drones

Article
Design, Construction, and Flight Performance of an Electrically
Operated Fixed-Wing UAV
Ilias Panagiotopoulos 1, *, Lefteris Sakellariou 2 and Antonios Hatziefremidis 1

1 Department of Aerospace Science and Technology, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens,
34400 Athens, Greece; [email protected]
2 Lambda Automata Company, Lauriou Ave. 148A, 19002 Paiania, Greece; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The development of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has attracted much attention in the
global community and aviation industry. As UAVs have the potential to be applied for multiple
missions, the level of research into improving their design and flight performance has also increased.
In this context, the present paper aims to present the design, construction, and flight performance
of an electrically operated fixed-wing UAV. As a first step in the design process, key performance
requirements are defined, such as the thrust required, the stall speed, the minimum drag velocity,
and the minimum power velocity. Wing and associated power loadings are calculated according
to the defined performance requirements. In addition, payload and endurance requirements are
set up in order to determine the wing and tail areas, the total mass, the power requirements, and
the motor size. Aerodynamics and stability designs are also calculated. After the completion of the
design process, the manufacturing of the UAV follows by using appropriate materials. Flight tests
were carried out for the evaluation of the UAV’s flight performance, where the success of the design
was demonstrated.

Keywords: unmanned aerial vehicle; electrically operated; aerodynamic design; stability analysis;
manufacturing; flight tests; flight performance
Citation: Panagiotopoulos, I.;
Sakellariou, L.; Hatziefremidis, A.
Design, Construction, and Flight
Performance of an Electrically 1. Introduction
Operated Fixed-Wing UAV. Drones
The development of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has attracted much attention
2024, 8, 217. https://doi.org/
in the aviation industry for decades. For many years, the UAV market was predomi-
10.3390/drones8060217
nantly driven by military requirements like reconnaissance, search, and rescue [1]. On
Academic Editors: the other hand, the most dominant factors for civilian UAV applications are focused on
Mostafa Hassanalian and the operational costs, safety, and multirole capabilities [2]. Additionally, low-cost UAVs
Abdessattar Abdelkefi have a significant influence on the overall value and specific applications in the aviation
Received: 9 March 2024 industry [3].
Revised: 11 May 2024 The design requirements to evaluate and configure the development of UAVs are of
Accepted: 18 May 2024 utmost importance. In this context, aerodynamic design plays a crucial role in the UAV’s
Published: 24 May 2024 conceptual design, as it strongly influences the UAV’s structure and systems, and therefore,
its construction process. Additionally, a well-defined aerodynamic design enables a UAV
to have a good fight performance, whereas operational costs are reduced and energy
consumption becomes lower. At the beginning of the UAV’s conceptual design, many
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. parameters can be determined [4].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. A wide number of research studies concerning the design and flight testing of small
This article is an open access article scale fixed-wing UAVs exist in the international literature [5,6]. Chung et al. [7] proposed an
distributed under the terms and
aerodynamic performance design analysis for an experimental flying wing UAV, based on
conditions of the Creative Commons
the matching plot, weight estimation approach, and conventional aircraft design, whereas
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
Karageorgiou et al. [8] presented a step-by step analysis of the critical design process for a
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
small-scale fixed-wing UAV, being able to transport blood bags to remote locations.
4.0/).

Drones 2024, 8, 217. https://doi.org/10.3390/drones8060217 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/drones

Drones 2024, 8, 217 2 of 22

Additionally, high-energy-density systems within UAVs, with lower weights and

better performance under the same flight conditions, are a research challenge [9]. Adawy
et al. [10] presented a robust design procedure for the designing, manufacturing, and
testing of an electrically powered UAV for carrying the highest payload possible, whereas
Sarvesh et al. [11] proposed a holistic approach for designing, prototyping, and testing an
electric-powered fixed-wing hybrid VTOL UAV. Moreover, the weight strongly influences
the UAVs energy consumption, and thus, it makes the design of the battery a challenging
process, as it aims to satisfy the UAV’s required range and endurance [12]. In this context,
Traub [13] proposed a synthesized UAV mathematical design model suitable for sizing
and configuration design of small solar-powered and battery-powered electric systems to
enhance the final UAV design characteristics and performance for high-endurance missions.
Moreover, due to the diversity and complexity of UAV systems, their reliability is
becoming a prominent issue demanding up-to-date solutions tailored to the UAV design
requirements and specifications. In this context, Ahmed and Jenihhin [14] proposed a
cross-layer reliability model tailored to UAVs’ onboard intelligence, whereas Song et al. [15]
presented a cascade ensemble learning approach for the multi-level reliability evaluation of
an aeroengine turbine rotor system.
In light of the above information, although there are a wide number of studies con-
cerning the design of electrically operated small-scale, fixed-wing UAVs, and only a few of
them use low-fidelity software and in-house tools. In this context, the main purpose of the
present study lies in the design of an electrically operated fixed-wing UAV, by addressing a
basic traditional design approach and also taking into consideration the characteristics and
constraints of flights for small-size, fixed-wing UAVs. In addition, this paper presents the
construction process and flight performance testing of the above UAV for low-altitude and
straight-level flight.
Therefore, the principal contributions of this work are summarized in the following
points:
• Addresses a basic traditional design approach by also taking into consideration the
characteristics and constraints of flights for small-size, fixed-wing UAVs;
• Uses low-fidelity software and in-house tools to support the design and performance
of the fixed-wing UAV, by also keeping low the required propulsion;
• Addresses low construction costs and advanced flight autonomy focusing on the
fail-safe flight operation of the developed UAV.
In total, the work in this study is divided into three main parts. The first part relies
on a step-by-step presentation of the critical design process including the conceptual
design with the mission and performance requirements, the preliminary design of the
most critical performance specifications, the endurance determination, the take-off distance
determination, and the wing and tail design. The second part presents the fabrication
methods used during manufacturing, whereas the third part presents the ground-testing
and checking if these are valid-testing results upon which the final conclusions are drawn.
In general, the overall design methodology is mainly related to the definition of the
performance requirements for the fixed-wing UAV such as the stall speed, the minimum
drag and minimum power requirements, the thrust requirements, as well as the selection of
the wing/tail airfoils. In more detail, the wing area and power requirements are calculated
based on the UAV’s weight and the appropriate wing and power loadings. Therefore, the
UAVs electric motor specification is defined with regards to the electric power budget. Fur-
thermore, airfoil selections, aerodynamic design, and stability analysis are considered, and
these parameters are associated with the UAV’s wing area. Additionally, the manufacturing
procedure with respect to the fuselage, main wing, left/right wingtips, and tail sections
is reported for the designed UAV, where appropriate materials are used to build the UAV.
Additionally, two flight-performance tests are presented, where the first test observes the
basic flight motion of the UAV with a remote controller, and the second test uses the flight
control system and built-in gyroscope and accelerometer to record the flight parameters of
the developed UAV.
Drones 2024, 8, 217 3 of 22

