptable to the modern
times and circumstances. He also acknowledged that the classical rules
were not perfect or complete, and that they needed to be supplemented
and modified by the genius and judgment of the modern writers.

Dryden’s view on the violation of classical discipline in Elizabethan

drama was mixed and nuanced. On the one hand, he praised and
defended the Elizabethan dramatists, especially Shakespeare, for their
originality, invention, variety, and passion. He recognized that the
Elizabethan drama had achieved a great height of excellence and
popularity, and that it had captured the spirit and the taste of the English
nation. He also admitted that the Elizabethan drama had some
advantages over the classical drama, such as the freedom of plot, the
diversity of characters, the richness of language, and the appeal to the
imagination. On the other hand, he criticized and condemned the
Elizabethan dramatists, especially Ben Jonson, for their irregularity,
extravagance, absurdity, and coarseness. He pointed out that the
Elizabethan drama had violated the classical rules and norms, such as the
unities of time, place, and action, the decorum of characters and genres,
the verisimilitude of events and situations, and the propriety of style and
expression. He argued that the Elizabethan drama had sacrificed the
beauty and the harmony of the whole for the sake of the parts, and that it
had offended the reason and the judgment of the audience.

Dryden’s aim was to reform and refine the English drama, and to bring it
closer to the classical ideal. He proposed his own standards and
principles for the improvement of English drama, such as the following:

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- The plot should be regular, coherent, probable, and interesting. It

should observe the unities of time, place, and action, or at least maintain
a reasonable proportion and connection between them. It should also
avoid unnecessary episodes, subplots, and digressions, and focus on the
main action and the main characters.

- The characters should be consistent, appropriate, and lively. They

should suit the nature and the genre of the drama, and conform to the
rules of decorum and decency. They should also have some complexity
and variety, and avoid being too good or too bad, too simple or too
complex, too common or too extraordinary.

- The style should be elegant, clear, and natural. It should match the
subject and the occasion, and avoid being too plain or too ornate, too low
or too high, too dull or too witty. It should also use rhyme or blank verse,
depending on the nature and the genre of the drama, and avoid prose or
mixed verse.

- The purpose should be to instruct and to delight, and to produce a

catharsis of pity and fear in the audience. It should also appeal to the
reason and the taste of the audience, and avoid being too moralistic or
too sensational, too realistic or too fantastic, too serious or too comic.

Dryden’s view on classical discipline and its violation in Elizabethan

drama was a reflection of his critical and creative genius, and his attempt
to balance the ancient and the modern, the foreign and the native, the
general and the particular, the rule and the exception, the reason and the
imagination, in the art of drama. He was not a blind follower or a harsh
critic of either the classical or the Elizabethan drama, but a judicious and
impartial judge, who appreciated the merits and the demerits of both,
and who sought to improve and enrich the English drama by combining
the best of both.

4. What argument does Coleridge have against Wordsworth

theory of poetic language?

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Coleridge’s Argument against Wordsworth’s Theory of Poetic Language

Wordsworth and Coleridge were both influential poets and critics of the
Romantic period, who collaborated and exchanged ideas on various
aspects of literature. However, they also had some disagreements and
differences, especially on the theory of poetic language. Wordsworth
proposed his theory of poetic language in the Preface to the Lyrical
Ballads (1798, 1800, 1802), where he argued that the language of poetry
should be simple, natural, and expressive of the feelings and thoughts of
the common people. He also claimed that there was no essential
difference between the language of prose and that of poetry, and that the
poet should use the real language of men in low and rustic life. Coleridge,
on the other hand, criticized Wordsworth’s theory of poetic language in
his Biographia Literaria (1817), where he argued that the language of
poetry should be refined, imaginative, and expressive of the thoughts and
feelings of the poet. He also claimed that there was a significant
difference between the language of prose and that of poetry, and that the
poet should use a selection of language really used by men.

Coleridge’s argument against Wordsworth’s theory of poetic language

can be summarized as follows:

- Coleridge objects to Wordsworth’s choice of low and rustic life as the

source and subject of poetry. He points out that not all of Wordsworth’s
characters are rustic, and that their language and sentiments do not
necessarily arise from their abode or occupation. He suggests that the
qualities that Wordsworth admires in his characters, such as simplicity,
sincerity, and passion, are not exclusive to the rural life, but are the
result of two main causes: independence and religious education. He
argues that a man can have these qualities even if he lives in the city,
away from nature, as long as he has a sense of freedom and a solid moral
foundation.

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- Coleridge objects to Wordsworth’s claim that the language of poetry

should be the real language of men in low and rustic life. He points out
that the language of the common people is not uniform, but varies
according to the region, the class, the age, and the occasion. He also
points out that the language of the common people is not always natural,
but often corrupted by slang, jargon, and affectation. He argues that the
language of poetry should not be a mere copy of the language of the
common people, but a selection and modification of it, according to the
rules of grammar, logic, and taste.

- Coleridge objects to Wordsworth’s assertion that there is no essential

difference between the language of prose and that of poetry. He points
out that the language of prose is mainly used for communication,
instruction, and persuasion, while the language of poetry is mainly used
for expression, imagination, and emotion. He also points out that the
language of prose is governed by the laws of reason and common sense,
while the language of poetry is governed by the laws of harmony and
beauty. He argues that the language of poetry should not be a mere
extension of the language of prose, but a transformation and elevation of
it, according to the principles of meter, rhyme, and figure.

Coleridge’s argument against Wordsworth’s theory of poetic language is

a reflection of his own poetic practice and preference. He prefers a more
sophisticated, creative, and musical language, that can convey the
subtlety and complexity of his thoughts and feelings, and that can appeal
to the imagination and the taste of the reader. He does not reject the
simplicity, naturalness, and expressiveness of Wordsworth’s language,
but he modifies and enriches them with his own genius and judgment.

Short answer type questions (200

words)
1. Bring out the features Aristotle’s concept of the complex plot.

Aristotle’s Concept of the Complex Plot

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Aristotle, in his Poetics, defines tragedy as an imitation of a serious and

complete action that evokes pity and fear in the audience, and aims to
produce a catharsis, or a purgation, of these emotions. He also classifies
plot, which he considers to be the soul of tragedy, into two types: simple
and complex. A simple plot is one that represents a change of fortune
without involving a reversal or a recognition, while a complex plot is one
that involves a reversal, a recognition, or both. According to Aristotle, the
best plots are complex, as they are more effective for producing the
tragic pleasure.

A reversal, or peripeteia, is a change of the situation from good to bad, or

vice versa, that is contrary to what is expected. For example, in Oedipus
Rex, the reversal occurs when Oedipus, who tries to avoid the prophecy
of killing his father and marrying his mother, discovers that he has
unknowingly fulfilled it. A recognition, or anagnorisis, is a change from
ignorance to knowledge, that reveals the true identity or the true
situation of a character. For example, in Oedipus Rex, the recognition
occurs when Oedipus realizes that he is the son of Laius and Jocasta, and
that he has committed incest and parricide.

