Atoms,Electrons and

Orbitals
Element
 Atoms, Electrons and Orbitals
● Atoms are defined as “the basic building blocks of matter”.
● An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an element.
● Atoms are tiny particles that form the basic building blocks of all matter in the universe, whether solid, liquid, or gas. All living
organisms and nonliving objects found on earth are made of trillions and trillions of atoms. The smaller particles that make up an
atom are known as subatomic particles.
■ The term ‘atom’ was derived from the Greek word
‘atomos’, meaning ‘indivisible’.
■ The ancient Greek and Indian philosophers were the
first to think atom as the basic unit of all matter in
th
the universe. In the early 19 century, scientists
started to understand the atom’s structure with their
inner parts in more detail.
■ In 1926 Erwin Schrodinger proposed the current
model of the atom that we still use today.
■ There are many different atoms, each having its
name, size, mass, and the number of subatomic
particles.
■ They are known as elements. Thus an atom can also
be defined as the simplest structural unit of an
element that retains all its properties.
■ There are 92 natural elements and 118 human-made
 Elements - Atoms
Buliding blocks of elements
Salient features of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
● The matter is composed of minute particles known as atoms.
● Atoms are indivisible particles that can’t be destroyed or created through chemical reactions.
● All atoms of an element have identical chemical properties and mass whereas, atoms of different
elements have different chemical properties and masses.
● Atoms combine in a ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.
● Dalton's atomic theory was the first complete attempt to describe all matter in terms of atoms and
their properties.
● Dalton based his theory on the law of conservation of mass and the law of constant composition.
● The first part of his theory states that all matter is made of atoms, which are indivisible.
● The second part of the theory says all atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
● The third part says compounds are combinations of two or more different types of atoms.
● The fourth part of the theory states that a chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.
● Parts of the theory had to be modified based on the discovery of subatomic particles and isotopes.
 ■ According to Bohr’s Atomic model
electrons revolve around the nucleus in a
specific circular path known as orbit or
called a shell.

■ Shells have stationary energy levels, the

energy of each shell is constant.

■ Each stationary orbit or shell is associated

with a definite amount of energy.

■ The greater the distance of the orbit from

the nucleus, the more shall be the energy
associated with it.

■ These shells are called energy levels. It is

numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, ……. or K, L, M, N, …..
from the nucleus outwards.
■ According to Rutherford’s model, a nucleus is positively
charged and is surrounded by negatively charged electrons. ■ An electron shell may contain only a fixed
■ Bohr modified this model by adding that the electrons travel number of electrons, each shell is
in fixed circular orbits around the nucleus. associated with a particular range of
■ No electron travels between these fixed orbits. Each orbital electron energy, and thus each shell must
or shell has a definite energy. fill completely before electrons can be
● The electrons in Rutherford’s model travelled in simple circular paths (not fixed orbits). An
accelerating electron emits radiation, so the electron must decay and fall into the nucleus.
Rutherford’s model did not address this problem
● It failed to explain the position of the electrons
● It could not talk about the constituents of the nucleus. Rutherford’s model could only tell that the
nucleus was positively charged.
Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model
● The electrons move around the nucleus in definite circular orbits. These orbits are also called ‘shells’
or ‘energy levels.’
● Each orbit is stationary and has a definite energy. These circular orbits or shells with definite energy
are called ‘orbital shells.’
● Bohr labelled these orbits or energy levels by the quantum number ‘n.’
● The first shell, closest to the nucleus, is designated by the alphabet K. The second shell is designated
by L, the third by M, and the fourth by N and so on. The K, L, M, N… can accommodate a maximum of
2, 8, 18, 32… electrons respectively. The lowest energy level is called the ground state
● Electrons do not radiate energy while revolving in these shells of fixed energy. The energy is radiated
or absorbed only when the electrons transit from one energy level to another
When an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it loses some of its energy.
But when an electron moves from a lower energy level to a higher energy level, it gains some energy
 BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM Designation of
The value of ‘n’ shell
1 K
2 L
3 M
4 N
5 O
6 P
7 Q

■ In 1915, Niels Bohr proposed Bohr’s Atomic Model. This model was a modification of Rutherford’s atomic
model. Bohr’s model of an atom is also known as the Rutherford-Bohr Model.