2. Design Process
This section includes the overall design analysis of a low-speed and low-altitude
fixed-wing UAV.

2.1. Conceptual Design

In practice, most designers often essentially complete a baseline configuration of the
UAV in its first design process. Then, several iterations of the baseline configuration need
to be carried out. The number of iterations depends on the designers’ experience and the
design database.
In addition, as one of the main challenges of the present study is to reduce the produc-
tion costs, while achieving design goals, the optimum and efficient use of the propulsion
system is of utmost importance. By taking into consideration the interaction between
the lift and drag forces, there is a specific flight speed that minimizes the engine power
required for a particular cruise altitude. In general, the aim is to reduce the required engine
power through optimal design, and thus, the overall weight of the UAV can be adjusted
accordingly.
Therefore, the conceptual design process begins with an evaluation of the mission and
performance requirements to be achieved, by considering the regulations set by [16]. The
most critical mission requirements for the developed UAV are presented below:
• Take-off distance limited to 30 m of runway;
• Maximum wing projected area not exceeding 0.70 m2 ;
• Eco-friendly performance with the use of electric power motors;
• Propulsion system, electronic parts and payload had to fit in a transportation box with
dimensions 1100 mm × 100 mm × 175 mm;
• Take-off weight of 6 kg (payload 1 kg plus net weight estimation 5 kg);
• Cruise flight speed had to range between 13 m/s and 16 m/s;
• Cruise height should not exceed 500 m;
• Stall speed should be at about 11.5 m/s;
• Endurance should be at least 1.5 h.
Additionally, by keeping the required propulsion of the UAV for achieving a horizon-
tal straight flight low, the UAV’s flight autonomy increases. Moreover, by selecting the
appropriate wing and tail fin, the stability of the UAV can be maximized, as well as the
overall UAV’s flight performance. In this context, the selection of the wing and tail airfoils
is divided into three main stages:
• Theoretical estimation of the required lift coefficients;
• Analysis of the candidate airfoils, by using a low-fidelity tool, the well-established
XFLR5 software;
• Selection of the most suitable airfoils for the wing and tail.
Finally, all of the above performance requirements should be defined, giving em-
phasis on flight autonomy and low construction costs, while meeting the initial mission
specifications.

2.2. Preliminary Design and Performance Requirements

2.2.1. Stall Speed
The stall speed is a limit to the minimum speed at which a UAV can safely lift off
from the ground. In the classical lift–weight equation, the left and right-hand sides are
the weight W and lift L, respectively. Due to the balance of forces, the wing area S can be
moved to the left side. Given the stall speed vs. and the maximum lift coefficient CLmax ,
the wing loading (W/S) is calculated as

W 1
= ρo Vs2 CLmax (1)
S 2
where S is the wing area and ϱo is the air density at the sea level.
Drones 2024, 8, 217 4 of 22

2.2.2. Minimum Drag and Minimum Power Velocities

The minimum drag and minimum power velocities Vmd and Vmp , respectively, play
a key role in the UAV’s flight performance estimation. For achieving the UAV maximum
flight autonomy, usually an intermediate choice of the above speeds Vmp and Vmd is used,
but at the same time, the minimum drag and the minimum power consumption should be
considered. The only obstacle for the calculation of the above speeds Vmp and Vmd is the
initial specifications of the UAV design, i.e., the interval should be in the range of 13–16 m/s,
as mentioned previously in Section 2.1. Vmd can be expressed with the following formula:
" #0.25
4 W2 1 1
Vmd = · · · (2)
π ·e· AR S ρ2 CD0

where π = 3.14, e is the Oswald coefficient, AR the aspect ratio, ϱ the air density at a specific
flight altitude and CD0 the zero-drag coefficient. Raymer [17] proposes the following
empirical formula for the Oswald coefficient e for straight wings:
 
e = 1.78· 1 − 0.045· AR0.68 − 0.64 (3)

2.2.3. Thrust Required

The calculation of the required thrust in steady flight situations affects the overall
flight autonomy performance of the UAV. In general, during the cruising phase, the four
main forces existing on a UAV are balanced, so thrust T is equal to the total drag D of the
UAV.
Total drag D is a function of the aerodynamic coefficient CD , which is a function of
parasite drag CD0 and induced drag CDi , as follows:

CD = CD0 + CDi (4)

where
CDi = K ·CL 2 (5)
and
1
K= (6)
e·π · AR
Substituting Equations (5) and (6) into Equation (4), the general parabolic polar drag
curve of the UAV can be formulated as follows:

CL 2
CD = CD0 + K ·CL 2 = CD0 + (7)
e·π · AR
With the help of Equation (7), the total drag D of the UAV is given by the following
expression:
1 1  
·ρ·V 2 ·S·CD → D = ·ρ·V 2 ·S· CD0 + K ·CL 2 (8)
2 2
where V is the airspeed of the UAV at a specific flight altitude where the density is ϱ. As
L = W in the cruising phase, the lift force coefficient CL can be obtained as follows:

2 ·W
CL = (9)
ρ ·V 2 · S

In this case, the total drag of the UAV can be calculated as follows:
 2
1 2· K W
D= ·ρ·V 2 ·S·CD0 + · (10)
2 ρ ·V 2 S
 Drones 2024, 8, 217 5 of 22

The first term of Equation (10) indicates that drag D (or thrust T) increases with the
square of the airspeed V. This term is related to the parasite drag of the UAV, which increases
with the increase in the dynamic pressure 1/2ϱV2 . On the other hand, the second term
of Equation (10) represents the induced drag of the UAV, which decreases as the speed V
increases. This term also includes the effect of the CL on the drag D. The higher the speed
V of the UAV is, the lower the value of CL .
In general, by reducing the speed V of the UAV during the cruising phase, CL must be
increased so that the lift L equals the weight W of the UAV. Therefore, with the decrease in
the airspeed V, the second term of Equation (10) increases exponentially. On the other hand,
by increasing the airspeed V, the CL will decrease, so in this way, both terms of Equation
(10) benefit, with the only conclusion being that the increase in the flight speed V and the
choice of a relatively small angle of attack (small CL ) will bring autonomy advantages as
the total drag D will be reduced. In this context, advantages of required thrust are taken,
while at the same time, the UAV can cover a greater distance for a given time period.

2.2.4. Selection of the Wing/Tail Airfoils

The selection of the appropriate airfoils (wing, tail) will be made according to the
maximum autonomy performance of the UAV for the given specifications. For the simplicity
of the whole design process, the choices of the wing/tail airfoils are limited to 4-digit NACA
airfoils [18].
With respect to the main wing airfoil selection of the UAV, one choice could be the
NACA 0006 airfoil, which is a relatively symmetrical thin airfoil with uniform pressure
distribution. This airfoil has a low drag coefficient CD , which makes it more suitable for the
tail section of the UAV. Also, there are airfoils such as the NACA 4424, which is a relatively
thicker airfoil that offers a large lift coefficient CL but at the same time it also gives a large
drag coefficient CD . This characteristic makes it efficient at low-subsonic speeds (due to the
increased CD ) and useful for UAVs that fly at these speeds and need a lot of lift (due to the
2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 23
increased CL ).
After some initial calculations, the wing airfoil that combines all the above character-
istics is the NACA 4412. The aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA 4412 airfoil also
give a wing
case of an asymmetrical airfoil. of 0.49 m2 and
area Furthermore, theatail
stallairfoil
speed of 11.7 m/s. determine
characteristics The exact the
determination of
the aerodynamic
value of the parasite drag CD0. Incoefficients
general, theCthinner
l , C d , and
the C
tail
m of the
airfoil selected
is, the wing
lower airfoil
the value is presented in
of the parasite drag CD0 is, and that means, the value of the minimum drag velocity Vmd is based on the
Figure 1, which were made with the help of the XFLR 5 software tool [19],
greater. basic geometrical characteristics of the UAV.

Figure 1. Determination of the basic aerodynamic coefficients for the wing airfoil NACA 4412.
Figure 1. Determination of the basic aerodynamic coefficients for the wing airfoil NACA 4412.