A complex plot, therefore, is one that shows a change of fortune that is

accompanied by a reversal or a recognition, or both. The reversal and the
recognition should arise from the events of the plot, and should be
governed by the principles of probability and necessity. They should also
be connected to each other, and to the change of fortune, in a logical and
coherent way. The complex plot should also have a beginning, a middle,
and an end, and should observe the unities of time, place, and action, or
at least maintain a reasonable proportion and connection between them.

Aristotle’s concept of the complex plot is based on his theory of tragedy,

which aims to imitate a serious and complete action that evokes pity and

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fear in the audience, and produces a catharsis of these emotions. The

complex plot, by involving a reversal and a recognition, creates a more
intense and varied effect of pity and fear, and a more satisfying and
harmonious resolution of the tragic action. The complex plot, therefore,
is the best kind of plot for achieving the purpose and the pleasure of
tragedy.

2. What are the source of sublime?

The Sources of the Sublime

The sublime is a concept that refers to an experience of transcendence,

awe, and admiration, that is provoked by certain works of art, literature,
or nature. The sublime combines conflicting emotions: fear and awe,
horror and fascination, pleasure and pain. The sublime also has a moral
and spiritual dimension, as it elevates the mind and the spirit of both the
creator and the receiver of the sublime work.

The first known study of the sublime is ascribed to Longinus: Peri

Hupsous/Hypsous or On the Sublime. This is thought to have been
written in the 1st century AD though its origin and authorship are
uncertain. In this work, Longinus defines the sublime as “excellence in
language”, the “expression of a great spirit” and the power to provoke
“ecstasy” in one’s readers.

He also identifies five sources of the sublime in literature: great

thoughts, strong emotions, the use of figures, noble word choice, and
dignified composition.

• Great thoughts are the foundation of the sublime, as they reflect

the greatness of the writer’s soul and his vision of the world. They
should be original, profound, and universal, and should transcend
the ordinary and the mediocre.

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• Strong emotions are the fuel of the sublime, as they stir up the
passions of the writer and the reader, and create a vivid and lively
impression. They should be genuine, intense, and appropriate, and
should not be excessive or artificial.
• The use of figures are the ornaments of the sublime, as they
enhance the beauty and the force of the expression, and create a
variety of effects, such as amplification, comparison, contrast,
hyperbole, irony, metaphor, paradox, personification, and
rhetorical questions. They should be natural, fitting, and striking,
and should not be trivial or overused.
• Noble word choice is the color of the sublime, as it selects the most
suitable and elegant words for the subject and the occasion, and
creates a harmony and a rhythm in the language. It should be clear,
precise, and expressive, and should not be obscure, vague, or
vulgar.
• Dignified composition is the arrangement of the sublime, as it
organizes the thoughts and the words in a coherent and effective
way, and creates a unity and a structure in the work. It should be
smooth, balanced, and proportional, and should not be abrupt,
disjointed, or irregular.

The sources of the sublime, according to Longinus, are based on the

principles of reason, nature, and common sense. They are not arbitrary
or rigid, but flexible and adaptable to the modern times and
circumstances. They are also not perfect or complete, and they need to be
supplemented and modified by the genius and judgment of the modern
writers. The sublime, therefore, is not a matter of mere style or
technique, but of the moral and imaginative power of the writer, which
pervades his work and affects his readers.

3. Explain Dryden’s definition on drama.

Dryden’s definition on drama is based on his essay “An Essay of Dramatic

Poesy”, which was written in 1668 as a dialogue among four friends who
debate the merits of ancient and modern writers, as well as the rules and
principles of dramatic poetry. Dryden defines drama as “a just and lively
image of human nature, representing its passions and humours, and the

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changes of fortune to which it is subject, for the delight and instruction

of mankind.”

According to this definition, drama is an art form that imitates human

nature in a realistic and vivid way, showing the emotions, motives, and
actions of the characters, as well as the consequences of their choices.
Drama is also meant to entertain and educate the audience, by arousing
their pity and fear, and by providing moral lessons and insights into
human life.

Dryden’s definition of drama reflects his neo-classical views, which were

influenced by the ancient Greek and Roman critics, especially Aristotle.
Dryden believed that drama should follow the classical unities of time,
place, and action, and that it should adhere to the genres of tragedy and
comedy, without mixing them. He also advocated the use of rhyme and
heroic couplets in drama, as a way of enhancing its beauty and harmony.

However, Dryden also acknowledged the merits of the modern English

drama, which had deviated from the classical rules and had introduced
innovations such as subplots, tragicomedy, and blank verse. Dryden
praised Shakespeare and Jonson as the greatest English dramatists, and
defended their creative freedom and genius. He also recognized the
importance of the audience’s taste and preference, and the need to adapt
to the changing times and circumstances.

Dryden’s definition of drama is thus a balanced and comprehensive one,

that takes into account both the classical and the modern aspects of
dramatic poetry, and that aims to achieve both the artistic and the moral
purposes of drama.

4. Bring out the manner, means, and object of imitation

(mimesis).

The Manner, Means, and Object of Imitation (Mimesis)

Mimesis is a term used in literary criticism and philosophy that means

imitation, representation, or replication of reality. The concept of

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mimesis was first developed by Plato and Aristotle, who saw it as the
basis of all forms of art and poetry. According to them, mimesis involves
three aspects: the manner, the means, and the object of imitation.

The manner of imitation refers to the mode or the method of imitating

reality. Plato and Aristotle distinguished between two modes of
imitation: diegesis and mimesis. Diegesis is the mode of telling or
narrating, where the poet or the narrator speaks in his own voice and
describes the actions and the events. Mimesis is the mode of showing or
dramatizing, where the poet or the narrator speaks through the
characters and presents the actions and the events as if they were
happening. For example, in Homer’s Iliad, the poet uses both diegesis and
mimesis, as he sometimes tells the story in his own voice, and sometimes
shows the story through the speeches and the deeds of the heroes.

The means of imitation refers to the medium or the instrument of

imitating reality. Plato and Aristotle identified three means of imitation:
words, gestures, and sounds. Words are the verbal means of imitation,
where the poet or the narrator uses language to convey the meaning and
the emotion of the imitation. Gestures are the visual means of imitation,
where the poet or the narrator uses bodily movements and expressions to
convey the action and the emotion of the imitation. Sounds are the
auditory means of imitation, where the poet or the narrator uses musical
notes and rhythms to convey the harmony and the emotion of the
imitation. For example, in tragedy, the poet uses words, gestures, and
sounds to imitate the actions and the emotions of the characters.

The object of imitation refers to the subject or the content of imitating

reality. Plato and Aristotle defined the object of imitation as human
action, which is the source and the end of all art and poetry. Human
action is not only the external and physical activity, but also the internal
and mental activity, such as the thoughts, the feelings, the motives, and
the choices of the characters. Human action is also not only the

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individual and personal activity, but also the social and political activity,
such as the relations, the conflicts, and the consequences of the
characters. For example, in epic, the poet imitates the actions and the
emotions of the heroes, who are involved in both personal and social
affairs.

