EXPERIMENT 1

NAME OF EXPERIMENT
TO DEMOSTRATE DIFFERENT ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
THEORY:
Electrical circuits on different pieces of equipment will have similarities. Most circuits will
have resistors, capacitors, relays, contactors, switches, and transformers. Understanding
the function of each of these components will help you better understand how to
troubleshoot a circuit.
Electronic circuits with solid-state components are quickly replacing traditional electrical
circuits, but many similar operating principles still apply. Therefore, this experiment includes
not only information on basic circuit components but also introduces the most common
solid-state components.
RESISTORS
Resistors are found in many circuits ( Figure 36-1 ). They are designed to allow for a
measured resistance that can affect either voltage or current as calculated by using Ohm’s
law.

As an example, a resistor could be used in an electrical test meter to limit the current flow.
Fixed resistors can be made from nickel wire wound on a ceramic tube and then covered
with porcelain.
Smaller fixed resistors are made from mixtures of powdered carbon and insulating materials
molded into a round tubular shape .
Variable resistors have a tightly wound coil of resistance wire made into a circular shape.
The resistance value is changed by turning an adjustment that moves the point of contact
along the circular coil.
CAPACITORS
A capacitor will store energy when an electric charge is forced onto its plates from a power
source. A capacitor will still retain this charge even after disconnection from the power
source. However, it would be impractical to try to discharge the power from the capacitor
into a different circuit, as you would do, for example, by placing charged batteries into your
radio. Compared to a storage battery, the total amount of energy stored by a capacitor is
relatively small. Also, the discharge rate of a capacitor is rapid, so the release of the stored
energy only occurs during a short time interval. However, a mishandled capacitor will deliver
a shock that can be severe and even fatal, especially for large capacitors charged to a high
voltage.

LDR(Light Dependent Resistor or Photoresistor)

Its full form is Light Dependent Resistor or Photoresistor, which is a passive electronic
component. Usually, it is a resistor whose resistance changes with the change in light
intensity. A photo resistor is consists of a high resistance semiconductor that absorbs
photons. Based on the number and frequency of the absorbed photons, the semiconductor
material delivers electrons satisfactory energy to fall into the conduction band.

The resulting free electrons carry electricity succeeding in decreasing the resistance of the
photo resistor. The quantity of electrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the
photon.
Inductors
Inductors are just as complicated as transistors. Like transistors, inductors are used to build
complex electrical systems. Unlike transistors, though, inductors are essentially coils of wire
that are wound around other components. They are used as filters.
Of all the electrical components mentioned on this page, you will most likely not use
inductors for basic circuit designs. Nonetheless, depending on the particular project you are
working on, inductors might appear in the circuit’s design.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LEDs were briefly mentioned while describing “Resistors.” LEDs are just like bulbs, except
that they are extremely reliable. You can find them on practically every appliance in your
home that features some kind of indicator light. A typical LED bulb can last decades with
no sign of dying.

Since they are so reliable, they are used to indicate the state of current at any point in a
circuit. An important task like checking the output voltage or current on a circuit becomes
simpler with these light-based indicators

Transistors
The resistors, capacitors, and LEDs are the simple stuff in electrical circuits. Now, let us
talk about the first complicated component – the transistor. For instance, transistors are
used to build complex electrical systems, such as amplifiers. A simple way to understand
transistors is to think of a switch. A basic switch has an “on” and an “off” state. These are
controlled by the position of the switch, which is changed manually.
Integrated Circuit (IC)
Integrated circuits are electrical components that combine or integrate numerous electrical
components, including the previously mentioned ones. One IC can act like a transistor,
while another IC can act like a resistor.