In this context, after some initial calculations, NACA 0009 is the most appropriate tail
airfoil for the developed UAV. Of course, further analysis on the selected tail airfoil and
its main aerodynamic coefficients Cl, Cd, and Cm, was carried out with the help of XFLR5
software, as presented in Figure 2, based on the basic geometrical characteristics of the
Drones 2024, 8, 217 6 of 22

With regards to the tail airfoil selection of the UAV, a symmetrical airfoil is usually
used, giving the advantage of uniform pressure distribution, and consequently, the same
absolute value of CL for every equal and opposite angle of attack a. Also, in a symmetrical
airfoil, its center of pressure does not change for each angle of attack a as it does in the case
of an asymmetrical airfoil. Furthermore, the tail airfoil characteristics determine the value
of the parasite drag CD0 . In general, the thinner the tail airfoil is, the lower the value of
the parasite drag CD0 is, and that means, the value of the minimum drag velocity Vmd is
greater.
In this context, after some initial calculations, NACA 0009 is the most appropriate tail
airfoil for the developed UAV. Of course, further analysis on the selected tail airfoil and
its main aerodynamic coefficients Cl , Cd , and Cm , was carried out with the help of XFLR5
software, as presented in Figure 2, based on the basic geometrical characteristics of the
developed UAV.

Figure 2. Determination of the basic aerodynamic coefficients for the tail airfoil NACA 0009.

3. Endurance Determination
3.1. Aspect Ratio Calculation
According to Equation (2), all the information such as the selected wing loading,
the cruise flight height (or equivalent the density ϱ), and the wing airfoil aerodynamic
characteristics is known, and the only factors that will change over time is the aspect ratio
AR and the Oswald coefficient e, as it depends on the AR value. Initially, three typical
AR values (8, 10, 12) are chosen. AR selection is examined in terms of the minimum
drag velocity Vmd and minimum power velocity Vmp . In case the mean value of Vmd and
Vmp for the aforementioned AR values (8, 10, 12) is out of the original specifications (see
Section 2.1), the next step will be to set up modifications on the wing loading or the wing
airfoil aerodynamic characteristics.
Taking the first value (AR = 8), it is shown that due to the relatively small wingspan
b, benefits are provided at relatively higher speeds (due to increased Vmd ), compared to
the other AR values (10, 12), but in the end, this value is rejected because at the same time
Vmp increases, the energy consumption consequently increases. On the other hand, by
taking the third value (AR = 12), due to the larger wingspan b, the drag increases and a
lower Vmd is also observed. It can also be noticed that large wingspans are suitable for
conditions of minimum energy consumption, due to the smaller Vmp . Finally, this option is
rejected because the only advantage compared to the second value (AR = 10) is the lower
minimum drag velocity by 0.33 m/s, but at the same time, due to the size of the wing,
Drones 2024, 8, 217 7 of 22

there is a high possibility of creating problems of structural strength, and consequently, the
overall construction will require more weight. Thus, the second value (AR = 10) will be
chosen, as in general it combines the advantages of the other two AR values, due to the fact
that it has the appropriate spread for Vmd conditions and, at the same time, keeps the Vmp
low, offering advantages of autonomy, without any particular risk of creating structural
problems.
Next, as the aspect ratio AR has been chosen by taking the value 10, the wing span b
can be calculated through the following formula:

b2 √
AR = → b = AR·s → b = 2.21 m (11)
s
The next parameter that needs to be clarified is the taper ratio λ, where Ct is the airfoil
chord at the wing tip and Cr the airfoil chord at the wing root:

Ct
λ= (12)
Cr

With λ known, the next step is to find the aforementioned airfoil chords to give a
detailed picture of the main wing. By combining the following two formulas for the mean
aerodynamic chord c:
1 + λ + λ2
 
2
c = · cr · (13)
3 1+λ
b
c= (14)
AR
the final values for c, ct , and cr are obtained:

c = 0.22 m cr = 0.27 m and ct = 0.17 m (15)

3.2. Angle of Attack Calculation

After the calculation of the aspect ratio AR, the next step is to find the most appropriate
angle of attack a that the UAV can fly during the cruise phase. Typical values for the angle
of attack a of small-scale, fixed-wing UAVs are 2◦ to 4◦ . First of all, flight speeds should
be calculated for the aforementioned angles of attack. Secondly, these flight speeds are
examined in terms of the minimum drag velocity Vmd and minimum power velocity Vmp .
Finally, for each angle of attack, the thrust required to achieve the relative cruise flight
speed was found.
According to the calculation results, the first case (α = 2◦ ) is rejected because the flight
speed takes the value of almost 17 m/s, which is outside of the original specifications
(see Section 2.1), whereas at the same moment it does not coincide with any intermediate
value of minimum drag and minimum power velocities. That means that the UAV will fly
outside of the predefined conditions. On the other hand, for the next two cases (α = 3◦ and
α = 4◦ ), the flight speeds are within the original specifications (almost 16 m/s and 15 m/s,
respectively) and also coincide with an intermediate value of Vmd and Vmp .
The above statements clearly show that the appropriate angle of attack for maximizing
the endurance of the UAV, during the cruising phase, is α = 3◦ as it requires almost 0.04 kg
less thrust than the other case (α = 4◦ ), and at the same time, the UAV will fly at about 0.94
m/s faster, thus covering more distance in a given time, using less energy consumption.
This naturally occurs because as CL increases, CD usually increases, and as a lower speed
for the cruise phase is required due to a large CL , the result is to increase the induced drag
CDi .

3.3. Engine Selection

According to the restrictions presented in Section 2.1, the developed UAV requires
a flight time of at least 1.5 h and should be eco-friendly. To achieve these characteristics,
Drones 2024, 8, 217 8 of 22

an electric motor is selected. This choice is enhanced by the fact that, in general, electric
motors have many benefits, like low cost, high thrust-to-weight ratio, satisfactory consump-
tion, ease of installation, simple operation, long lifetime, minimal maintenance, and zero
operational costs [20].
Regarding the number of electric motors to be installed on the UAV, the following
factors should be considered:
• Safety of the flight in the event of a breakdown;
• Achievement of required thrust;
• Complexity;
• Weight.
Next, as a thrust of less than one kilogram is achieved very easily with the use of
a single (suitable) electric motor, the use of a second or more electric motors is deemed
unnecessary. Due to its simplicity, the reliability of an electric motor is quite high, and thus,
there is no need to use a second or more electric motors. Additionally, the use of more than
one electric engine increases the complexity of construction and installation as well as the
weight. Based on the above information, the developed UAV will have one electric motor.
Additionally, the LiPo-type battery is chosen due to lower internal resistance and
higher energy-to-weight ratio, and thus, the developed UAV is safer. For the present study,
the Sunnysky 2820 800 kV electric motor is chosen [21]. This model can collaborate with
various propellers and batteries, but in the case of the developed UAV, where one of the
main design factors is autonomy, the case with the highest efficiency ratio (g/W) is chosen,
i.e., for battery LiPo 3s and 330 × 1650 mm propeller. In accordance with the engine
performance data, the estimated power consumption is approximately 70 W. With an 11.1 V
battery, this translates to 6.3 A/h. Consequently, the developed UAV is estimated to achieve
a 1 h autonomy. To fulfill the initial autonomy target of 1.5 h, a minimum of an 11.1 V 9.5 A
Lipo battery is required, which weighs approximately 0.8 kg.
An additional advantage of the selected motor model is its compatibility with the
battery that possesses the minimum number of cells required for optimal motor operation.
This not only minimizes weight but also reduces costs and overall size. It is noteworthy
that in practical scenarios, it is customary to employ a battery with a capacity at least 30%
larger than the calculated requirement. This precautionary measure accounts for potential
failures and ensures avoidance of critical battery discharge.

