Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

UNIT 1
CELL STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION

Structure
1.1 Introduction Endoplasmic Reticulum
Expected Learning Outcomes Golgi Bodies
1.2 The Cell-an Overview Lysosomes
Biochemical Composition of Cell Peroxisomes and Glyoxisomes
1.3 Domains of Life Cytoskeleton
The Prokaryotic Cell Mitochondria
The Eukaryotic Cell Chloroplast
Comparison of Cellular 1.5 Separation of Subcellular
Organisation Organelles
1.4 Cell Organelles and Their 1.6 Summary
Functions
1.7 Terminal Questions
Cell Membrane
1.8 Answers
Nucleus

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You are well aware that cell is the basic unit of all the life forms present on our
planet Earth . In other words, all organisms are composed of cells, whether
simple i.e., single cell organisms e.g., bacteria, amoeba or complex, i.e.,
multicellular organisms (e.g. plants or animals). A bacterium or an amoeba is
made up of just one cell, while a complex organism like an adult human is
composed of hundreds of billions of cells (over 1014 cells). An organism’s
appearance, behaviour, activities and functions are determined by the sum
total of the properties of cells in that organism. The organisms or the life forms
can be divided into three domains on the basis of the cell structure and
function called the domains of life. It is therefore important to study cells to
understand all the domains of life. In this unit, you would learn about the
structure of a cell and its biochemical composition followed by the domains of
life. We would also describe the functions of various components present
within a cell.
9
Block 1 Cell Structure and Carbohydrates

Thus, our aim in describing a cell and its organization in this course is to
introduce you to various biomolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids,
proteins, and enzymes which would be described in the units to follow. Some
of these biomolecules, also known as compounds of life, form part of the
structure of cell, and some of these are sources of energy for the cell. A few of
these also store energy for the cell and take part in the cellular reactions. The
cell is able to synthesize other molecules, needed by the living system from
these compounds. In the next unit we will start with a detail study of
carbohydrates which are the most important sources of energy in the living
systems.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit you should be able to:

 describe the existence of cell as the basic structural unit of all living
organisms and describe the biochemical composition of a cell;

 describe the existence of cell as the basic structural unit of all living
organisms and describe the biochemical composition of a cell;

 explain the main domains of life;

 distinguish between the major types of cells;

 label the intracellular organelles, and describe the functions of these

organelles; and

 explain the principle of separation of various cell organelles.

Let us look into the historical perspective of a cell in the next section.

1.2 THE CELL- AN OVERVIEW

The term ‘cell’ was first used by Robert Hooke (Fig.1a) in 1664 for the little
box-like structures, which he observed in cork tissue under a primitive
microscope. A contemporary of Hooke, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (Fig.1b),
discovered sperm cells, red blood cells and a variety of microorganisms, again
using a microscope consisting of a single lens, he called them animalcules.
However, it took nearly two centuries of microscopic study of cells with the
gradual introduction of more and more powerful microscopes, for the discovery
of cell nucleus. In 1831, while investigating the fertilization mechanisms of
plants, Robert Brown (Fig.1c) noted the existence of a structure within the
cells which he termed the “nucleus” of the cell.

10
Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

In 1838, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden indicated the similarity of

plant cell structures to those observed in animal tissues. By 1830s it was
proposed that all living organisms are composed of cells, which are the basic
structural and functional units of life, just like the atom which is a fundamental
unit in all chemical structures. This concept forms the basis for the “cell
theory” proposed by M.J. Schleiden and T. Schwann in 1838-39. Some
organisms, e.g., the bacteria and protozoa are unicellular, while others are
multicellular organisms, like fungi, plants and animals, Fungi are composed of
individual cells of similar structure, while plants and animals are made up of
different types of cells. Cells in all living organisms, whether unicellular or
multicellular, show several common structural features, and many functions in
them are carried out in a similar fashion.