Mimesis, therefore, is the imitation of human action in various manners,

means, and objects, by the poet or the narrator, for the purpose of
producing pleasure and instruction in the audience. Mimesis is the
essence and the aim of all forms of art and poetry, according to Plato and
Aristotle.

5. Discuss Wordsworth’s definition of poetry and poet.

Wordsworth’s Definition of Poetry and Poet

William Wordsworth was one of the leading poets and critics of the
Romantic period, who revolutionized the theory and practice of poetry in
English literature. In his Preface to the Lyrical Ballads (1798, 1800,
1802), he proposed his definition of poetry and poet, which challenged
the prevailing norms and conventions of his time.

Wordsworth defined poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful

feelings.” He believed that poetry should originate from the genuine and
natural emotions of the poet, and that it should be expressed in a simple
and direct language. He rejected the artificial and ornate style of the neo-
classical poets, and advocated the use of the language of the common
people. He also rejected the classical rules and genres of poetry, and
advocated the freedom and originality of the poet. He argued that poetry
should be based on the poet’s personal experience and observation of
nature and human life, and that it should appeal to the imagination and
the sympathy of the reader.

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Wordsworth defined the poet as “a man speaking to men.” He believed

that the poet should be a representative and a teacher of humanity, and
that he should communicate his thoughts and feelings in a clear and
sincere way. He also believed that the poet should be a man of passion
and sensibility, and that he should have a keen insight into the nature
and the condition of mankind. He argued that the poet should have a
creative and visionary power, and that he should be able to transform the
ordinary and the familiar into the extraordinary and the sublime.

Wordsworth’s definition of poetry and poet was a radical and influential

one, that marked a departure from the classical and the neo-classical
traditions, and that paved the way for the Romantic movement.
Wordsworth’s poetry exemplified his definition, as he wrote about his
personal and emotional experiences, his love and admiration for nature,
and his social and moral concerns, in a simple and natural language.
Wordsworth’s definition of poetry and poet is still relevant and inspiring
for the modern poets and readers, as it celebrates the power and the
beauty of poetry as a form of expression and communication.

6. Write a note on Coleridge’s Idea of primary and secondary

imagination?

Coleridge’s Idea of Primary and Secondary Imagination

Coleridge, a prominent poet and critic of the Romantic period, developed

his idea of primary and secondary imagination in his Biographia Literaria
(1817), where he explored the nature and the role of imagination in the
creative process. According to Coleridge, imagination is the faculty that
enables human beings to perceive and create reality, and it has two
forms: primary and secondary.

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The primary imagination is the basic and universal power of the human
mind to perceive and organize sensory experiences. It is the foundation
of all knowledge and creativity, and it acts as a link between the external
world and the internal world. The primary imagination allows
individuals to synthesize and unify sensory impressions into meaningful
mental images or representations. It is responsible for the formation of
the “semblance”, a mental construct that reflects the unified experience
of the external world. The primary imagination is involuntary and
unconscious, and it operates in all human beings.

The secondary imagination is the higher and special power of the human
mind to transform and transcend sensory experiences. It is the source of
artistic and poetic creativity, and it acts as a bridge between the finite
and the infinite. The secondary imagination allows individuals to
recombine and modify sensory impressions into new and imaginative
forms. It is responsible for the creation of the “symbol”, a mental
construct that reveals the deeper and universal meanings of reality. The
secondary imagination is voluntary and conscious, and it operates only in
artists and poets.

Coleridge’s idea of primary and secondary imagination is based on his

philosophy of aesthetics and literary criticism, which aims to explain the
origin and the purpose of poetry. He believes that poetry is the product of
the secondary imagination, which draws on the resources of the primary
imagination, but also transcends its limitations. He argues that poetry is
the expression of the poet’s vision and emotion, which can communicate
and evoke the same in the reader. He also argues that poetry is the
reflection of the divine and the eternal, which can inspire and elevate the
mind and the spirit of both the creator and the receiver.

7. How does Wordsworth justify his views on poetic diction

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Wordsworth’s views on poetic diction are based on his belief that poetry
should be natural, simple, and expressive of the emotions of the poet and
the common people. He rejects the artificial and conventional language of
the neo-classical poets, who used elaborate figures of speech, archaic
words, and abstract terms to create a distance between the poet and the
reader. Wordsworth argues that such a language is not suitable for the
new subjects and themes that he wants to explore in his poetry, such as
the rustic life, the sublime nature, and the inner workings of the human
mind.

Wordsworth justifies his views on poetic diction by appealing to the

following principles:

The language of poetry should be the same as the language of prose, with
some modifications due to the presence of meter. He claims that there is
no essential difference between the language of poetry and the language
of real life, and that the poet should use the words that are most natural
and appropriate to the situation and the character.

The language of poetry should be the language of the common people,

especially the rural dwellers, who are more natural, sincere, and
passionate than the sophisticated urbanites. Wordsworth believes that
the rustic language is more expressive and powerful, as it reflects the
genuine feelings and thoughts of the speakers, without any artificial
embellishment or restraint.

The language of poetry should be simple and plain, without any

unnecessary ornament or decoration. Wordsworth criticizes the use of
poetic devices such as personification, allegory, inversion, and
alliteration, which he considers as signs of affectation and insincerity. He
prefers the use of simple and direct words, which can convey the
meaning and the emotion more effectively and vividly.

The language of poetry should be metaphorical, but only when it arises

naturally from the emotion of the poet or the character. Wordsworth

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distinguishes between the original and the imitative use of metaphors,

and argues that the former is the result of a spontaneous and creative
imagination, while the latter is the product of a mechanical and imitative
habit. He asserts that the true poet uses metaphors only when they are
necessary and appropriate, and not for the sake of decoration or display.

By following these principles, Wordsworth aims to create a poetic

language that is more natural, simple, expressive, and imaginative, and
that can communicate the poet’s vision and emotion to the reader more
effectively and intimately. He believes that such a language can elevate
the common and ordinary subjects of his poetry to the level of the
sublime and the universal, and can inspire the reader to feel and think
along with the poet.

8. out the silent feature of romantic criticism

Romantic criticism is a term that refers to the literary criticism of the

Romantic period, which spanned from the late 18 th century to the early
19th century. Romantic criticism was influenced by the philosophy and
the aesthetics of the Romantic movement, which emphasized the
importance of imagination, emotion, individualism, and nature in art and
literature. Some of the salient features of Romantic criticism are:

Romantic criticism rejected the classical and neo-classical rules and

norms of poetry, such as the unities of time, place, and action, the
decorum of genres and characters, and the use of rhyme and heroic
couplets. Romantic critics advocated the freedom and originality of the
poet, and the use of the language of the common people, especially the
rural dwellers, who were considered more natural and sincere than the
urbanites.

Romantic criticism focused on the expression and the communication of

the poet’s vision and emotion, rather than the instruction or the
persuasion of the reader. Romantic critics believed that poetry should
appeal to the imagination and the sympathy of the reader, and that it
should produce a sense of wonder and transcendence. Romantic critics

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also valued the personal and subjective experience of the poet and the
reader, rather than the objective and universal truth of reality.