4. Take-Off Distance Determination

In general, the take-off performance plays a significant role in the design process of a
fixed-wing UAV. It affects the take-off distance, the take-off speed, the ground it can operate,
its geometry, the complexity of design and construction, as well as the UAV‘s cruising
performance. The preliminary design requirements in Section 2.1 set the take-off distance
at less than 30 m. The take-off distance can be derived by the following expression [16]:
!
1 A − BVTO 2
x = − loge (16)
2B A

where the factors A and B have constant values for a UAV with specific characteristics and
VTO is the take-off velocity. In more detail, factor A depends mainly on the quality of the
runway (friction coefficient µ) and the static thrust T0 of the engine during the take-off
phase, whereas factor B depends on the aerodynamic characteristics of the developed UAV.
Factors A and B can be expressed by the following formulas:
 
T0
A=g −µ (17)
W
 
g 1
B= ρS(CD − µCL ) + a (18)
W 2
Drones 2024, 8, 217 9 of 22

Another important factor in the determination of the take-off phase is the take-off
velocity VTO , which is mainly affected by the take-off angle of attack a. In more detail,
according to Figure 3, the wing’s stall, based on the diagram CL -a, starts from an angle of
attack α ≈ 17◦ . Additionally, from the angle of attack α ≈ 13◦ , the lift coefficient CL remains
the same, but CD increases (diagram CD -a). In short, an angle of attack that can offer a
large CL without a particularly large CD , will have tolerances in case of mishandling and
the take-off speed will always be higher than the stall speed Vs , Equation (1). Eventually,
after extensive analysis in our study, it was found that the developed UAV, without the
Drones 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEWmodification of the initial characteristics (see Section 2.1), could not take off in less 10 than
of 23
30 m, so the addition of flaps was chosen.

Figure 3. Variations in the aerodynamic coefficients for the NACA 4412 wing airfoil; (a) without a
Figure 3. Variations in the aerodynamic coefficients for the NACA 4412 wing airfoil; (a) without a
flap (green lines) and (b) with a plain flap deviated by 25° (orange lines).
flap (green lines) and (b) with a plain flap deviated by 25◦ (orange lines).

5. Tail Design the above process, flaperons are selected for better aerodynamic perfor-
Following
mance,In this section, the analysis
by introducing a simpleof the(plain
flap UAV tail
flap)is due
performed, which
to ease of is aand
design quiteease
important
of con-
and decisive
struction (thusstep, due to itsthe
minimizing effect
totalon the flight behavior
construction anddeveloped
time of the the endurance
UAV),performance
the reduced
of the designed
construction UAV.and
weight, In the
thepresent study, an A-tail
ease of replacement configuration
in case (otherwise
of failure (due known as
to the simplicity
of
an construction
inverted V-tail and installation), for
configuration) while
theat the same UAV
developed time can offer satisfactory
is chosen [23]. This tailresults. In
configu-
the case
ration of plain the
combines flaps, CLmax reaches
characteristics of the value ofand
horizontal 2.4,vertical
while at the
tail same
fins andtime,
at thethe optimal
same time
length
offers theof the flap is advantages:
following about 30% of the airfoil and the optimal angle of deviation is up to
60 ◦ [22].
• Reduced tail drag and reduced yaw side movement in case the electric engine is
placed at the rear of the fuselage;
5. Tail Design
• Easy, cheap, and light construction;
• In thistail–fuselage
Zero section, the interaction.
analysis of the UAV tail is performed, which is a quite important
and decisive step, due to its effect on the flight behavior and the endurance performance of
Once theUAV.
the designed wing In
geometry is determined,
the present the analysis
study, an A-tail starts by(otherwise
configuration randomlyknownselecting
asthe
an
geometric characteristics of the tail, in order to combine both stability and autonomy
inverted V-tail configuration) for the developed UAV is chosen [23]. This tail configuration per-
formance for
combines the the overall UAV.
characteristics ofThe basic geometric
horizontal characteristics
and vertical tail fins andofatthe
thetail section
same timefor the
offers
developed
the following UAV (see Figure 4) are presented below:
advantages:
•• L = 0.67 m;
Reduced tail drag and reduced yaw side movement in case the electric engine is placed
• h =the
at 0.34 m;of the fuselage;
rear
•• a = 0.47
Easy, m; and light construction;
cheap,
•• b = 0.1 m.
Zero tail–fuselage interaction.
Drones 2024, 8, 217 10 of 22

Once the wing geometry is determined, the analysis starts by randomly selecting
the geometric characteristics of the tail, in order to combine both stability and autonomy
performance for the overall UAV. The basic geometric characteristics of the tail section for
the developed UAV (see Figure 4) are presented below:
• L = 0.67 m;
• h = 0.34 m;
Drones2024,
Drones 2024,8,8,x xFOR
FORPEER REVIEW•
PEERREVIEW a = 0.47 m; 1111ofof2323
• b = 0.1 m.

Figure4.4.4.Characteristic
Figure
Figure Characteristicdimensions
Characteristic dimensionsof
dimensions ofthe
of thetail
the tailfor
tail forthe
for thedeveloped
the developedUAV.
developed UAV.
UAV.

At this
Atthis
At stage,
thisstage, the
stage,the appropriate
theappropriate tail
appropriatetail airfoil
tailairfoil must
airfoilmust
mustalsoalso determine
alsodetermine
determinethethe appropriate
theappropriate distance
appropriatedistance
distance
between the
betweenthe
between center
thecenter of gravity
centerofofgravity (C.G.)
gravity(C.G.) and
(C.G.)and the
andthe center
thecenter of pressure
centerofofpressure for
pressurefor the
forthe tail
thetailfin
tailfin(see
fin(see Figure
(seeFigure 5).
Figure
C.G.
5). was
5).C.G.
C.G.wasselected
was selectedininthe
selected rear
inthe
the extreme
rear
rear extreme
extreme position
position
position tototo
increase
increase
increase the
therequired
the requiredV
required VVmd for
mdfor
md
better
forbetter
better
endurance performance. Additionally, the A-tail angle was chosen at about 60 ◦.
endurance performance. Additionally, the A-tail angle was chosen
endurance performance. Additionally, the A-tail angle was chosen at about 60⁰. at about 60⁰.

Figure5.5.5.Critical
Figure
Figure Criticaldistances
Critical distancesbetween
distances betweenthe
between thecenter
the centerofof
center ofgravity
gravity(C.G.)
gravity (C.G.)and
(C.G.) andthe
and thecenter
the centerofof
center ofpressure
pressureinin
pressure inthe
thetail
the tail
tail
fin.
fin.
fin.