An IC is like a ready-made chip that you can use to complete the project you want to build
without having to use lots of single transistors or capacitors. As you upgrade from using
basic components to integrated circuits, you will find that it is almost always easier to use
ICs for your entire project than using individual components.
Relay
Earlier relays were used as amplifiers in the long-distance telegraph circuits. Relay evolved
to solve more purposes in the technology sector and telephone exchange. They are
electromechanical switches that use low-power signals to control the circuit.
Its essential components are an armature, a spring, an electromagnet, and a series of
electrical contacts. The circuits inside a relay
use magnetic connections instead of electric
ones.
LCD:
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat display
technology, which is mostly used in
applications like computer monitors, cell
phone displays, calculators, etc. This
technology uses two polarized filters and
electrodes to selectively disable or enable the light to pass from reflective backing to the
eyes of the viewer.
Seven Segment Display
A 7-segment display is a very frequently used display module. The main function of this
device is to exhibit decimal numbers in several electronic devices such as meters, clocks,
information systems in public places and calculators, etc.
CIRCUIT BOARD
A printed circuit board (PCB; also printed wiring board or PWB) is a medium used to connect
electronic components to one another in a controlled manner. It takes the form of a
laminated sandwich structure of conductive and insulating layers: each of the conductive
layers is designed with an artwork pattern of traces, planes and other features (similar to
wires on a flat surface) etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto
and/or between sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate.
 EXPERIMENT 2
NAME OF EXPERIMENT
TO DEMOSTRATE DIFFERENT ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
THEORY:
Electrical circuits on different pieces of equipment will have similarities. Most circuits will
have resistors, capacitors, relays, contactors, switches, and transformers. Understanding
the function of each of these components will help you better understand how to
troubleshoot a circuit.
Electronic circuits with solid-state components are quickly replacing traditional electrical
circuits, but many similar operating principles still apply. Therefore, this experiment includes
not only information on basic circuit components but also introduces the most common
solid-state components.
Transformer
It is an electric device that changes the levels of AC current. It consists of 2 coils of wire
connected by an iron core. The transformer uses mutual induction of two windings to
convert the electric energy from one circuit to another. It also converts the power between
circuits with different voltage levels without altering the frequency.

Electrical Wires & Power Cables

It’s almost impossible to make an electrical structure without electrical wires and cables.
Electrical wires do the work of connecting a device to the power source through cables. You
need wires to install every device, be it switches, sockets, LEDs, or anything else.
When multiple electrical wires are bundled or run side by side for transmission and
distribution of electrical current, it is known as an electrical power cable. When you can’t
use overhead lines, electrical cables come in handy to transmit high voltage current. A cable
has 3 primary components – conductor, sheath, and dielectric.
Battery
Batteries act as a source of electric power through the electrochemical cells. Each cell is
consists of an anode (-), cathode (+), and electrolyte. It works on the principle of
electrochemical reaction as the cells create the flow of electrons through a chemical
reaction. In layman’s terms, batteries are portable containers that store electrical potential
energy.

If it were not for batteries, your Xbox controller and mobile phones would’ve been tied to a
charger all day. There are two types of cells in a battery – primary rechargeable cells and
secondary non-rechargeable cells.
Oscilloscope
The test equipment like oscilloscope is the most
reliable one, used to monitor the signals which are
varying continuously. By using this equipment, we can
notice the changes within an electrical signal such as
current, over time, and voltage. The applications of
Oscilloscopes are Electronic, Industrial Medical,
Automobile, Telecommunication, etc.
These are designed with CRT displays (Cathode Ray Tube) however at present
approximately all these devices are digital including some superior features such as
memory & storage.

Multimeter
A multimeter is an electronic instrument and it is a combination of
Ammeter, Ohmmeter & Voltmeter. These devices are mainly used
to calculate various parameters within the circuits in AC & DC like
the voltage, current, etc.
Previous meters are the analog type that includes a pointing
needle whereas the present meters are digital type, so these are
known as DMs or Digital Multimeters. These instruments are
obtainable like handheld & bench devices.

AMMETER
An ammeter (abbreviation of Ampere meter) is an
instrument used to measure the current in a circuit.
Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the
name. For direct measurement, the ammeter is
connected in series with the circuit in which the current is
to be measured. An ammeter usually has low resistance
so that it does not cause a significant voltage drop in the
circuit being measured.

Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the

milliampere or microampere range, are designated as milliammeters or microammeters.
Early ammeters were laboratory instruments that relied on the Earth's magnetic field for
operation. By the late 19th century, improved instruments were designed which could be
mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric power systems. It
is generally represented by letter 'A' in a circuit.

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electric potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit. It is connected in parallel. It usually has a high resistance so that
it takes negligible current from the circuit.

Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage measured and
can be built from a galvanometer and series resistor. Meters using amplifiers can measure
tiny voltages of microvolts or less. Digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by
use of an analog-to-digital converter.