The present day study of cells combines many scientific disciplines, like
biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, histology and physiology. A great deal has
been understood about cells, especially in the last 35 years, regarding how
they are formed, how they function, and how they work together in complex
organisms. Still, much remains to be learned. Consequent to the Cell Theory
doctrine, biologists established that new cells are formed by cell division and
by the end of the nineteenth century, the hereditary material in cells, the
chromosomes, were recognised. As the biochemical, physiological and
genetic properties of cells were studied, it was established that in both
unicellular and multicellular organisms, the cell is the fundamental structure
unit, which stores the genetic material and the biochemical organisation, that
accounts for the existence of life. The knowledge of cells is important as it is
the basis for better understanding of a wide variety of issues like health, drugs
illness, medical treatment, reproduction, environmental problems, evolution
and life in general.

Let us look into the biochemical composition of a cell and then describe the
types of cells in the next section.

1.2.1 Biochemical Composition of Cell

Do you know that scientists have found fossils of simple living things, such as
bacteria in rocks about 3.5 billion years old suggesting that life may have
originated over 3.5 billion of years ago. The most popular opinion is that life
might have originated from the ocean surface where water got in contact with
the atmosphere. Earth contained chemicals such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and
nitrogen gas (N2), along with substantial amounts of water vapor (H2O).
Hydrogen gas (H2) was also present. Hydrogen gas bonded with other
elements such as sulfur (S), N2 and carbon (C) giving rise to hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), ammonia (NH3 ) and methane (CH4 ) which further reacted to produce
amino acids and nucleic acids.

As life evolved on this planet, nature selected only a few elements, and life
eventually came to be based essentially on carbon compounds. Out of the
nearly 50 or so elements present in most living organisms, six elements,
namely oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P)
constitute nearly 99 per cent by weight of a living organism. One of the
reasons for nature’s selection of carbon in all life forms could be that carbon
forms a wide range of complex organic compounds, Potassium (K), sodium 11
Block 1 Cell Structure and Carbohydrates

(Na), chlorine (cl) and magnesium (Mg) accounts for nearly 0.8%, and the
other elements are present in very small amounts (0.2%) and are called trace
elements in a living organism as given in Table 1.1. There is a remarkable
similarity in the nature of the chemical substances that are present in all living
organisms.

Table 1.1: Chemical composition of Cell

Elements % by weight Elements % by weight

Oxygen 68 Sulphur 0.25

Carbon 18 Potassium 0.20

Hydrogen 10 Sodium 0.15

Nitrogen 3 Chlorine 0.15

Calcium 1.5 Magnesium 0.05

Phosphorus 1.0 Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Trace amounts

etc.

Water constitutes nearly 60-80% of the weight of the living organisms and is
rightly called the “solvent of life”, as it is the principal medium in which all
cellular reactions occur. The rest, i.e., the dry weight of the cells, comprises
proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and carbohydrates. You will study the details of
these essential biomolecules in other units of this course. The average
biomolecular composition of a cell is given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Percent dry weight of biomolecules of cell

Biomolecules Dry weight (%) Biomolecules Dry weight (%)

Proteins 71 Carbohydrates 5

Lipids 12 Inorganic minerals 5

Nucleic acids 7

Before studying more about cells and the domains of life, attempt the following
SAQ.

SAQ 1
Tick [ ] mark the following statements as True of False.

(a) Potassium and sodium are trace elements present in the cell.

(b) Proteins are the major constituents of a cell.

(c) All organisms are constructed of cells.

(d) Cellular reactions in a cell cannot occur in an aqueous medium.

12
Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

1.3 DOMAINS OF LIFE

The earlier biologists believed that all life on Earth belonged to one of two
primary lineages-the eukaryotes, which included animals, plants, fungi and
some single-cell organisms, and the prokaryotes, which included bacteria
and all remaining microscopic organisms. Carl Woese, working with American
microbiologist Ralph S. Wolfe, discovered that there were actually three
primary lineages. They observed that what was previously called prokaryotes
had two distinct groups of organisms which were not related to one another
than they were to eukaryotes. They determined that prokaryotes actually are
two distinctly different groups of organisms and should be divided into two
categories: (i) eubacteria (true bacteria) and (ii) archaebacteria, the newly
recognised, later renamed archaea. Archaea are aquatic or terrestrial
microorganisms that differ both biochemically and genetically from true
bacteria. Many of these organisms thrive in extreme environments, including
those that are very hot or that have a high degree of salinity.