Regarding
Regardingthe
Regarding the static
thestatic stability
staticstability of
stabilityof the
ofthe UAV,
theUAV,
UAV,an an important
animportant factor
factorisisisthe
importantfactor the static
thestatic margin
marginssmsm,m,,
staticmargin
which
which is
isgiven
givenby
by the
the following
following formula:
formula:
which is given by the following formula:
𝑁.𝑁.𝑃.𝑃.
N.P. − −𝐶.
−𝐶. 𝐺.𝐺.
C.G.
𝑠 𝑠===
sm 𝑀𝐴𝐶 >000 (19)
(19)
(19)
𝑀𝐴𝐶
MAC
mustalways
smsmmust alwaysbebegreater
greaterthan
thanzero;
zero;that
thatmeans
meansthat
thatthetheneutral
neutralpoint
point(N.P.)
(N.P.)must
mustbebebe-
be-
hind the C.G. In general, the higher the value of s , the greater the static stability
hind the C.G. In general, the higher the value of sm, the greater the static stability of the
m of the
UAV[24].
UAV [24].By
Bysubstituting
substitutingthethecorresponding
correspondingvalues,
values,asasmentioned
mentionedpreviously,
previously,smsmreaches
reaches
outthe
out thevalue
valueofof10%.
10%.
Furtherstability
Further stabilityanalysis
analysisfollows,
follows,based
basedononthe
theXFLR
XFLR5 5software
softwaretool.
tool.The
Thedynamic
dynamic
Drones 2024, 8, 217 11 of 22

sm must always be greater than zero; that means that the neutral point (N.P.) must be
behind the C.G. In general, the higher the value of sm , the greater the static stability of the
UAV [24]. By substituting the corresponding values, as mentioned previously, sm reaches
out the value of 10%.
Further stability analysis follows, based on the XFLR 5 software tool. The dynamic
stability of the wing–tail system was confirmed in both the lateral (see Figure 6) and
longitudinal (see Figure 7) axes.

Figure 6. Dynamic stability on the lateral axis of the designed UAV.

Figure 7. Dynamic stability on the longitudinal axis of the designed UAV.

Based on the aforementioned geometric data of the wing–tail system, the required
thrust can be calculated in order to have a clearer picture of energy consumption. This can
be carried out by adding the results for the three drags (wing, elevator section of the tail,
rudder section of the tail), which provide a total thrust of almost 0.6 kg.
Finally, as the above data are known, further analysis can be carried out for the static
tests of the electric motor. The results showed that for the production of a thrust at about
0.6 kg, the electric motor consumes about 60 W with a battery of 11.1 V, so as a result, it
has in its current consumption 60 W/11.1 V = 5.4 A/h. In this context, in order to achieve
an autonomy of at least 1.5 h, the presence of a Li-Po 11.1 V and 8.1 A battery is needed,
weighing approximately 0.6 kg. Therefore, the total payload is 4.4 kg for the construction
of the developed UAV.

6. Winglets Design
Winglets, in general, are used to improve the efficiency of the wing (or propeller) by
reducing the induced drag due to the pressure difference between the top and bottom of
the wing [25]. Winglets can also improve, in some cases, the handling characteristics of a
UAV, whereas they can also be used as a vertical stabilizer. In general, they can increase the
effectiveness of the AR without significantly increasing the wingspan, while also offering
benefits such as reducing wing load, thus minimizing the structural requirements of the
wing [26]. However, at the same time, winglets may increase the parasite drag and, thus,
the complexity of the UAV’s design and construction.
Drones 2024, 8, 217 12 of 22

In general, the formulation of the developed UAV is based on the blended winglet
type in order to reduce time analysis and construction complexity. Its features selection was
carried out through the XFLR 5 software tool, by taking different values of dihedral angle
(from 40◦ to 90◦ ) and comparing results with the use of the previously selected airfoils
NACA 4412 and NACA 0009 for the wing and tail, respectively. The best performance was
found for the dihedral angle 45◦ , wingspan 0.1 m, 0.07 m offset, +1.25◦ twist angle, and
NACA 0009 airfoil (see Figure 8). The results of the static stability analysis are shown in
Figure 9, where it can be noticed that their addition has affected the static stability of the
lateral axis of the UAV, due to the fact that the angle of attack which offers a zero pitching
moment coefficient takes the value of 2.8◦ .
By adding the winglets into the main wing, the cruising flight speed now takes the
value of 14.64 m/s, which is between the two characteristic flight speeds Vmp = 12.71 m/s
(for minimum power) and Vmd = 16.73 m/s (for minimum drag), whereas the lift-to-drag
ratio takes the value of 25.5. The relative values for the cruising flight speed and the
lift-to-drag ratio, without the consideration of winglets, are 15.86 m/s and 23.9, respectively.
Another feature that is improving, when winglets are added, is the wing loading, which
takes the value of 11.6 kg/m2 . This value is almost 10% smaller than the corresponding
value of 12.3 kg/m2 without the consideration of winglets. This allows less structural
strength of the main wing, and thus, less weight. Finally, it is worth noting that the
Drones 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
winglets’ addition affects the dynamic stability of the UAV in the longitudinal axis,13but of 23
at
legitimate levels.
The analysis when adding winglets into the main wing was completed with the
final
angle,examination
and NACAof theairfoil
0009 UAV’s(see
autonomy performance,
Figure 8). The results based
of the on thestability
static resultinganalysis
geometricare
and
shown aerodynamic
in Figure 9,characteristics.
where it can beBynoticed
following
thatthe same
their analysis
addition hasas the onethe
affected in static
Section 5,
sta-
the
bilityrequired thrustaxis
of the lateral withof the
the addition
UAV, dueoftowinglets (T =the
the fact that 0.56 kg) of
angle is 9% smaller
attack whichthan
offersthea
corresponding value (Tcoefficient
zero pitching moment = 0.61 kg)takes
without
the the winglets.
value of 2.8°.

Figure 8. Winglets into the main wing of the designed UAV.

Figure 8. Winglets into the main wing of the designed UAV.
 Drones 2024, 8, 217 13 of 22
Figure 8. Winglets into the main wing of the designed UAV.

2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23

By adding the winglets into the main wing, the cruising flight speed now takes the
value of 14.64 m/s, which is between the two characteristic flight speeds Vmp = 12.71 m/s
(for minimum power) and Vmd = 16.73 m/s (for minimum drag), whereas the lift-to-drag
ratio takes the value of 25.5. The relative values for the cruising flight speed and the lift-
to-drag ratio, without the consideration of winglets, are 15.86 m/s and 23.9, respectively.
Another feature that is improving, when winglets are added, is the wing loading, which
takes the value of 11.6 kg/m2. This value is almost 10% smaller than the corresponding
value of 12.3 kg/m2 without the consideration of winglets. This allows less structural
strength of the main wing, and thus, less weight. Finally, it is worth noting that the wing-
lets’ addition affects the dynamic stability of the UAV in the longitudinal axis, but at le-
gitimate levels.
The analysis when adding winglets into the main wing was completed with the final
examination of the UAV’s autonomy performance, based on the resulting geometric and
aerodynamic characteristics. By following the same analysis as the one in Section 5, the
required thrust with the addition of winglets (T = 0.56 kg) is 9% smaller than the corre-
Figure 9. Static
sponding valuestability testing
(T = 0.61 kg)when adding
without the the winglets into the main wing of the designed UAV.
winglets.
Figure 9. Static stability testing when adding the winglets into the main wing of the designed UAV.

7. Overall
7. Overall Design AnalysisDesign Analysis
One of the mostOne of the most
important important
factors factors is the design
is the aerodynamic aerodynamic design of the
of the developed UAVdeveloped UAV
parts and the points of contact between them, minimizing the drag, thus increasing theincreasing the
parts and the points of contact between them, minimizing the drag, thus
endurance performance
endurance performance (seeAs
(see Figure 10). Figure 10). As the aerodynamics
the aerodynamics of the UAVofare theimproved
UAV are improved and
confirmed,
and confirmed, various various aerodynamic
aerodynamic simulations
simulations were performed
were performed through
through the SolidWorks CFD
the Solid-
environment (see Figure 11), which ultimately showed that
Works CFD environment (see Figure 11), which ultimately showed that the UAV would the UAV would be cruising
be cruising at a speed of almost 16 m/s, which is much higher than the theory, butititmakes sense to
at a speed of almost 16 m/s, which is much higher than the theory, but
consider
makes sense to thethe
consider additional drag
additional dragof of
anan
entire UAV.
entire UAV.