Voltmeters are made in a wide range of styles, some

separately powered (e.g. by battery), and others
powered by the measured voltage source itself.
Instruments permanently mounted in a panel are used
to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus. Portable
instruments, usually equipped to also measure current
and resistance in the form of a multimeter, are standard
test instruments used in electrical and electronics work.
Any measurement that can be converted to a voltage
can be displayed on a meter that is suitably calibrated; for example, pressure, temperature,
flow or level in a chemical process plant.

Galvanometer
A galvanometer is an electromechanical measuring
instrument for electric current. Early galvanometers were
uncalibrated, but improved versions, called ammeters,
were calibrated and could measure the flow of current
more precisely.

A galvanometer works by deflecting a pointer in response

to an electric current flowing through a coil in a constant
magnetic field. Galvanometers can be thought of as a
kind of actuator.

Galvanometers came from the observation, first noted by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820,
that a magnetic compass's needle deflects when near a wire having electric current. They
were the first instruments used to detect and measure small amounts of current. André-
Marie Ampère, who gave mathematical expression to Ørsted's discovery, named the
instrument after the Italian electricity researcher Luigi Galvani, who in 1791 discovered the
principle of the frog galvanoscope – that electric current would make the legs of a dead frog
jerk.
 EXPERIMENT 3
NAME OF EXPERIMENT
TO CALCULATE THE RESISTANCE OF RESISTORS USING COLOR CODE TABLE
THEORY:
Resistors are found in many circuits. They are designed to allow for a measured resistance
that can affect either voltage or current as calculated by using Ohm’s law.
As an example, a resistor could be used in an electrical test meter to limit the current flow.

Fixed resistors can be made from nickel wire wound on a ceramic tube and then covered
with porcelain.
Smaller fixed resistors are made from mixtures of powdered carbon and insulating materials
molded into a round tubular shape .
Variable resistors have a tightly wound coil of resistance wire made into a circular shape.
The resistance value is changed by turning an adjustment that moves the point of contact
along the circular coil.
COLOR CODE TABLE

OBSERVATION TABLE
SN RESISTOR BAND COLOR VALUE CALCULATE MEASERED REMARK
D VALUE VALUE S
1 R1

CONCLUSION:
THE VALUE OF RESISTOR CALCULATED USING THE COLOR CODE TABLE AND
MEASURED USING MULTIMETER IS NEAR ABOUT SAME.
 EXPERIMENT 4
NAME OF EXPERIMENT:
TO MEASURE THE EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE IN SERIES CONNECTION.

Objective:
The objective of the experiment is to calculate equivalent resistance in series connection.

Theory
When resistors are connected in series, the current through each resistor is the same. In
other words, the current is the same at all points in a series circuit.
When resistors are connected in series, the total voltage (or potential difference) across all
the resistors is equal to the sum of the voltages across each resistor.
In other words, the voltages around the circuit add up to the voltage of the supply.
The total resistance of a number of resistors in series is equal to the sum of all the individual
resistances.
consider N resistors in series as shown in Figure. Since there are no branching junctions in
the circuit, the current entering through all the resistors is identical, i.e.
𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = . . . . . . = 𝐼𝑁.
We also know from Kirchhoff's Second Law that
𝑉 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 −. . . . . . . . . . − 𝑉𝑁 = 0 or
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + . . . . . . + 𝑉𝑁 …………………….(1)
since, along the direction of current flow, potential difference for the power supply is a
voltage step-up (+V) while potential difference from a resistor is a voltage step-down (-V).
Since from Ohm's Law V=IR,
Equation 1 becomes
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼1𝑅1 + 𝐼2𝑅2 + 𝐼3𝑅3 + . . . . . . + 𝐼𝑁𝑅𝑁 ……………………(2)
However, we know that all the currents are identical to each other. Therefore, for resistors
in series, the effective resistance R is
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + . . . . . . + 𝑅𝑁
Circuit Diagram:
Here is the circuit diagram for the
verification experiment.