According to the Carl Woese system of classification, the tree of life consists
of three domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryota. The archaea and
bacteria are prokaryotic single-celled organisms whose cells have no nucleus. 'Karyon' is a word
Cells of eukaryota possess a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. The meaning nucleus.
animals, plants, fungi and protozoa are included in the eukaryota. This system The word ‘prokaryote’
(before a nucleus).
of classification with only a few representative examples for each domain is
therefore, designates
depicted in Fig. 1.2. cells that do not have
a structurally
Methbanobacterium delineated unit
Methanosarcina
Haloarchaea containing the genetic
material (a nucleus).
'Eu' means true,
Animals
Grampositive hence, the word
Fungi
Proteobacteria 'eukaryote' (true
Chloroflexi Archaea nucleus) designates
Plants
cells that have a well
defined nucleus
whose chromosomal
Eukaryota material is separated
Bacteria from the remainder of
the cell contents (the
Common Ancestor cytoplasm) by a
nuclear membrane.
Fig. 1.2: Three domains of life with representative examples

Based on the degree of structural complexity of the cell organisation, the cells,
can be classified as prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Though prokaryotes and
eukaryotes may differ in complexities both possess some same basic
properties, which are outlined below.

 All the cells store information in genes.

 Ribosomes synthesise proteins in all cells.

 Proteins control the structure and functions in all cells.

 ATP is the molecule used by all cells to transfer energy.

 Plasma membrane is a common feature in all cells. 13

Block 1 Cell Structure and Carbohydrates

Let us now study the important structural features of a prokaryotic cell in the
following subsection.

1.3.1 The Prokaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic cells are single-celled microorganisms known to be the earliest

living organisms on earth. Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea. The
characteristics of the prokaryotic cells are that they lack a nuclear membrane
and membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria, golgi bodies,
chloroplast, and lysosomes etc. The DNA is present in a region in the
cytoplasm without a membrane and is known as the nucleoid.

Escherichia coli is an organism found in the intestinal tract of all human

beings, and represents a typical prokaryotic organism, which has been
intensively investigated. E. coli is a rod-shaped gram negative bacterium that
has an outer membrane consisting of lipopolysaccharides, inner cytoplasmic
membrane, peptidoglycan layer and an inner, cytoplasmic membrane. The cell
is about 2µm long and 1µm in diameter. The electron micrograph picture and a
diagrammatic sketch of E. coli is given respectively in Fig. 1.3 (a) and (b).

(a) (b)

Fig 1.3: (a) Electron micrograph of E. coli (b) Diagrammatic representation of

E. coli showing its structure

The structural features of E. coli as a representative prokaryotic cell can be

explained as follows.

Cell wall – It is made of a thick layer of protein and sugar that prevents the cell
from bursting and made of a rigid framework called the peptidoglycan,
consisting of polysaccharide chains cross-linked by peptide units. In Gram-
negative bacteria, peptidoglycans make up about 10% of the cell wall dry
weight; while in Gram-positive bacteria the thicker peptidoglycan layer
contains about 20% of the cell wall dry weight (1.4a). Although the
peptidoglycan is responsible for the mechanical strength and shape of
bacterial cells, it has sufficient plasticity and dynamic turnover to allow cell
growth and division. The structure of a peptidoglycan is shown in Fig. 1.4b.

14
Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

a) b)
Fig. 1.4: (a) The basic structure of cell wall of Gram positive and Gram negative
bacteria (b) bacterial peptidoglycan.

Plasma membrane- The plasma membrane also called cell membrane, is

present as the inner surface lining of the cell wall. It is made up of
phospholipids (45%) and proteins (55%) and is used to control the movement
of molecules in and out of the cell.

Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm of the cell is enclosed within the cell membrane.

Nucleoid- Within the cytoplasm lies a single molecule of double stranded DNA
in the form of an endless loop called circular DNA. The circular DNA molecule
is tightly coiled to form the nuclear body (bacterial chromosome). The DNA is
not bound by a nuclear membrane.

Plasmids: Most bacteria contain extrachromosomal small circular fragments

of DNA called the plasmids, which also carry genetic information independent
of the bacterial chromosome.

Ribosome- Cytoplasm also possess a number of dense granular elements

(about 25,000 per cell) called the ribosomes, which are the sites of protein
synthesis in the cell.

Flagella- These structures are composed of proteins, giving cells the

capability to move.