Figure 10. Developed

FigureUAV as designed
10. Developed in the
UAV SolidWorks
as designed software
in the tool (version
SolidWorks 2018).
software tool (version 2018).

Following the results from the CFD analysis, the fuselage was re-designed to become
longer and narrower and reduce inductive drag and drag friction effects. Additionally,
the nose was re-designed to disperse the flow uniformly along the fuselage, whereas the
“rear part” was re-designed in such a way by minimizing the turbulence flow produc-
tion, having at the same time sufficient space for the installation of the engine. What can
be noticed in Figure 11 is that at t, the “top” of the nose, there is a disturbance due to
fuselage geometry, which changes the airflow velocity, and consequently adds surface
friction and drag.
es 2024, 8, xDrones
FOR PEER
2024, REVIEW
8, 217 15 of 23 14 of 22

2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23

Figure 11. Aerodynamic simulation by using the SolidWorks CFD environment.

Figure 11. Aerodynamic simulation by using the SolidWorks CFD environment.

The next stepFollowing

is the “real”
the design
results phase,
from the i.e.,
CFDhowanalysis,
the UAV thecould be designed
fuselage in real to become
was re-designed
time (see Figure
longer12).and
This processand
narrower needs to take
reduce into consideration
inductive drag and drag ergonomics character-
friction effects. Additionally, the
istics, whichnose
means that any part of the developed UAV should be easily disassembled
was re-designed to disperse the flow uniformly along the fuselage, whereas the “rear
and tied, and easily
part” wasmaintained,
re-designedwhereas
in such aitwaymust by be removable
minimizing thefor transportation
turbulence pur-
flow production, having
poses and has excess space for further upgrades [27].
at the same time sufficient space for the installation of the engine. What can be noticed in
Figure 11simulation
Figure 11. Aerodynamic is that at by
t, the “top”
using of the nose,CFD
the SolidWorks there is a disturbance due to fuselage geometry,
environment.
which changes the airflow velocity, and consequently adds surface friction and drag.
The
The next step is thenext stepdesign
“real” is the phase,
“real” design
i.e., how phase, i.e., how
the UAV couldthe
beUAV couldinbe
designed designed in real
real
time (see Figure 12). This process needs to take into consideration ergonomics character- characteris-
time (see Figure 12). This process needs to take into consideration ergonomics
tics, which
istics, which means means
that any partthatof any
the part of the developed
developed UAV should UAVbe should be easily disassembled and
easily disassembled
and tied, and tied,
easilyand easily maintained,
maintained, whereaswhereas
it mustitbe must be removable
removable for transportation
for transportation pur- purposes and
has excess space for further
poses and has excess space for further upgrades [27]. upgrades [27].

Figure 12. Real-time UAV design.

In addition, special attention is given to the landing system placement, in order to

ensure the optimal stability of the UAV on the ground (see Figure 13). What can be noticed
is that the “overturning” angle, which is a magnitude for evaluating the rollover tendency
of the UAV while moving on the ground in closed turns, is 51.46⁰, less than the angle of
63⁰, which is the upper limit for such purposes. This means that the developed UAV is
stable in case of closed turns when it moves on the ground,
Figure 12. Real-time UAV design.
Figure 12. Real-time UAV design.

In addition, special attention

In addition, is given
special to theislanding
attention given tosystem placement,
the landing systemin placement,
order to in order to
ensure the optimal
ensure the optimal stability of the UAV on the ground (see Figure 13).noticed
stability of the UAV on the ground (see Figure 13). What can be What can be noticed
is that the “overturning” angle, which isangle,
is that the “overturning” a magnitude
which isfor evaluating for
a magnitude theevaluating
rollover tendency
the rollover tendency
of the UAV while moving
of the on themoving
UAV while groundon inthe
closed turns,
ground in is 51.46⁰,
closed less than
turns, the◦ ,angle
is 51.46 of the angle of
less than
63⁰, which is the ◦
63 ,upper
whichlimit
is theforupper
such limit
purposes. Thispurposes.
for such means that Thisthemeans
developed
that theUAV is
developed UAV is
stable in case of closed
stable turnsofwhen
in case closed it turns
moveswhen
on the ground,on the ground.
it moves
Drones 2024, 8, 217 15 of 22

Figure 13. Positioning the landing gear of the developed UAV.

8. Construction Process
The basic criteria in the construction of the developed UAV are the choice of materials.
The selected materials should minimize the weight and maximize the structural strength;
at the same time, they should allow the easy processing and easy production processes [28].
Also, the construction cost and the production process should be kept as low as possible,
satisfying the “cost-effective” term. In order to cover the aforementioned characteristics,
the UAV components were made of fiberglass (to keep costs low compared to carbon fiber),
whereas a 3D printer was used in detachable parts and other parts that are difficult to build
(servo-mechanisms, control surfaces, etc.) in order to minimize the cost and construction
time, while the airfoil ribs are made of plywood.
Following the above process, the construction of the UAV began with the printing of
the molds on the 3D printer (see Figure 14). The fuselage was then made of fiberglass and
Drones 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
PVC foam by using the sandwich method and the individual systems were installed (see
17 of 23
Figure 15).

Figure 14. Making molds for the construction of the developed UAV.
Figure 14. Making molds for the construction of the developed UAV.
Drones 2024, 8, 217 16 of 22

Figure 14. Making molds for the construction of the developed UAV.

Figure15.
Figure 15. Fuselage
Fuselage construction
constructionof
ofthe
thedeveloped
developedUAV.
UAV.

Drones 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW Then, the

Then, the main
main wing
wing was
was built.
built. Two carbons
carbons tubes
tubes were
were used
used for
for main
main spars
spars and
18 and
of 23
airfoil ribs
airfoil ribs from
fromplywood,
plywood,while
whilethe
theskin
skinconsists
consistsof
ofpure
purefiberglass
fiberglass(see
(seeFigure
Figure16).
16).

Figure16.
Figure 16. Main
Main wing
wing construction
constructionof
ofthe
thedeveloped
developedUAV.
UAV.

Thetail
The tailfin
finwas
wasmade
madeentirely
entirelyonon a 3D
a 3D printer,
printer, for reasons
for reasons of ease
of ease of construction.
of construction. That
That means
means that thethat the structural
structural stress itstress it receives
receives is low. Itisislow. It is also
also worth worth
noting thatnoting that each
each surface of
surface
the of the tail
tail consists of consists of two servo-mechanisms
two servo-mechanisms for failsafefor failsafe purpsoses
purpsoses (see Figure(see
17).Figure 17).
The construction process was completed with the painting and assembly of the UAV
(see Figure 18). The empty weight of the UAV is finally less than 5 kg, thus allowing for
3S 13,000 mAh LI-PO battery installation, to reach the value of the initial estimate of 5 kg
empty weight.

Figure 17. Tail construction of the developed UAV.

 Figure 16. Main wing construction of the developed UAV.

The tail fin was made entirely on a 3D printer, for reasons of ease of construction.
Drones 2024, 8, 217 17 each
of 22
That means that the structural stress it receives is low. It is also worth noting that
surface of the tail consists of two servo-mechanisms for failsafe purpsoses (see Figure 17).

Drones 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23

Figure17.
Figure 17.Tail
Tailconstruction
constructionof
ofthe
thedeveloped
developedUAV.
UAV.