RESISTOR USED
The following resistor are used for
this experiment..
 SN RESISTOR VALUE
1 R1
2 R2
3 R3
4 R4
5 R5
Observation Table:
Here is the data table of different readings of resistors.
SN RESISTOR RESISTOR VALUE CALCULATED MEASURED REMARKS
CONNECTION VALUE VALUE
1 R1+R2+R3 R1
R2
R3
2

Result:
We can see different readings in the Observation table. Here is some test calculation to
determine resistance from the voltage and current reading.
From the calculation, we can see that the resistance is always near the resistor we used
in this experiment.
Conclusion:
From the experiment, we can see that the calculated value and measured value are near
about same. So the equivalent resistance of different resistors are the sum of those
resistors.
 EXPERIMENT 5
NAME OF EXPERIMENT:
TO MEASURE THE EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL CONNECTION.

Objective:
The objective of the experiment is to calculate equivalent resistance in parallel connection.

Theory
Resistors are in parallel when one end of all the resistors are connected by a continuous
wire of negligible resistance and the other end of all the resistors are also connected to one
another through a continuous wire of negligible resistance. The potential drop across each
resistor is the same. Current through each resistor can be found using Ohm’s law I=V/R ,
where the voltage is constant across each resistor. For example, an automobile’s
headlights, radio, and other systems are wired in parallel, so that each subsystem utilizes
the full voltage of the source and can operate completely independently. The same is true
of the wiring in your house or any building.

The current flowing from the voltage source in Figure 10.3.4 depends on the voltage
supplied by the voltage source and the equivalent resistance of the circuit. In this case, the
current flows from the voltage source and enters a junction, or node, where the circuit splits
flowing through resistors R1 and R2 . As the charges flow from the battery, some go
through resistor R1 and some flow through resistor R2 . The sum of the currents flowing
into a junction must be equal to the sum of the currents flowing out of the junction:

∑𝐼𝑖𝑛 = ∑𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡

This equation is referred to as Kirchhoff’s junction rule and will be discussed in detail in the
next section. In Figure 10.3.4 , the junction rule gives I=I1+I2 . There are two loops in this
circuit, which leads to the equations V=I1R1 and I1R1=I2R2 . Note the voltage across the
resistors in parallel are the same ( V=V1=V2 ) and the current is additive:
Solving for the RP

Generalizing to any number of N resistors, the equivalent resistance RP of a parallel

connection is related to the individual resistances by

Circuit Diagram:
Here is the circuit diagram for the verification
experiment.

RESISTOR USED
The following resistor are used for this experiment.

SN RESISTOR VALUE
1 R1
2 R2
3 R3
4 R4
5 R5
6 R6
Observation Table:
Here is the data table of different readings of resistors.
SN RESISTOR RESISTOR VALUE CALCULATED MEASURED REMARKS
CONNECTION VALUE VALUE
1 R1+R2+R3 R1
R2
R3
2

3
4 R1+R2+R3+R4 R1
R2
R3
R4
5

Result:
We can see different readings in the Observation table. Here is some test calculation to
determine resistance from the voltage and current reading.
From the calculation, we can see that the resistance is always near the resistor we used
in this experiment.
Conclusion:
From the experiment, we can see that the calculated value and measured value are near
about same. So the equivalent resistance of different resistors are the sum of those
resistors.
 EXPERIMENT 6
NAME OF EXPERIMENT:
TO MEASURE THE EQUAVALENT EMF OF BATTERI IN SERIES CONNECTION

Objective:
The objective of the experiment is to calculate equivalent emf of battery in series connection

Theory
Batteries can either be connected in series, parallel or a combination of both. In a series
circuit, electrons travel in one path and in the parallel circuit, they travel through many
branches. The following sections will closely examine the series battery configuration and
the parallel battery configuration.

Connecting Batteries in Series

A set of batteries is said to be connected in series when the positive terminal of one cell is
connected to the negative terminal of the succeeding cell. The overall emf of the battery is
the algebraic sum of all individual cells connected in series. If E is the overall emf of the
battery combined by n number of cells, then
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + ………..+ En
Similarly, if r1, r2, r3 are the internal resistances of individual cells, then the internal
resistance of the battery will be equal to the sum of the internal resistance of the individual
cells.
r = r1 + r2 + r3 + ……..+ rn..