Romantic criticism explored the relation between the poet and nature,
and the role of nature in the creative process. Romantic critics saw
nature as a source of inspiration and a teacher of humanity, and as a
reflection of the divine and the eternal. Romantic critics also saw nature
as a symbol of the sublime, the beautiful, and the grotesque, and as a
contrast to the artificial and the corrupt society.

Romantic criticism analyzed the psychological and the moral aspects of

the poet and the poetry. Romantic critics were interested in the origin
and the purpose of poetry, and the nature and the function of
imagination. Romantic critics also examined the moral and the social
implications of poetry, and the influence of poetry on the mind and the
spirit of the poet and the reader.

Some of the prominent Romantic critics were William Wordsworth,

Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, William
Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, and Thomas De Quincey. They contributed to the
development and the appreciation of the Romantic poetry, and also to the
history and the theory of literary criticism.

9. Elucidate Aristotle’s theory of Catharsis

Aristotle’s Theory of Catharsis

Catharsis is a term that Aristotle uses in his Poetics to describe the effect
of tragedy on the audience. The word means “purgation” or
“purification” and it refers to the emotional release that the spectators
experience after watching a tragic drama. Aristotle argues that the
purpose of tragedy is to arouse the emotions of pity and fear in the
audience, and to produce a catharsis of these emotions.

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According to Aristotle, pity and fear are the natural and appropriate
responses to the tragic action, which involves a change of fortune from
good to bad for the protagonist, who is a person of noble or high status,
but who has some flaw or error that leads to his downfall. Pity is felt for
the undeserved suffering and misfortune of the protagonist, and fear is
felt for the possibility of a similar fate befalling oneself or others. These
emotions are aroused by the events of the plot, which should be probable
and necessary, and which should involve a reversal (peripeteia) and a
recognition (anagnorisis) of the true situation or identity of the
protagonist.

The catharsis of pity and fear is the result of the emotional involvement
of the audience with the tragic action, and the subsequent relief and
satisfaction that they feel at the end of the drama, when the tragic fate of
the protagonist is resolved and the moral order is restored. The catharsis
is not only a source of pleasure and persuasion, but also a way of
educating and refining the emotions of the audience, by tempering or
reducing them to a just measure. The catharsis also has a moral and
spiritual dimension, as it helps the audience to understand the
consequences of human actions, and to achieve a sense of balance and
harmony between the human and the divine.

Aristotle’s theory of catharsis is based on his philosophy of aesthetics and

ethics, which aims to explain the nature and the function of poetry,
especially tragedy. He believes that tragedy is the highest form of poetry,
as it imitates a serious and complete action that evokes pity and fear in
the audience, and produces a catharsis of these emotions.

2019-20
1. Bring out the Aristotle’s concept of the ideal tragic hero

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Aristotle’s Concept of the Ideal Tragic Hero

Aristotle, in his Poetics, defines tragedy as an imitation of a serious and

complete action that evokes pity and fear in the audience, and aims to
produce a catharsis, or a purgation, of these emotions. He also classifies
plot, which he considers to be the soul of tragedy, into two types: simple
and complex. A simple plot is one that represents a change of fortune
without involving a reversal or a recognition, while a complex plot is one
that involves a reversal, a recognition, or both. According to Aristotle, the
best plots are complex, as they are more effective for producing the
tragic pleasure.

Aristotle also discusses the character of the protagonist, or the tragic

hero, who is the main agent of the tragic action. He outlines several
characteristics for the ideal tragic hero, which are:

- The tragic hero should be a person of noble or high status, such as a

king, a prince, or a leader. This is because the change of fortune from
good to bad will be more striking and pitiful, and the actions and the
consequences will be more significant and influential.

- The tragic hero should not be entirely good or entirely bad, but a
mixture of both. He should have some virtuous qualities and some moral
flaws, or some errors in judgment or behavior. This is because a
completely good person will not evoke fear, as his downfall will be unjust
and undeserved, and a completely bad person will not evoke pity, as his
downfall will be just and deserved.

- The tragic hero should have a tragic flaw, or a hamartia, which is the
cause of his downfall. The tragic flaw can be a character trait, such as
pride, ambition, or jealousy, or an action, such as a mistake, a crime, or a
miscalculation. The tragic flaw should arise from the nature and the
circumstances of the hero, and not from external forces or accidents.

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- The tragic hero should undergo a change of fortune, or a peripeteia,

which is a reversal of the situation from good to bad, or vice versa, that
is contrary to what is expected. The change of fortune should be the
result of the tragic flaw, and not of chance or fate. The change of fortune
should also be inevitable and necessary, and not arbitrary or avoidable.

- The tragic hero should experience a recognition, or an anagnorisis,

which is a change from ignorance to knowledge, that reveals the true
identity or the true situation of the hero or another character. The
recognition should be connected to the reversal, and should increase the
pity and the fear of the audience. The recognition should also lead to a
resolution, or a catastrophe, which is the final outcome of the tragic
action, usually involving the death or the suffering of the hero or another
character.

Aristotle’s concept of the ideal tragic hero is based on his theory of

tragedy, which aims to imitate a serious and complete action that evokes
pity and fear in the audience, and produces a catharsis of these emotions.
The ideal tragic hero, by having a noble status, a mixed character, a
tragic flaw, a reversal, and a recognition, creates a more intense and
varied effect of pity and fear, and a more satisfying and harmonious
resolution of the tragic action. The ideal tragic hero, therefore, is the best
kind of character for achieving the purpose and the pleasure of tragedy.

2. Write a note on Dryden as liberal classicist.

Dryden as a Liberal Classicist

John Dryden (1631-1700) was the most prominent poet, dramatist, and
critic of the Restoration period, who dominated the literary scene of his
time to such an extent that it came to be known as the Age of Dryden. He
was also the first official Poet Laureate of England, appointed in 1668.
Dryden was a versatile and prolific writer, who produced works in

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various genres and forms, such as satire, tragedy, comedy, epic, ode,
sonnet, translation, and criticism. He was also a great innovator and
adapter, who introduced and popularized new styles and modes of
writing, such as the heroic couplet, the heroic drama, the mock-epic, and
the literary essay.

Dryden’s literary works reflect his adherence to the classical principles

and norms of poetry, which he derived and interpreted from the ancient
Greek and Roman critics, such as Aristotle, Horace, and Longinus, and
the later Italian and French critics, such as Rapin and Boileau. Dryden
believed that poetry should be based on reason, nature, and common
sense, and that it should follow the rules of decorum, unity, harmony,
and proportion. He also believed that poetry should have a moral and a
social purpose, and that it should instruct and delight the audience.

However, Dryden’s classical orientation did not make him a rigid or a

dogmatic critic. He was also a liberal and a flexible critic, who recognized
the limitations and the exceptions of the classical rules, and who adapted
and modified them according to the changing times and circumstances,
and the genius and the judgment of the modern writers. He also
acknowledged the merits and the contributions of the non-classical
writers, such as Shakespeare and Milton, and defended their creative
freedom and originality. He also respected the taste and the preference of
the audience, and tried to cater to their demands and expectations.