The construction process was completed with the painting and assembly of the UAV
(see Figure 18). The empty weight of the UAV is finally less than 5 kg, thus allowing for
3S 13,000 mAh LI-PO battery installation, to reach the value of the initial estimate of 5 kg
empty weight.

Figure18.
Figure 18. General
General fixed-wing
fixed-wing UAV
UAVassembly.
assembly.

9.
9. Ground
Ground and and Flight
Flight Testings
Testings
As
As mentioned previously,the
mentioned previously, theexperimental
experimentalfixed-wing
fixed-wingUAV
UAVconsists
consistsof
ofaa propulsion
propulsion
system,
system,flight control,
flight and
control, andnavigation
navigationsystem,
system,battery pack,
battery main
pack, andand
main secondary structural
secondary struc-
modules, control surface servos, and a Ground Control Station (GCS). The Pixhawk
tural modules, control surface servos, and a Ground Control Station (GCS). The Pixhawk 2.4.6
autopilot was selected for the testings as it represents low-cost autopilot software
2.4.6 autopilot was selected for the testings as it represents low-cost autopilot software[29]. The
Pixhawk 2.4.6 autopilot has an IMU module (gyroscopes and accelerometers),
[29]. The Pixhawk 2.4.6 autopilot has an IMU module (gyroscopes and accelerometers), magnetome-
ter (compass), barometer,
magnetometer GPSbarometer,
(compass), module, power
GPS system,
module,and various
power interfaces.
system, It can handle
and various inter-
all the flight control and navigation requirements. Also, it has a total weight of 15.5 g,
faces. It can handle all the flight control and navigation requirements. Also, it has a total
dimensions of 44 × 84 × 12 mm, and operating temperature range between −40 ◦ C and
weight of 15.5 g, dimensions of 44 × 84 × 12 mm, and operating temperature range be-
85 ◦ C. It can also offer great safety during the UAV flights, as it has a backup system for
tween −40 °C and 85 °C. It can also offer great safety during the UAV flights, as it has a
supporting all the sensors and processors. Additionally, and for failsafe purposes, the UAV
backup system for supporting all the sensors and processors. Additionally, and for fail-
has a secondary Ultimate Battery Elimination Circuit (UBEC) and two GPS modules.
safe purposes, the UAV has a secondary Ultimate Battery Elimination Circuit (UBEC) and
two
9.1. GPS modules.
Ground Testings
The ground testing refers to the tests that are performed on the ground before the
9.1. Ground Testings
flight of a UAV. In our case, the developed UAV was tested for wheel stability and ground
Thequality.
steering groundThese
testing refers
tests gaveto the tests that
information arethe
about performed on the
acceleration ground
of the before
UAV due the
to the
flight of a UAV. In our case, the developed UAV was tested
engine thrust and, in general, the UAV’s behavior on the ground. for wheel stability and ground
steering quality. These tests gave information about the acceleration of the UAV due to
the engine thrust and, in general, the UAV’s behavior on the ground.
Two main ground tests were taken into consideration:
• The first test was carried out in manual mode, that is, without the involvement of the
flight controller, in order to examine the “natural” behavior of the UAV. During the
Drones 2024, 8, 217 18 of 22

Two main ground tests were taken into consideration:

• The first test was carried out in manual mode, that is, without the involvement of the
flight controller, in order to examine the “natural” behavior of the UAV. During the
tests, a slight deviation to the left was observed, which was resolved by trimming
the nose wheel. It was also observed that the wheels during the runway do not
show turbulence or other undesirable features and contribute positively to the smooth
acceleration of the UAV.
• The second test was carried out with the involvement of the flight controller (FBWA
mode). In this case, the waving effects were observed, in which the UAV during
the straight flight showed slight repetitive changes to the left and right of the path.
This phenomenon can have catastrophic effects during the take-off of the UAV. After
several additional tests, this problem was solved by recalculating relative values in
the autopilot software.
Moreover, ground tests were executed with the addition of payload, reaching the final
weight value of 6 kg. During the runway of the UAV, the static stability was confirmed,
the control responses were within desirable limits, the acceleration of the engine was in
desirable frames, and the contribution of the wheels was positive. The only negative point
that was observed is related to the damping system of the nose wheel, which was quite
weak, as it caused continuous pitch up-pitch down motions during the runway in the
ground. This problem was solved by adding one damper to the nose wheel.

9.2. Flight Testings

With respect to the flight testings, manual flights were performed for safety reasons
and data sharing purposes, and then semi-autonomous and autonomous flights were
followed. Before the flight testings, the flight plan was reviewed carefully. When all
flight preparations and inspections were completed and the weather was within acceptable
limitations, the flight testings were performed on 06 January 2021, in Karditsa, Greece. The
UAV had to follow a typical airfield traffic pattern, i.e., a standard path during the take-off
or/and landing phases while maintaining visual contact with the airfield. Such patterns are
used at airfields for air safety. Owing to the use of a consistent flight pattern, UAV pilots
can know from where to expect other air traffic vehicles, thus being able to see and avoid
them. When UAV pilots fly under visual flight rules (VFRs), the airfield traffic pattern is
vital in keeping the UAV in safe flight mode [30].
According to the principal flight test guidelines [31], the first phase of the manual
flight testings starts with the battery connection to the UAV flight controller. The UAV was
left in this state for a while for the purpose of gradual heating of the flight controller, while
at the same time, the last checks were made. Taking a take-off position, the final pre-flight
control surfaces were inspected. This flight took place in normal mode for examining the
“natural flight” of the UAV. Having the UAV already in the take-off position, the thrust stick
moves to the maximum and the UAV starts accelerating. Smooth and desired acceleration
was observed at this stage and the control was excellent. This was followed by a smooth
ascent of the UAV with an angle at about 8◦ . The ascent was completed when the UAV
reached an altitude of about 100 m and then a straight-level flight was followed for about
15 min. During this flight test, it was observed that the static and dynamic stability of the
UAV were excellent, without the need of trimming the control surfaces, and the response
to the stick was excellent. The thrust and response of the engine was also excellent for the
whole flight test, but its operation amounted to 70–75% of the thrust instead of 55% (in
theory). This is normal because the UAV was flying at an altitude of 100 m (due to tests)
instead of 500 m (the air density was higher and therefore the drag force increased) [32,33].
Furthermore, some “extreme” manoeuvres took place, which confirmed the structural
strength of the UAV. In about the middle of the flight, the flight mode switched from
“normal” to “stabilize”. The flight controller greatly improved the flight characteristics
of the UAV, providing additional stability and better control. The only negative was the
abrupt response of the flaperons (due to the relatively large control surface area), which
Drones 2024, 8, 217 19 of 22