Pilus- Some E. coli cells have small thin filamentous extensions of the cells
wall called the pili. This structure allows bacteria to transport copies of
plasmids.

Capsule- This structure which is a sticky outermost layer allows the

eubacteria to survive during harsh conditions.

Further, the cytoplasm of many bacteria contains certain storage granules

consisting of fats, starch and other nutrients. Cytoplasm is very rich in proteins
and contains all the enzymes required for the bacterial metabolism. From the
foregoing description of an E. coli cell it should be clear that the structural
organisation of the organism is fairly simple. However, the organism is still
able to accomplish most of the functions that occur in a more complicated cell
such as, that of the liver. 15
Block 1 Cell Structure and Carbohydrates

Before you study the structural features of a eukaryotic cell, attempt the
following SAQ.

SAQ 2
Fill in the blanks in the following:

a) ............ is the basic structural and functional unit of life forms.

b) Prokaryotic cells have extra chromosomal DNA- containing elements

called ........

c) ................... cell has no true nucleus.

d) The bacterial cell wall structural polysaccharide is called......…

1.3.2 The Eukaryotic Cell

Most plant cells are The eukaryotic cell is a complex unit and contains many structural features not
enveloped by a thick, seen in the simple prokaryotic cell. Eukaryotes have a clearly defined nucleus.
rigid cell wall, that Eukaryotic cells also contain organelles including mitochondria (cellular energy
gives the plant cell its
exchangers), an endoplasmic reticulum (a canal-like system of membranes
shape and protects it
both from mechanical within the cell), a Golgi apparatus (secretory device), and lysosomes (digestive
injury and from apparatus within many cell types). Fig.1.6 shows the various structural
osmotic pressure. It is features seen in a typical eukaryotic animal cell.
made up of cellulose
fibres embedded in a
matrix of other
polysaccharides and
proteins. Materials
that make up the cell
wall are synthesized
inside the cell, then
packed just inside the
plasma membranes,
released from the cell
and ultimately
deposited in the cell
wall.

(a) (b)

Fig.1.6: (a) Electron micrograph of an animal cell; (b) Diagramatic representation

of an animal cell.

We will study about the structure and function of eukaryotic cell organelles in
detail in the other sections of this unit. Let us first compare the cell
organisation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

1.3.3 Comparison of Cellular Organisation

A comparison of the cell organisation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes is given in
Table 1.3 which is mainly based on the structural organisation.

16
Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

Table 1.3: Comparison of cell organisation in prokaryotic and eukaryotic

organisms

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Organisms Bacteria, blue green Protozoa, algae, plants and

algae animals

Cell size 1-10 µ in diameter 10-100 µm in diameter

Metabolism Anaerobic or aerobic Aerobic

Organelles Few or none Nucleus, mitochondria,

chloroplasts, lysosomes
etc.

Nucleus Absent. The genetic Present, is organised into

material consists of chromosomes
circular DNA wiithout
any nuclear membrane
the DNA

Nucleolus Absent Present

Cell division Amitosis (binary fission) Mitosis or meiosis

Mitochondria Absent. Respiratory and Present , and is organised

photosynthetic enzymes
are present in the
plasma

Chloroplasts Absent Present in plant cells only

Cytoplasm Cytoplasm has no Well-defined

cytoskeleton cytoskeleton,
comprising of protein
filaments, is present

It is obvious that there are a number of differences between the two types of
cells. Prokaryotes, like bacterial cells are generally much smaller, less than
1µm in diameter, and are thus not visible to the naked eye. Eukaryotes, like
plant and animal cells, however, are at least 10 times bigger than the bacterial
cells. Also their sizes and shapes vary considerably. The approximate size
and shapes of a few types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are given in
Table 1.4.

There are over 200 types of cells in the human body, which are assembled
into a variety of tissues, such as, the epithelium tissue, connective tissues,
muscle, nervous tissue, blood, germ cells, sensory cells and many more.
Prokaryotic cells, being simpler in structure are important in biochemical
studies, as they can be easily grown in a laboratory in very large numbers in a
relatively short span of time. This is because they multiply by simple
17
Block 1 Cell Structure and Carbohydrates

mechanisms of reproduction. The Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacterium, for

instance, can divide every 20-30 minutes, and thus it happens to be the most
widely studied prokaryotic cell.