Dryden’s liberalism, skepticism, dynamism, and probabilism can be seen

in his various critical works, such as An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668),
Of Dramatick Poesie, an Essay (1684), The Grounds of Criticism in
Tragedy (1679), and the prefaces to his own and others’ works. In these
works, he discusses and evaluates various aspects and issues of poetry,
such as the nature and the function of poetry, the comparison and the
contrast of the ancient and the modern writers, the genres and the forms
of poetry, the style and the language of poetry, and the criticism and the

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appreciation of poetry. He also expresses his own views and opinions on

poetry, and supports them with arguments and examples. He also invites
and anticipates the views and opinions of others, and responds to them
with respect and courtesy.

Dryden’s critical works are characterized by a clear and elegant style, a

logical and coherent structure, a balanced and impartial tone, and a lively
and engaging manner. He uses various devices and techniques, such as
dialogue, debate, analogy, illustration, quotation, and citation, to make
his criticism more interesting and persuasive. He also uses various
figures of speech, such as metaphor, simile, irony, and hyperbole, to
make his criticism more vivid and forceful. He also uses rhyme and
meter, especially the heroic couplet, to make his criticism more
harmonious and musical.

Dryden’s critical works are considered as the first and the finest
examples of English literary criticism, as they combine analysis and
evaluation, theory and practice, and criticism and appreciation. They also
influenced and inspired many later critics and writers, such as Alexander
Pope, Samuel Johnson, William Hazlitt, and T.S. Eliot. Dryden, therefore,
can be rightly called as a liberal classicist, who followed and interpreted
the classical rules and norms of poetry, but also modified and
transcended them with his own genius and judgment.

3. Discuss Coleridge’s view on imagination

Coleridge’s View on Imagination

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) was one of the most influential

poets and critics of the Romantic period, who developed a complex and
original theory of imagination in his Biographia Literaria (1817), a work

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of literary criticism and autobiography. Coleridge’s theory of imagination

was influenced by the philosophy and the aesthetics of the German
idealists, such as Kant, Schelling, and Fichte, as well as by his own poetic
practice and experience. Coleridge distinguished between two types of
imagination: the primary and the secondary, and also introduced a third
term: the fancy.

The primary imagination, according to Coleridge, is the basic and

universal power of the human mind to perceive and organize sensory
experiences. It is the foundation of all knowledge and creativity, and it
acts as a link between the external world and the internal world. The
primary imagination allows individuals to synthesize and unify sensory
impressions into meaningful mental images or representations. It is
responsible for the formation of the “semblance”, a mental construct that
reflects the unified experience of the external world. The primary
imagination is involuntary and unconscious, and it operates in all human
beings.

The secondary imagination, according to Coleridge, is the higher and

special power of the human mind to transform and transcend sensory
experiences. It is the source of artistic and poetic creativity, and it acts as
a bridge between the finite and the infinite. The secondary imagination
allows individuals to recombine and modify sensory impressions into
new and imaginative forms. It is responsible for the creation of the
“symbol”, a mental construct that reveals the deeper and universal
meanings of reality. The secondary imagination is voluntary and
conscious, and it operates only in artists and poets.

The fancy, according to Coleridge, is the lower and mechanical power of

the human mind to reproduce and rearrange sensory experiences. It is
the opposite of the secondary imagination, and it acts as a barrier
between the finite and the infinite. The fancy allows individuals to copy
and manipulate sensory impressions into superficial and arbitrary forms.

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It is responsible for the creation of the “allegory”, a mental construct that

conceals the true and particular meanings of reality. The fancy is also
voluntary and conscious, but it operates in a mechanical and imitative
way.

Coleridge’s theory of imagination is based on his philosophy of aesthetics

and literary criticism, which aims to explain the nature and the function
of poetry, especially his own. He believes that poetry is the product of the
secondary imagination, which draws on the resources of the primary
imagination, but also transcends its limitations. He argues that poetry is
the expression of the poet’s vision and emotion, which can communicate
and evoke the same in the reader. He also argues that poetry is the
reflection of the divine and the eternal, which can inspire and elevate the
mind and the spirit of both the creator and the receiver.

4. Elucidate romantic credentials of William Wordsworth.

William Wordsworth: A Romantic Poet

William Wordsworth (1770-1850) is widely regarded as one of the

greatest and most influential poets of the Romantic period, and one of
the founders of English Romanticism. His poetry is characterized by a
deep love and appreciation of nature, a profound expression of personal
and universal emotions, and a rejection of the artificial and conventional
norms of the neo-classical age. In this essay, I will elucidate the romantic
credentials of William Wordsworth, by examining his poetic themes,
style, and influence.

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One of the main themes of Wordsworth’s poetry is nature, which he saw

as a source of inspiration, education, and consolation. Wordsworth
believed that nature was not only a physical reality, but also a living and
spiritual presence, that could reveal the divine and the eternal truths to
the human mind. He also believed that nature was a teacher and a guide,
that could shape the moral and intellectual development of the
individual, and foster a sense of harmony and sympathy with all living
beings. Wordsworth’s poetry is full of vivid and detailed descriptions of
natural scenes and phenomena, such as mountains, lakes, flowers, birds,
and seasons, which he observed and experienced in his native Lake
District. He also used nature as a symbol and a metaphor, to express his
thoughts and feelings on various subjects, such as childhood, memory,
imagination, freedom, and death.

Another theme of Wordsworth’s poetry is emotion, which he considered

as the essence and the purpose of poetry. Wordsworth defined poetry as
“the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings”[^1^][1], which
originated from the poet’s personal and subjective experience, and which
could communicate and evoke the same in the reader. Wordsworth’s
poetry is marked by a sincere and passionate expression of his own
emotions, such as joy, sorrow, love, fear, and wonder, which he felt in
relation to nature, human life, and the divine. He also explored the
universal and elemental emotions of the common people, especially the
rural dwellers, who lived in close contact with nature, and who suffered
from the social and political changes brought by the Industrial Revolution
and the French Revolution. Wordsworth’s poetry is also notable for its
use of the lyrical ballad, a form of poetry that combined the simplicity
and the directness of the folk songs, with the elegance and the
refinement of the classical poetry.

A third theme of Wordsworth’s poetry is imagination, which he regarded

as the creative and visionary faculty of the human mind. Wordsworth
distinguished between two types of imagination: the primary and the
secondary. The primary imagination was the basic and universal power
of the mind to perceive and organize the sensory impressions into

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coherent and meaningful images. The secondary imagination was the

higher and special power of the mind to transform and transcend the
sensory impressions into new and original forms. Wordsworth believed
that the poet was endowed with a superior secondary imagination, which
enabled him to create poetry that was not a mere imitation of reality, but
a revelation of a higher and deeper reality. Wordsworth’s poetry is a
testimony of his imaginative power, which enabled him to see the
extraordinary in the ordinary, and the sublime in the simple.