■ According to Rutherford’s model, a nucleus is positively charged and is surrounded by negatively charged
electrons. Bohr modified this model by adding that the electrons travel in fixed circular orbits around the
nucleus. No electron travels between these fixed orbits. Each orbital or shell has a definite energy.
 PROTONS
● Protons are positively charged particles found within a dense
region at the center of the atom called the nucleus.
● They were discovered by Ernest Rutherford
+
in the year 1917 and
are denoted by the symbol p or p .
● Protons consist of even smaller particles called quarks and
gluons.
● Found tightly packed with the nucleus, they make up virtually all
of the mass of an atom along with the neutrons.
Other Fundamental Particles
● Quarks: They are fundamental subatomic particles that make up protons and
neutrons.
● They were independently discovered by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig
in 1964.
● However, their exact position in an atom cannot be measured with accuracy.
● Quarks are of six different types: up, down, top, bottom, charm, and strange.
● A proton contains three quarks (two up quarks and one down quark),
whereas a neutron contains (two down quarks and one up quark).
● Gluons: Also found within protons and neutrons, they act as exchange
particles that help transfer strong force between quarks. John Ellis and his
fellow workers discovered them in 1979.
● Neutrino: They are similar to electrons formed from nuclear reactions.
● Neutrino has no charge but travels at a very high speed, similar to the speed
of light, and can pass through any solid object.
● The tremendous energy of the sun which is obtained by nuclear fusion,
releases trillions of neutrino every second.
 Electrons
● They are negatively charged particles that revolve around the
nucleus in a fixed orbit.
● Unlike protons and neutrons, electrons are fundamental particles
much smaller (almost 1800 times) in size than protons and neutrons.
–
● The standard symbol used for an electron is e or e .
● British physicist J.J. Thomson discovered it in the year 1897.
● Electrons move so fast around the nucleus that their exact location
within an atom cannot be determined with accuracy.
● When the number of negatively charged electrons is equal to the
number of positively charged protons, the atom is neutral in charge.
 NEUTRONS
● They are also found within the nucleus along with the protons in a tightly
packed manner. Neutrons, similar to protons, are made of quarks and gluons.
They were discovered0 by James Chadwick in the year 1932 and are denoted
by the symbol n or n .
● Neutrons are neutral particles with no charge but have a substantial size and
mass similar to a proton.
● Given below is a table showing the charge, mass, and location of the three
sub-atomic particles:

Name of the Symbol Relative Location in

Particle Charge the Atom
+
1. Proton p/p +1 Nucleus
0
2. Neutron n/n 0 Nucleus
–
3. Electron e/e -1 Shell or Orbit
 −10 −10
● An atom’s size is tiny, with a diameter of 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers (1 × 10 to 5 × 10 m).
● Thus they cannot be seen with our naked eye. A layer of an atom is somewhat similar to a sheet of
paper.

■ All atoms except hydrogen contain three basic

subatomic particles: 1) electrons, 2) protons,
and neutrons.

■ Electrons and protons are found at the center

of the atom within a dense region called the
nucleus.

■ In contrast, electrons are found outside the

nucleus in a region called the electron cloud or
electron shell.
What is Atomic Mass?
● It is the mass of an atom in a chemical element.
● It is roughly equivalent to the total neutrons and protons present in the atom. It
is expressed in atomic mass units (denoted by u).
● 1amu is equal to the exactly one-twelfth of the mass of 1 atom of C-12 and the
relative atomic masses of elements is determined with respect to-12 atom.
Elements Atomic Mass (u)
Hydrogen 1
Carbon 12