Circuit Diagram:
Here is the circuit diagram for the verification experiment.
Observation Table:
Here is the data table of different readings when battery is connected in series
sn Connection of battery Battery Emf Calsulared Measured remarks
used eq. emf eq. emf
1 B1+B2+B3 B1
B2
B3
2

Result:
We can see different readings in the Observation table calculated emf and measured emf
is near about same.

Conclusion:
Advantages
Wiring batteries in series provides a higher system voltage resulting in a lower system
current. Low current indicates that you can use thinner wiring and suffer less voltage drop
in the system.
Disadvantages
In a series-connected battery system, a converter is needed to achieve low voltages.
 EXPERIMENT 7
NAME OF EXPERIMENT:
TO MEASURE THE EQUAVALENT EMF OF BATTERI IN PARALLEL CONNECTION

Objective:
The objective of the experiment is to calculate equivalent emf of battery in parallel
connection

Theory
A set of batteries are said to be connected in parallel when the positive terminals are
connected together, and similarly, the negative terminals of these cells are connected.
These combinations are referred to as parallel batteries.

f the emf of each cell is identical, then the emf of the battery combined by n numbers of
cells connected in parallel is equal to the emf of each cell. The resultant internal resistance
of the combination is,

The current delivered by the battery is the sum of currents delivered by individual cells.
Circuit Diagram:
Here is the circuit diagram for the verification experiment.
Observation Table:
Here is the data table of different readings when battery is connected in parallel
sn Connection of battery Battery Emf Calsulared Measured remarks
used eq. emf eq. emf
1 B1+B2+B3 B1
B2
B3
2

Result:
We can see different readings in the Observation table calculated emf and measured emf
is near about same.

Conclusion:

Advantages
One of the prominent advantages of batteries connected in parallel is that if one of the
batteries in the system fails to operate, the remaining batteries can still provide power.
Disadvantages
Connecting batteries in parallel results in a higher current draw. This indicates thicker
cables and more voltage drop.
 EXPERIMENT 7
NAME OF EXPERIMENT:
TO MEASURE THE EQUAVALENT EMF OF BATTERI IN PARALLEL CONNECTION

Objective:
The objective of the experiment is to calculate equivalent emf of battery in parallel
connection

Theory
A set of batteries are said to be connected in parallel when the positive terminals are
connected together, and similarly, the negative terminals of these cells are connected.
These combinations are referred to as parallel batteries.

f the emf of each cell is identical, then the emf of the battery combined by n numbers of
cells connected in parallel is equal to the emf of each cell. The resultant internal resistance
of the combination is,

The current delivered by the battery is the sum of currents delivered by individual cells.
Circuit Diagram:
Here is the circuit diagram for the verification experiment.
Observation Table:
Here is the data table of different readings when battery is connected in parallel
sn Connection of battery Battery Emf Calsulared Measured remarks
used eq. emf eq. emf
1 B1+B2+B3 B1
B2
B3
2

Conclusion:
We can see different readings in the Observation table calculated emf and measured emf
is near about same.
 EXPERIMENT 6
NAME OF EXPERIMENT:
TO MEASURE THE EQUAVALENT EMF OF BATTERI IN SERIES CONNECTION

Objective:
The objective of the experiment is to calculate equivalent emf of battery in series connection

Theory
Batteries can either be connected in series, parallel or a combination of both. In a series
circuit, electrons travel in one path and in the parallel circuit, they travel through many
branches. The following sections will closely examine the series battery configuration and
the parallel battery configuration.

Connecting Batteries in Series

A set of batteries is said to be connected in series when the positive terminal of one cell is
connected to the negative terminal of the succeeding cell. The overall emf of the battery is
the algebraic sum of all individual cells connected in series. If E is the overall emf of the
battery combined by n number of cells, then
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + ………..+ En
Similarly, if r1, r2, r3 are the internal resistances of individual cells, then the internal
resistance of the battery will be equal to the sum of the internal resistance of the individual
cells.
r = r1 + r2 + r3 + ……..+ rn..

Circuit Diagram:
Here is the circuit diagram for the verification experiment.
Observation Table:
Here is the data table of different readings when battery is connected in series
sn Connection of battery Battery Emf Calsulared Measured remarks
used eq. emf eq. emf
1 B1+B2+B3 B1
B2
B3
2

Conclusion:
We can see different readings in the Observation table calculated emf and measured emf
is near about same.