Wordsworth’s style of poetry was also a reflection of his romantic

credentials, as he broke away from the traditional and conventional rules
and norms of the neo-classical poetry, and introduced a new and
innovative language and form of poetry. Wordsworth rejected the
artificial and ornate language of the neo-classical poets, and advocated
the use of the language of the common people, especially the rural
dwellers, who spoke in a natural and sincere manner. He also rejected
the classical rules and genres of poetry, such as the unities of time, place,
and action, the decorum of characters and situations, and the use of
rhyme and heroic couplets. He advocated the freedom and originality of
the poet, and the use of blank verse, which was more flexible and
expressive than the rhymed verse. He also experimented with various
forms of poetry, such as the sonnet, the ode, and the epic, and created his
own forms, such as the lyrical ballad, the autobiographical poem, and the
philosophical poem.

Wordsworth’s influence on the romantic movement and the English

poetry was immense and lasting, as he inspired and influenced many
poets and writers of his own and later generations, such as Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, Alfred Tennyson,
Matthew Arnold, and Robert Frost. He also contributed to the
development and the appreciation of the romantic poetry, by writing
various essays and prefaces, such as the Preface to the Lyrical Ballads
(1798, 1800, 1802), which is considered as the manifesto of the romantic
movement. He also received the honor of being appointed as the Poet

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Laureate of England in 1843, and being recognized as one of the greatest

and most influential poets of the English literature.

In conclusion, William Wordsworth was a romantic poet, who expressed

the deepest aspirations and the highest ideals of the romantic movement,
and who revolutionized the theory and the practice of poetry in English
literature. His poetry was characterized by a deep love and appreciation
of nature, a profound expression of personal and universal emotions, and
a rejection of the artificial and conventional norms of the neo-classical
age. His poetry was also marked by a vivid and detailed description of
natural scenes and phenomena, a sincere and passionate expression of
his own emotions, and a creative and visionary power of his imagination.
His poetry was also notable for its use of the language and the form of
the common people, especially the rural dwellers, and its
experimentation with various forms of poetry, such as the lyrical ballad,
the autobiographical poem, and the philosophical poem. His poetry was
also influential and inspiring for many poets and writers of his own and
later generations, and he was recognized as one of the greatest and most
influential poets of the English literature.

Short answer type questions (200 words)

5. Elaborate Longinus Idea of sublimity in literature.

Longinus’ Idea of Sublimity in Literature

Longinus is the name given to the unknown author of On the Sublime, a

work of literary criticism that dates back to the 1st century CE. In this
work, Longinus defines sublimity as a quality of language and expression
that elevates the mind and the spirit of the writer and the reader, and
produces a sense of wonder and admiration. Longinus also identifies the
sources, the effects, and the examples of sublimity in literature.

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According to Longinus, sublimity is not a matter of mere style or

technique, but of the moral and imaginative power of the writer.
Sublimity is the echo of a great soul, that is, the soul that has a lofty and
noble vision of reality, and that can communicate it effectively and
persuasively. Sublimity is also the result of a natural and spontaneous
overflow of emotions, that is, the emotions that are genuine, intense, and
appropriate to the subject and the occasion.

Longinus also distinguishes between the true and the false sublime, and
warns against the vices and the pitfalls that may hinder or harm
sublimity. The true sublime is based on reason, nature, and common
sense, and it follows the rules of decorum, harmony, and proportion. The
false sublime is based on exaggeration, affectation, and bombast, and it
violates the rules of clarity, simplicity, and moderation.

Longinus also enumerates five principal sources of sublimity in

literature, which are: great thoughts, strong emotions, the use of figures,
noble word choice, and dignified composition. Great thoughts are the
foundation of sublimity, as they reflect the greatness of the writer’s soul
and his vision of the world. Strong emotions are the fuel of sublimity, as
they stir up the passions of the writer and the reader, and create a vivid
and lively impression. The use of figures are the ornaments of sublimity,
as they enhance the beauty and the force of the expression, and create a
variety of effects, such as amplification, comparison, contrast, hyperbole,
irony, metaphor, paradox, personification, and rhetorical questions.
Noble word choice is the color of sublimity, as it selects the most suitable
and elegant words for the subject and the occasion, and creates a
harmony and a rhythm in the language. Dignified composition is the
arrangement of sublimity, as it organizes the thoughts and the words in a
coherent and effective way, and creates a unity and a structure in the
work.

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Longinus also discusses the effects and the examples of sublimity in

literature, and shows how sublimity can move and persuade the reader,
and how it can transcend the limitations of time and place. He cites
various examples of sublime passages from the ancient Greek and Roman
writers, such as Homer, Plato, Demosthenes, Cicero, and others, and
analyzes their merits and defects. He also compares and contrasts the
different styles and modes of sublimity, such as the grand, the elegant,
the vehement, and the austere.

Longinus’ idea of sublimity in literature is a classic and influential one,

that has inspired and guided many writers and critics throughout the
history of literature. His work is not only a treatise on aesthetics, but
also a manifesto of humanism, as it celebrates the power and the beauty
of the human mind and the human spirit, and their expression in
literature.

6. How does the true sublime differ from false sublime?

The Difference between the True and the False Sublime

The concept of the sublime is a term that refers to an experience of

transcendence, awe, and admiration, that is provoked by certain works of
art, literature, or nature. The concept of the sublime was first developed
by Longinus, the name given to the unknown author of On the Sublime, a
work of literary criticism that dates back to the 1st century CE. In this
work, Longinus defines sublimity as a quality of language and expression
that elevates the mind and the spirit of the writer and the reader, and
produces a sense of wonder and admiration. Longinus also distinguishes
between the true and the false sublime, and warns against the vices and
the pitfalls that may hinder or harm sublimity.

According to Longinus, the true sublime is based on reason, nature, and

common sense, and it follows the rules of decorum, harmony, and

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proportion. The true sublime is the echo of a great soul, that is, the soul
that has a lofty and noble vision of reality, and that can communicate it
effectively and persuasively. The true sublime is also the result of a
natural and spontaneous overflow of emotions, that is, the emotions that
are genuine, intense, and appropriate to the subject and the occasion.
The true sublime is marked by universality of appeal: it pleases all and
always, and it uplifts the souls of the writer and the reader.

The false sublime, on the other hand, is based on exaggeration,

affectation, and bombast, and it violates the rules of clarity, simplicity,
and moderation. The false sublime is the echo of a weak or a wicked soul,
that is, the soul that has a low or a corrupt vision of reality, and that
tries to deceive or manipulate the reader. The false sublime is also the
result of a forced and artificial inflation of emotions, that is, the
emotions that are fake, excessive, and inappropriate to the subject and
the occasion. The false sublime is marked by particularity of appeal: it
pleases only some and sometimes, and it degrades the souls of the writer
and the reader.

The difference between the true and the false sublime, therefore, is a
difference of quality, not of quantity. It is not a matter of how much or
how little one uses the sources of sublimity, such as great thoughts,
strong emotions, the use of figures, noble word choice, and dignified
composition, but of how well or how poorly one uses them. The true
sublime is the result of a natural and harmonious use of these sources,
while the false sublime is the result of an unnatural and discordant use of
them. The true sublime is the expression of a great and a good soul, while
the false sublime is the expression of a small and a bad soul.