Atomic masses of Some ElementsNitrogen 14

Oxygen 16
Sodium 23
Magnesium 24
Sulfur 32
Chlorine 35.5
Calcium 40
 Atomic Orbitals
What is an atomic orbital?
Orbitals and orbits
● When a planet moves around the sun, you can plot a definite path for it which is
called an orbit. A simple view of the atom looks similar and you may have pictured
the electrons as orbiting around the nucleus. The truth is different, and electrons in
fact inhabit regions of space known as orbitals.
● Atomic orbitals are mathematical functions that give knowledge into the wave
nature of electrons (or sets of electrons) that exist around the cores of atoms.
● An atomic orbital is a space in which the chance of an electron occurring is at its highest level.
● A subshell is a path taken by electrons as they move around within the shell’s confines.
● Subshells are classified into four categories. The subshells are denoted by the letters s, p, d, and f.
● Quantum numbers, to describe the location of an electron in an associated atom.
● Quantum numbers can be used to describe the trajectory and the movement of
an electron in an atom.
● The quantum numbers of all the electrons in a given atom, when combined, must
comply with the Schrodinger equation.
● Quantum numbers specify the properties of the atomic orbitals and the electrons
in those orbitals.
● An electron in an atom or ion has four quantum numbers to describe its state.
Principal Quantum Number (n)
■ The principal quantum number, signified by n, is the main energy level occupied
by the electron.
■ Energy levels are fixed distances from the nucleus of a given atom.
■ They are described in whole number increments (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...).
■ At location n=1, an electron would be closest to the nucleus, while at n=2 the
electron would be farther, and at n=3 farther yet.
Four quantum numbers can be used to completely describe all the attributes of a
given electron belonging to an atom, these are:
● Principal quantum number, denoted by n.
● Orbital angular momentum quantum number (or azimuthal quantum number),
denoted by l.
● Magnetic quantum number, denoted by ml.
● The electron spin quantum number, denoted by ms.
Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)
● The angular momentum quantum number, signified by l, describes the general shape or region an
electron occupies—its orbital shape.
● The value of l depends on the value of the principal quantum number, n.
● The angular momentum quantum number can have positive values of zero to (n−1). If n=2, l
could be either 0 or 1
● The azimuthal (or orbital angular momentum) quantum number describes the shape of a given
orbital.
● It is denoted by the symbol ‘l’ and its value is equal to the total number of angular nodes in the
orbital.
● A value of the azimuthal quantum number can indicate either an s, p, d, or f subshell which vary in
shape.
● This value depends on (and is capped by) the value of the principal quantum number, i.e. the value
of the azimuthal quantum number ranges between 0 and (n-1).
● For example, if n =3, the azimuthal quantum number can take on the following values – 0,1, and 2.
● When l=0, the resulting subshell is an ‘s’ subshell. Similarly, when l=1 and l=2, the resulting subshells
are ‘p’ and ‘d’ subshells (respectively). Therefore, when n=3, the three possible subshells are 3s, 3p,
and 3d.
Electron Spin Quantum Number
● The electron spin quantum number is independent of the values of n, l, and ml.
● The value of this number gives insight into the direction in which the electron is
spinning, and is denoted by the symbol ms.
● The value of ms offers insight into the direction in which the electron is
spinning. The possible values of the electron spin quantum number are +½ and -½.
● The positive value of ms implies an upward spin on the electron which is also
called ‘spin up’ and is denoted by the symbol .
● If ms has a negative value, the electron in question is said to have a downward
spin, or a ‘spin down’, which is given by the symbol ! .
● The value of the electron spin quantum number determines whether the atom in
question has the ability to produce a magnetic field.
● The value of ms can be generalized to ±½.
● Note that the qualities of each atomic orbital are reliant upon the estimations of
the following quantum numbers:
■ The principal quantum number (noted by the symbol 'n’)
■ The azimuthal quantum number, otherwise called the orbital precise energy
quantum number (signified by the symbol 'l’)
■ The magnetic quantum number (noted by the symbol 'ml')
Aufbau Principle
It states that electrons are filled into atomic
orbitals in the increasing order of orbital
energy level. According to the Aufbau
principle, the available atomic orbitals with
the lowest energy levels are occupied
before those with higher energy levels.
The order in which the energy of orbitals
increases can be determined with the help
of the (n+l) rule, where the sum of the
principal and azimuthal quantum numbers
determines the energy level of the orbital.
● There are four different kinds of orbitals, denoted s, p, d and f each with a
different shape.
● Of the four, s and p orbitals are considered because these orbitals are the most
common in organic and biological chemistry.
● An s-orbital is spherical with the nucleus at its centre, a p-orbitals is dumbbell-
shaped and four of the five d orbitals are cloverleaf shaped.
● The fifth d orbital is shaped like an elongated dumbbell with a doughnut around
its middle.
● The orbitals in an atom are organized into different layers or electron shells.
■ Each p orbital consists of two sections better known as lobes which lie on either side of the plane passing
through the nucleus.
■ The three p orbitals differ in the way the lobes are oriented whereas they are identical in terms of size,
shape, and energy.
■ Similar to s orbitals the size, and energy of p orbitals increase with an increase in the principal quantum
number (4p > 3p > 2p).
 Octet Rule
● The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to have eight electrons in the valence shell.
● When atoms have fewer than eight electrons, they tend to react and form more stable compounds.
● When discussing the octet rule, we do not consider d or f electrons.
● Only the s and p electrons are involved in the octet rule, making it useful for the main group elements
(elements not in the transition metal or inner-transition metal blocks); an octet in these atoms
2 6
corresponds to an electron configurations ending with s p
● .