Table 1.4: Approximate size of Biomolecules and Cell Components

Biomolecule/Cell Dimensions Biomolecule/Cell Dimensions

component (length, nm) component (length, nm)
-9 -9
(1 nm = 10 m) (1 nm = 10 m)

Alanine 0.5 Tobacco mosaic virus 300

Glucose 0.7 E. coli cell 2000

Phospholipids 3.5 Ribosomes in E. coli 18

Haemoglobin 6.8 Liver cell 20.00

Myosin 160 Mitochondria (liver cell) 1500

Bacteriophage 25 Chloroplast (leaf cell) 8000

OX 174

You would now learn about the organelles present in the eukaryotic cells.

1.4 CELL ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

You have got the basic idea of the biological organisation of a eukaryotic cell
Most plant cells are a in the previous section. Let us now study the structure and functions of a
enveloped by a thick, typical eukaryotic cell in the following subsections. We start with the outer
rigid cell wall, that
covering of the cell called the cell membrane.
gives the cell its
shape and protects it
both from mechanical 1.4.1 Cell Membrane
injury and from
osmotic pressure. It is All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, are bound by a limiting membrane
made up of cellulose called the cell membrane or the plasma membrane. The cell membrane gives
fibres embedded in
shape and mechanical strength to the cell and protects it from the
matrix of other
polysaccharides and environment. In plants, the cell membrane is covered by a rigid cell wall in
proteins. Materials which the major component is cellulose. In fungi, the cell wall is made of
that make up the cell chitin.
wall are synthesised
inside the cell, then
The cell membrane is composed of lipids and proteins, and in many cases
packed just inside the
plasma membranes, about 2-5% carbohydrates are also present. These carbohydrates are linked
released from the cell to the proteins or lipids. Among the various models proposed for the plasma
and ultimately membrane, the most satisfactory model that is generally accepted is the fluid
deposited in the cell
wall. mosaic model of S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson (1972). Let us understand this
model as given below.

Fluid Mosaic Model

The model describes the cell membrane as a lipid bilayer (two-molecules-thick

layer consisting primarily of amphipathic phospholipids) in which protein
molecules are embedded (Fig. 1.7). It satisfactorily accounts for several of the
observed properties of the plasma membrane. According to this model, the
18
Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

phospholipids of the membrane are arranged in a bilayer with their polar head
groups on the exterior and the nonpolar hydrophobic tails tucked inside. The In passive diffusion
different proteins of the membrane are dispersed within this phospholipid the molecules simply
bilayer and are free to move within the plane of the membrane. Some of the move or diffuse
across a membrane
proteins may be present superficially embedded in the bilayer. The proteins
and the rate of flow
are responsible for the diverse functions associated with the cell membrane, depends directly on
such as, selective transport, cell recognition, cell-cell communication, cell the concentration
responses and motility. Fig. 1.7(a) shows a schematic representation of the gradient across the
membrane.
fluid mosaic model while the structure of a typical phospholipid is shown in
Fig. 1.7 (b). You will study this model in detail in Unit 11 of this course. Facilitated diffusion is
the transport of
molecular or ions
across a membrane
by carrier proteins in
the membrane, drive
by a concentration
difference for the
substance on the two
sides of the
membrane.

Active process or
transport is similar to
facilitated diffusion
except that the
molecules or ions
move across the
membrane against a
concentration
gradient which
requires energy input.

Within a cell, certain

(a) (b) activities are confined
Fig. 1.7: (a) Fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane; (b) Structure of to definite structures
Phospholipids or organelles. Photo-
synthesis, for
A major function of the cell membrane is to maintain the characteristic example, takes place
in chloroplasts while
integrity of the cell by forming a selective barrier between the cell and its
respiration is confined
surroundings. It regulates the movements of various molecules into and out of to mitochondria.
the cell. For this purpose, the cell membrane is provided with various transport Organelles are, thus,
membrane bound
processes. In general, nonpolar molecules are transported more readily
specialised regions
across the membrane than polar or charged molecules. Some substances like within a cell.
glucose are transported by facilitated diffusion, involving specific proteins in
the membrane. Most biomolecules are, however, transported into and out of
the cell in an active process involving expenditure of energy. You will study
more aspects of the transport through the cell membrane in Unit 11 which
deals with fats and lipids.