was solved by reducing the response time of the corresponding servos. Finally, upon its
return to the ground, the UAV was tested for structural stress without any adverse effects.
On the other hand, in the second phase of the manual flight testings, the flight mode
was changed to RTL (Return-To-Land), allowing UAV to complete a repeated circle over its
starting point, for about 5 min. On its return on the ground, UAV was examined for any
construction failures, without the presence of negative results.
As the UAV successfully passed the above phases of the manual flight testings, the next
step was the semi-autonomous flight testings. Within the frame of the semi-autonomous
flight, the UAV had to take off manually, then continued the flight in “Auto” mode and
completed the flight in manual landing. The main purpose of the semi-autonomous flight
testings was to examine, through the flight controller, the control and the response of the
UAV during the “Auto” mode. The mission was planned through the Mission Planner by
selecting four waypoints in space, which are declared in terms of function (take-off, landing,
speed up and down, servo trim, mode change, execution of an order, etc.) and the flight
Drones 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 23
conditions (altitude, speed, etc.). The process was completed by uploading the mission to
the flight controller. The flight started with the take-off of the UAV in “Stabilize” mode, and
as it reached the height of 100 m, it switched to “Auto” mode. While performing the above
performingitthe
procedure, wasabove procedure,
observed that the it UAV
was observed
successfully thatfollowed
the UAV the successfully followed the
mission waypoints as
the flightwaypoints
mission controller ashadtheexcellent control of
flight controller theexcellent
had UAV. Furthermore,
control of theit UAV.
was observed
Furthermore,that
the
it wasresponse of the
observed thatUAV
the in the roll of
response motion
the UAVwas in
thethedesired one and
roll motion was thethe
deviation
desiredbetween
one and
groundspeed (GPS-based speed) and airspeed was 1–1.5 m/s, thus
the deviation between groundspeed (GPS-based speed) and airspeed was 1–1.5 m/s, thus confirming the airspeed
calibration
confirmingprocess.
the airspeed calibration process.
The
The last
last phase
phase of of flight
flight testings
testings isis the
the fully
fully autonomous
autonomous flight.
flight. Having
Having confirmed
confirmed the the
flight
flight reliability
reliability of
of the
the UAV,
UAV, all all that
that remains
remains forfor the
the realization
realization of of the
the autonomous
autonomous flightflight
is
is the
the design
design of of its
its mission.
mission. The The mission
mission waswas planned
planned through
through the the Mission
Mission Planner
Planner by by
selecting eight waypoints in space. In general, the UAV started
selecting eight waypoints in space. In general, the UAV started with the take-off phase, with the take-off phase,
then
then itit reached
reached the
the selected
selected altitude,
altitude, and
and then
then aa gradual
gradual descent
descent for for the
the landing
landing started
started
(Figure 19). The flight path is like a rectangle, the total distance
(Figure 19). The flight path is like a rectangle, the total distance is about 3 km, is about 3 km, thethe
height is
height
up
is upto 100 m,m,
to 100 andandat the landing
at the landing stage, thethe
stage, glide slope
glide is about
slope 10%.
is about 10%.

Figure 19.
Figure 19. Autonomous
Autonomous flight
flight test
test for
for the
the developed
developed fixed-wing
fixed-wing UAV.
UAV.

Within the
Within the frame
frame of
of the
the fully
fully autonomous
autonomous flight,
flight, the
the UAV
UAV followed
followed the the flight
flight plan
plan
successfully. The
successfully. The performance
performance of of the
the UAV
UAV was
was positive
positive inin all
all cases
cases with
with the
the only
only negative
negative
being the
being the steep
steep landing,
landing, where
where thethe UAVUAV appeared
appeared to to experience
experience stalling
stalling just
just prior
prior to to its
its
touch
touch with
with the
the ground,
ground, causing
causing an an abrupt
abrupt landing.
landing. In In this
this context,
context, numerous
numerous test test flights
flights
and
and multiple
multiple modifications
modifications ofof the
the factors
factors that
that affect
affect the
the autonomous
autonomous landing
landing process
process tooktook
place, allowing the UAV to touch the ground
place, allowing the UAV to touch the ground smoothly. smoothly.

10.
10. Conclusions
Conclusions and
and Future
Future Steps
Steps
This
This paper reports the design, manufacturing,
paper reports the design, manufacturing, and and testing
testing of
of an
an electrically
electrically operated
operated
flying
flying wing UAV. The major achievements of this study include the aerodynamic perfor-
wing UAV. The major achievements of this study include the aerodynamic perfor-
mance
mance design
design based
based on
on initial
initial specifications,
specifications, and the cost-effective
and the cost-effective UAV
UAV design
design procedure.
procedure.
By
By determining
determiningthe initial
the specifications,
initial all performance
specifications, all performancerequirements are covered
requirements clearly.
are covered
clearly. The practical value of this study lies in the fact that it uses low-fidelity software
and in-house tools to support the design and performance of the fixed-wing UAV, by also
keeping low the required propulsion, low construction costs, and advanced flight auton-
omy.
Based on the design results, the fixed-wing UAV was built. To the best of our
Drones 2024, 8, 217 20 of 22

The practical value of this study lies in the fact that it uses low-fidelity software and in-
house tools to support the design and performance of the fixed-wing UAV, by also keeping
low the required propulsion, low construction costs, and advanced flight autonomy.
Based on the design results, the fixed-wing UAV was built. To the best of our knowl-
edge, this is one of the first studies where the whole main structural assembly with compos-
ite materials was performed, by using an autopilot such as Pixhawk 2.4.6. After successfully
assembling all the parts together, the necessary inspections and flight plans took place. The
actual total weight of 6 kg was within the initial design specifications.
In general, the main performance characteristics of the developed fixed-wing UAV are
based on the following elements:
• The maximum CL (flaperons deployed) is 1.724, and the stall speed at sea level is
10.3 m/s;
• For a payload of 1 kg and maximum take-off weight of 6 kg, the wing load is almost
120 N/m2 ;
• At the cruising altitude of 500 m, the cruising speed is 16 m/s, the cruising power is
about 75 W, and the endurance is up to 2 h;
• The take-off distance is 24 m at a speed of 10.8 m/s;
• The maximum speed at cruising altitude is calculated as 28.8 m/s and the maximum
power demand is 287.5 W;
• The absolute ceiling is calculated as 3000 m.
Furthermore, one of the main research activities that can be set up for the future is to
build not only on various UAVs with specific requirements for different uses and payloads,
such as food and medicine, but also in the way that UAVs will effectively and safely
transport each payload depending on the shipment. Also, having already experimented
enough with the capabilities of the flight software and the GCS, a future research activity
could be to conduct flights in extreme weather conditions, in order to confirm both the
reliability of the developed fixed-wing UAV and the capabilities of the software.
Moreover, as the selection process for the wing and tail fin airfoils of the developed
fixed-wing UAV was limited to 4-digit NACA airfoils, mainly due to the simplicity of
the whole design process that was followed in the present study, additional aerodynamic
analysis will form part of our future research activities, to further enhance the overall
design analysis and obtain even more encouraging results. Further investigations will also
focus on the structural analysis of the developed fixed-wing UAV to further enhance its
overall design analysis. Additionally, as the selections for the AR and angle of attack were
examined in terms of the minimum drag velocity and minimum power velocity, mainly
due to the simplicity of the whole design process that was followed in the present study,
further investigations need to take place by considering the lift-to-drag ratio, structural
analysis, aerodynamics analysis, etc.
Finally, in future missions, special emphasis will be placed on the abort landing option
provided by the software, and also on the sensors that will be particularly useful in this
process. Further investigations will also focus on stability and control problems of the
developed fixed-wing UAV, caused by wind flow (e.g., vertical/horizontal gusts), critical
scenarios in take-off and landing (e.g., sloped terrain, obstacles) phases, and pendulum
effects during left/right turning, which make trajectory tracking and attitude stabilization
challenging tasks.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.S. and I.P.; methodology, L.S. and I.P.; software, L.S.;
validation, L.S.; formal analysis, I.P. and L.S.; investigation, L.S. and I.P.; resources, I.P. and L.S.; data
curation, L.S.; writing—original draft preparation, I.P. and L.S.; writing—review and editing, I.P., L.S.
and A.H.; visualization, I.P.; supervision, A.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Drones 2024, 8, 217 21 of 22

Data Availability Statement: The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made
available by the authors on request.
Conflicts of Interest: Author Lefteris Sakellariou was employed by the company Lambda Automata
Company. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any
commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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