7. Explain Dryden’s definition of dramatic poetry

Dryden’s Definition of Dramatic Poetry

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Dramatic poetry is a term that refers to a genre of poetry that imitates or

represents human actions, passions, and characters in a dramatic form,
such as a play, a dialogue, or a monologue. Dramatic poetry can be
distinguished from other genres of poetry, such as lyric poetry, which
expresses the personal emotions and thoughts of the poet, and epic
poetry, which narrates the deeds and adventures of heroes.

John Dryden (1631-1700) was the most prominent poet, dramatist, and
critic of the Restoration period, who wrote various works of dramatic
poetry, such as heroic plays, comedies, tragedies, and translations. He
also wrote several essays and prefaces on the theory and practice of
dramatic poetry, such as An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668), Of
Dramatick Poesie, an Essay (1684), and The Grounds of Criticism in
Tragedy (1679).

In these works, Dryden defines dramatic poetry as “a just and lively

image of human nature, representing its passions and humours, and the
changes of fortune to which it is subject, for the delight and instruction
of mankind.”[^1^][1] According to this definition, dramatic poetry has
three main aspects: the image, the representation, and the purpose.

The image of human nature refers to the imitation or the reflection of

reality in the language and the expression of the poet. Dryden believes
that the poet should use the words and the figures that are most natural
and appropriate to the subject and the occasion, and that create a
harmony and a rhythm in the language. He also believes that the poet
should use the language of the common people, especially the rural
dwellers, who speak in a simple and sincere manner.

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The representation of human nature refers to the depiction or the

portrayal of the actions, passions, and characters of the people in the plot
and the structure of the work. Dryden believes that the plot should be
probable and necessary, and that it should follow the rules of decorum,
unity, and proportion. He also believes that the plot should involve a
reversal and a recognition, which are the sources of the tragic pleasure.
He also believes that the characters should be mixed, that is, neither
wholly good nor wholly bad, but having some virtues and some flaws.

The purpose of human nature refers to the effect or the impact of the
work on the audience, both in terms of pleasure and instruction. Dryden
believes that the work should appeal to the imagination and the
sympathy of the audience, and that it should produce a sense of wonder
and admiration. He also believes that the work should educate and refine
the emotions and the morals of the audience, and that it should persuade
and move them to action.

Dryden’s definition of dramatic poetry, therefore, is a comprehensive and

coherent one, that covers the various aspects and elements of the genre,
and that reflects his classical and neo-classical views, as well as his own
innovations and adaptations.

8. What argument does Coleridge have against Wordsworth idea of

the theme and language of poetry?

Coleridge and Wordsworth were both influential Romantic poets who

collaborated on the collection of poems Lyrical Ballads in 1798. However,
they had different views on the theme and language of poetry, which they
expressed in their respective works: Wordsworth in his Preface to the
Lyrical Ballads and Coleridge in his Biographia Literaria.

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Wordsworth argued that the theme of poetry should be drawn from the
common life of the rural poor, who were closer to nature and more
innocent than the sophisticated urban dwellers. He also claimed that the
language of poetry should be the real language of men, meaning the
simple and natural expression of the feelings and passions of the
common people. He rejected the artificial and ornate diction of the
previous poets, which he considered as a barrier to the communication of
genuine emotions.

Coleridge, on the other hand, disagreed with Wordsworth on both counts.

He argued that the theme of poetry should not be limited to the common
life, but should also include the imaginative and supernatural elements
that appeal to the human mind. He also asserted that the language of
poetry should not be the same as the language of prose, but should be a
more refined and elevated form of expression that can convey the
complex and sublime thoughts of the poet. He criticized Wordsworth for
using a language that was too plain and dull, and for neglecting the
poetic devices such as rhyme, meter, and figurative language that
enhance the beauty and power of poetry.

In conclusion, Coleridge and Wordsworth had a friendly but critical

debate on the theme and language of poetry, which reflected their
different perspectives and preferences as Romantic poets. Their
arguments can be seen as complementary rather than contradictory, as
they both contributed to the development and diversity of the Romantic
movement in literature.

9. What argument does Dryden give for a case of progress in

literature ?

Dryden argues for the idea of progress in literature in his essay An Essay
of Dramatic Poesy (1668), where he compares the merits of the ancient
and modern writers. He claims that the modern writers have improved

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upon the ancients in several aspects, such as the variety of genres, the
invention of new plots, the refinement of language, and the adaptation to
the audience’s taste. He also defends the use of rhyme and the violation
of the classical unities of time, place, and action in drama, as he believes
they enhance the beauty and verisimilitude of the plays.

Dryden’s argument is based on the premise that literature is not a fixed

and immutable art, but a dynamic and evolving one, that responds to the
changes in the world and the human condition. He writes, “But I see we
have insensibly digressed from the original question, which was not,
whether the Ancients or Moderns were the better poets, but who writ
better plays. And this I think, my Lord, had been but fairly stated, if the
question had been thus put: Whether the Ancients, who writ so well in
other kinds of poetry, have given us any good plays, according to the
genius of the age they lived in, and the laws of the drama they prescribed
to themselves?”¹

Dryden’s essay is an example of his literary criticism, which is

characterized by a rational and comparative approach, a clear and lively
style, and a balance between theory and practice. He is considered one of
the first and most influential critics of English literature, who established
the standards and principles of the neoclassical age. He also influenced
the development of the heroic drama, the satire, and the ode, among
other genres. He was a versatile and prolific writer, who contributed to
the literary scene of his time as a poet, dramatist, and critic. He is often
regarded as the representative figure of the Restoration period, which is
also known as the Age of Dryden. ²³⁴

10. What according to Aristotle a complex plot?

Aristotle’s Concept of the Complex Plot

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Aristotle, in his Poetics, defines tragedy as an imitation of a serious and

complete action that evokes pity and fear in the audience, and aims to
produce a catharsis, or a purgation, of these emotions. He also classifies
plot, which he considers to be the soul of tragedy, into two types: simple
and complex. A simple plot is one that represents a change of fortune
without involving a reversal or a recognition, while a complex plot is one
that involves a reversal, a recognition, or both. According to Aristotle, the
best plots are complex, as they are more effective for producing the
tragic pleasure.

A reversal, or peripeteia, is a change of the situation from good to bad, or

vice versa, that is contrary to what is expected. For example, in Oedipus
Rex, the reversal occurs when Oedipus, who tries to avoid the prophecy
of killing his father and marrying his mother, discovers that he has
unknowingly fulfilled it. A recognition, or anagnorisis, is a change from
ignorance to knowledge, that reveals the true identity or the true
situation of a character. For example, in Oedipus Rex, the recognition
occurs when Oedipus realizes that he is the son of Laius and Jocasta, and
that he has committed incest and parricide.

A complex plot, therefore, is one that shows a change of fortune that is

accompanied by a reversal or a recognition, or both. The reversal and the
recognition should arise from the events of the plot, and should be
governed by the principles of probability and necessity. They should also
be connected to each other, and to the change of fortune, in a logical and
coherent way. The complex plot should also have a beginning, a middle,
and an end, and should observe the unities of time, place, and action, or
at least maintain a reasonable proportion and connection between them.