An important part of the structure of a eukaryote is the nucleus. We shall now

describe this organelle.

1.4.2 Nucleus
In all eukaryotes, the nucleus represents the most prominent and conspicuous
organelle of the cell. It is generally seen as a large dense body by special
staining procedures. In a living cell it generally appears structureless. The
19
Block 1 Cell Structure and Carbohydrates

nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane with pores, which allow

selective passage of materials into and out of the nucleus. The nucleus being
the “control centre” of the cell contains chromatin, composed of DNA
DNA is the genetic associated with a set of five basic proteins called the histones (Fig. 1.8).
material that is Histones are small proteins with molecular weights ranging from 11,000 to
passed on from one
generation to another. 21,000 Daltons. These contain a very high content of the basic amino acids,
You will study about namely lysine and arginine (about 25%). The nuclear DNA is distributed
DNA in Unit 12. between two or more chromosomes, the number of which varies among
different eukaryotes, and is characteristic of every organism. For example, the
yeast cell has 12-18 chromosomes, while the human cell has 23 pairs of
chromosomes. The nucleus is filled up with a fluid called nucleoplasm, which
contains a roughly spherical body, the nucleolus, within which the RNA
component of ribosomes is synthesised.

The nucleus and its associated chromosomes undergo profound changes at

the time of cell division, during which, the genetic material is duplicated and
identical copies of it are shared between the two daughter cells.

Fig. 1.8: The nucleus showing the chromatin

Eukaryotic cells contain considerably more DNA than those of prokaryotes.

Thus, while the E. coli cell has an aggregate DNA content of 4  10 6 base pairs,
that of yeast has 1.35  10 7 base pairs, and the human cell has 29  10 9 base
pairs. Much of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell does not code for proteins, and is
regarded as “junk” DNA. Its functions include regulation transcription and
translation.

We shall now describe an organelle, where two important biomolecules, viz.,

proteins and lipids, are synthesised.

1.4.3 Endoplasmic Reticulum

The cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells contains a very complex network of
internal membranes, called the endoplasmic reticulum, which forms channels
and vesicles within the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for the
synthesis of different proteins and lipids. There are two types of E R; (i) rough
endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER), and (ii) smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(smooth ER).

Rough ER is named for its rough appearance, which is due to the ribosomes
attached to its outer (cytoplasmic) surface. You can see in Fig.1.9 that rough
20
Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

ER lies immediately adjacent to the cell nucleus, and its membrane is

continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. The ribosomes In certain cell types,
on rough ER specialize in the synthesis of proteins. These are actively smooth ER plays an
important role in the
involved in the synthesis of proteins that are meant to be exported out of the synthesis of steroid
cell or that become part of the membranes. hormones from
cholesterol. In cells of
Smooth ER, by contrast, is not associated with ribosomes and its functions the liver, it contributes
to the detoxification
differ. The smooth ER is involved in the synthesis of lipids, including of drugs and harmful
cholesterol and phospholipids, which are used in the production of new cellular chemicals. The sarco-
membrane. plasmic reticulum is a
specialised type of
smooth ER that
regulates the
calcium ion concent-
ration in the
cytoplasm
of striated muscle
cells.

Ribosomes are
cytoplasmic particles
molecules. They form
(a) (b) the basis of the
system responsible
Fig. 1.9: (a) Electron micrograph of smooth and rough ER; (b) Diagramatic for protein synthesis.
representation of smooth and rough ER. Ribosomes are
assembled in the
In this subsection we explained that ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic nucleolus and move
reticulum are mainly responsible for protein synthesis. But how are these through the pores of
the nuclear envelope
proteins identified in the cells so that they could be despatched to sites where to the cytoplasm,
these are needed? This feat is achieved by Golgi bodies. So let us know more where they are
about this important organelle. present in hundreds
of thousands of
Before studying about Golgi bodies you would like to assess your numbers, all working
to synthesise the
understanding. proteins of the cell.
We shall describe
SAQ 3 protein biosynthesis
thesis in Unt 14.
Match the following in group A with that in group B.
A B
a) Singer and Nicolson 1) Cell membrane
b) Selective barrier 2) Basic protein
c) Histones 3) Ribosomes
d) Protein synthesis 4) Fluid mosaic model
E) Smooth ER 5) Cholesterol

1.4.4 Golgi Bodies

Proteins synthesized by the rough ER have specific final destinations. Some
proteins, for example, remain within the ER, whereas others are sent to the
Golgi apparatus or golgi bodies, which lies next to the ER. Golgi bodies,
21
Block 1 Cell Structure and Carbohydrates

named after the Italian cytologist, Carnillio Golgi, who first discovered them,
are a complex organisation of a cluster of membrane-surrounded vesicle
within the cytoplasm.

The Golgi bodies appear within the cell as stacks of flattened vesicles. Many
of the proteins synthesised by the cell have to be secreted out, as in the case
of hormones. One would thus wonder as to how the cell can accomplish this
task. This, in a cell is achieved in a remarkable fashion by the Golgi bodies.
The latter receive the newly synthesised proteins from the rough endoplasmic
reticulum and put identifying marks on them, just as the pin code numbers are
put on an address. The Golgi bodies carry out this process by introducing
certain specific and different chemical signals in the form of certain
carbohydrate residues on the proteins in a process called glycosylation.
Such glycosylated proteins are recognised at different sites within the cell.

The Golgi bodies thus play a key role in chemically modifying newly
synthesised proteins, and sort them out to make them reach their appropriate
destinations. Fig.1.10 depicts diagrammatically how the Golgi bodies receive
three different proteins made in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and sort
them out and process them to become part of the lysosomal enzymes or be
secreted out of the cell or become a part of the plasma membranes. Proteins
secreted from the Golgi apparatus are directed to lysosomes or to the cell
membrane; still others are destined for secretion to the cell exterior.

Fig.1.10: The Golgi apparatus.

We shall now describe an organelle responsible for selective and controlled

breakdown of biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids and carbohydrates,
within the cell.

1.4.5 Lysosomes
Within the cytoplasm of the cell, several hydrolytic enzymes (lytic enzymes)
capable of hydrolysing proteins, nucleic acids and carbohydrates, are present
within specialised membrane bound vesicles called the lysosomes. Some 40
enzymes are known to be present within lysosomes. Lysosomes are actually
formed by budding from the Golgi bodies. Their main function appears to be
involved in the selective breakdown of cellular macromolecules within the
22
Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

cytoplasm. The lytic enzymes are thus, especially contained within these bag-
like structures so that indiscriminate hydrolysis of substances is prevented.
Lysosomes are abundant in leukocytes, i.e. white blood cells, that ingest
invading micro-organisms. Lysosomal enzymes are also involved in the
scavenging of aged and damaged cells. In several diseased states and also
by intoxication with toxic chemicals, the lysosomal membranes are damaged,
which leads to leakage of lysosomal enzymes associated with the breakdown
of glycogen and mucopolysaccharides leading to severe consequences. In
many instances, disorders associated with lysosomal enzyme deficiencies
often lead to severe mental disorders.

In the following subsection, you will study the organelle responsible for the
removal of toxic by-products of metabolic reactions, so that the cell does not
get damaged.

1.4.6 Peroxisomes and Glyoxisomes

A number of metabolic reactions such as, the oxidation of amino acids and
lipids result in the production of hydrogen peroxide. As hydrogen peroxide is
extremely toxic to the cell, such oxidative reactions are confined within the cell
to small membrane bound organelles called the peroxisomes. In plants, the
corresponding organelles are called the glyoxisomes.

These organelles also posses the enzyme catalase, which decomposes toxic
hydrogen peroxide. The structure and function of catalase is given in Fig. 1.11.

Fig.1.11: Structure and function of catalase.

Peroxisomes are formed within the cell from the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum by a process of budding. Peroxisomes found in the kidney and liver
cells are important in the oxidation of various toxic chemicals that are ingested
by the organism. Thus, within the cell, all reactions leading to formation of
toxic hydrogen peroxide are confined to peroxisomes so that it is instantly
decomposed within these organelles.
In the foregoing sections, we have described some of the organelles of a
eukaryotic cell and also the specialised work they perform. We shall now
explain how the cell maintains its shape and also keeps various organelles in
their positions.