Aristotle’s concept of the complex plot is based on his theory of tragedy,

which aims to imitate a serious and complete action that evokes pity and
fear in the audience, and produces a catharsis of these emotions. The
complex plot, by involving a reversal and a recognition, creates a more
intense and varied effect of pity and fear, and a more satisfying and
harmonious resolution of the tragic action. The complex plot, therefore,
is the best kind of plot for achieving the purpose and the pleasure of
tragedy

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11. Elucidate Wordsworth’s concept of the causes of poetic creation.

Wordsworth’s concept of the causes of poetic creation is based on his

belief that poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings,
which are recollected in tranquility. He explains this idea in his famous
Preface to the Lyrical Ballads, where he also outlines his other principles
of poetry, such as the choice of common life as the subject, the use of
natural and simple language, and the role of imagination and emotion.

According to Wordsworth, the poet is a person of more than usual

sensibility, who has a greater capacity to feel and observe the natural
world. He experiences various emotions and impressions, which he
stores in his memory. Later, when he is in a calm and reflective mood, he
recalls these feelings and expresses them in poetry. This process of
recollection allows him to filter and refine his emotions, and to connect
them with his thoughts and moral values. Thus, poetry is not a mere copy
of reality, but a creative and original representation of the poet’s inner
state.

Wordsworth also argues that poetry should be accessible and relevant to

all people, not just the educated and refined classes. He chooses to write
about the common life of rural people, who are closer to nature and more
innocent and honest than the urban dwellers. He also rejects the artificial
and ornate language of the previous poets, and adopts a simple and plain
style, which he claims is the real language of men. He believes that
natural and unadorned language can convey the genuine and universal
feelings of the human heart.

However, Wordsworth does not advocate a literal or realistic approach to

poetry. He recognizes the importance of imagination and fancy, which
enable the poet to transform and elevate the ordinary into the

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extraordinary. He also acknowledges the role of emotion, which gives life

and color to poetry. He says that poetry is the breath and finer spirit of
all knowledge, and that it is the impassioned expression which is in the
countenance of all science. He asserts that poetry is not only a source of
pleasure, but also a means of moral and spiritual improvement, both for
the poet and the reader.

12. Bring out the object and manner of imitation .

The object and manner of imitation are two of the three aspects that
distinguish different modes of poetic imitation, according to Aristotle’s
Poetics. The third aspect is the medium of imitation, which is the means
by which the poet imitates, such as language, rhythm, harmony, etc. In
this essay, I will focus on the object and manner of imitation, and explain
how they define the nature and scope of poetry.

The object of imitation is the thing that the poet imitates, or the subject
matter of poetry. Aristotle says that the object of imitation is “men in
action”, meaning that poetry represents human actions, characters,
emotions, and events. However, not all men are the same, and therefore
the poet can imitate different types of men, either better or worse than
they are in reality. This distinction leads to the classification of poetry
into genres, such as tragedy and comedy. Tragedy imitates noble and
virtuous men, who suffer a change of fortune due to some error or flaw.
Comedy imitates base and ridiculous men, who are involved in some
ludicrous or absurd situation. Thus, the object of imitation determines
the moral and emotional tone of poetry, as well as its aim and effect on
the audience.

The manner of imitation is the way that the poet imitates, or the form
and style of poetry. Aristotle says that the manner of imitation can be
either narrative or dramatic, depending on whether the poet speaks in
his own voice or through the characters. Narrative poetry is when the
poet tells the story himself, either as an omniscient narrator or as a
participant in the action. Dramatic poetry is when the poet shows the

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story through the dialogue and actions of the characters, without any
intervention from the poet. Epic poetry is an example of narrative poetry,
while tragedy and comedy are examples of dramatic poetry. Thus, the
manner of imitation determines the perspective and structure of poetry,
as well as its degree of realism and involvement with the audience.

In conclusion, the object and manner of imitation are two important

elements of Aristotle’s theory of poetic imitation, which define the nature
and scope of poetry. The object of imitation is the thing that the poet
imitates, which can be either better or worse than reality, and which
affects the moral and emotional tone of poetry. The manner of imitation
is the way that the poet imitates, which can be either narrative or
dramatic, and which affects the perspective and structure of poetry. By
analyzing these aspects, we can understand the differences and
similarities between various types of poetry, and appreciate their artistic
value and significance.

13. Bring out Aristotle theory of Catharsis.

Aristotle’s theory of catharsis is one of the most influential and

controversial concepts in literary criticism. It refers to the effect of
tragedy on the audience, which Aristotle describes as “the purging of the
emotions of pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish the catharsis of such
emotions” in his Poetics. However, Aristotle does not explain what he
means by catharsis, or how it is achieved by tragedy. Therefore, different
interpretations and applications of this term have emerged over time,
based on various sources and contexts.

One possible interpretation of catharsis is that it is a medical metaphor,

meaning the cleansing or purging of the body from harmful substances or
emotions. This view is supported by Aristotle’s use of catharsis in his
other works, such as Politics and Ethics, where he refers to the healing
effects of music, medicine, and religious rituals on the soul. According to

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this interpretation, tragedy works like a homeopathic treatment, by

arousing pity and fear in the audience, and then expelling them through
the imitation of the tragic hero’s suffering and downfall. This process
relieves the audience from their own excess or latent emotions, and
restores their psychological balance and harmony.

Another possible interpretation of catharsis is that it is a moral

metaphor, meaning the purification or refinement of the soul from
ignorance or vice. This view is supported by Aristotle’s ethical theory,
where he argues that the goal of human life is to achieve happiness,
which depends on the cultivation of virtue and the avoidance of
extremes. According to this interpretation, tragedy works like a moral
education, by showing the audience the consequences of the tragic hero’s
error or flaw, and inspiring them to avoid similar mistakes and improve
their character. This process enlightens the audience about the moral
values and principles of human action, and enhances their rational and
emotional faculties.

A third possible interpretation of catharsis is that it is an aesthetic

metaphor, meaning the clarification or intensification of the artistic
experience and expression. This view is supported by Aristotle’s poetics
theory, where he analyzes the elements and principles of tragedy, such as
plot, character, language, and spectacle1. According to this
interpretation, tragedy works like a creative art, by presenting the
audience with a complex and coherent representation of human life, and
stimulating their imagination and emotion. This process enriches the
audience’s appreciation and enjoyment of the beauty and significance of
tragedy, and reveals the hidden order and harmony of the universe.

In conclusion, Aristotle’s theory of catharsis is a multifaceted and

ambiguous concept, which can be understood in different ways,
depending on the perspective and context. Catharsis can be seen as a
medical, moral, or aesthetic metaphor, which explains the function and

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effect of tragedy on the audience. Catharsis can also be seen as a

combination of these metaphors, which reflects the complexity and
diversity of human nature and culture. Catharsis is thus a key concept
that connects tragedy with philosophy, psychology, ethics, and art.

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