1.4.7 Cytoskeleton
All eukaryotic cells have distinct shapes, and are also capable of assuming
different shapes. The internal organelles of a cell are also capable of migrating 23
Block 1 Cell Structure and Carbohydrates

from one location to another in a precise manner. Thus, the cell must be
endowed with some mechanism to keep the internal structures in their proper
places, and also to control their movements. The cell is able to achieve this
task by an internal scaffolding system called cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton
is, in fact, termed as the “bone and muscle” of the eukaryotic cell, and is
composed of a network, consisting of three major types of protein filaments
called the microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments (1.12).
These structures give the cell its shape and help organize the cell's parts. In
addition, they provide a basis for movement and cell division.

Fig.1.12: Diagrammatic representation of the microtubules, intermediate

filaments and microfilaments of cytoskeleton in intestinal epithelial
cells with fingerlike projections, the microvilli.

The microtubules are hollow tubular structures formed by a special

arrangement of two proteins called the alpha and beta tubulins. The
microtubules play a leading role during cell division. At the time of cell division
the chromosomes attached to the mitotic spindle, composed of microtubular
fibres, move apart due to contractions of the microtubule proteins. The motility
of eukaryotic cells, the movement of flagella and cilia, the movement of the
microvilli of the intestinal brush border cells, are all associated with
microtubules. The movement of leukocytes in the blood stream and the
transport of molecules along the axonal fibres are also due to contractions of
the proteins constituting the microtubules. The cytoskeleton is, thus, an
important structural feature of the cell, which is essential for the various kinds
of movements associated with the cell and its internal structures. This is
achieved by the special proteins that constitute the cytoskeleton, by a process
of polymerisation and depolymerisation, resulting in changes in shape and
thus resulting in movement.

Animal cells and many types of unicellular eukaryotes contain centrioles,

which are cylindrical in structure, about 0.15 m in diameter and 0.3 to 0.5 m
long. They are mainly composed of microtubules and occur in pairs. It is
believed that they play a role in cell division (mitosis). However, their
importance is, as yet, uncertain.

In the following subsection, we shall describe the so called “power houses” of

the cell, and also those compounds where all the energy is stored.

Before moving to the next subsection, check your progress of understanding

by attempting the following SAQ.
24
Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

SAQ 4
Tick [ ] mark the correct statement from the following:
a) The Golgi bodies are the cell organelles,
i) involved in sorting and processing of proteins
ii) containing Golgi proteins
iii) which synthesise lipids
iv) containing hydrolytic enzymes
b) Fill in the blanks in the following:
i) Lysosomes are organelles containing ...........enzymes.
ii) Hydrogen peroxide is decomposed by the enzymes........
iii) The microtubules are hollow tubular structures formed by a special
arrangement of two proteins called the _______ and ______ tubulins.
iv) The main function of lysosomes is the selective breakdown of cellular
macromolecules within the --------------.

1.4.8 Mitochondria
The eukaryotic cells of living organisms continuously carry out a huge number
of chemical reactions to live, grow, reproduce and fight off diseases. All these
processes require energy at the cellular level. Each cell that engages in any of
these activities gets its energy from the mitochondria, tiny organelles that act
as the cells' powerhouses. An important function of the mitochondria is to Cells are dynamic
derive energy from the different oxidisable nutrients, such as, carbohydrates living units that are
maintained in balance
and fats supplied to it. The mitochondria is able to perform this function by with their
carrying out oxidation of these nutrients during metabolism, and the energy surroundings only
released during such oxidations is transformed and stored in compounds through the
expenditure of
called the “energy rich compounds”. ATP and GTP are two such compounds energy. Disruption of
and are referred to as the energy currencies of the cell. The electron the source of energy
micrograph and diagrammatic sketch of a mitochondria is shown in Fig. 1.13 results in the death of
the cell.
(a) and (b).

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.13: (a) Electron micrograph of a mitochondrian; (b) Diagramatic representation of
mitochondria

Mitochondria are the largest organelles in a cell with a diameter of 0.5-1µm,

and their numbers vary from one cell type to another. Mitochondria are of
25
Block 1 Cell Structure and Carbohydrates

different shapes, e.g., spherical in the liver cells, cylindrical in the kidney cells
or thread like in fibroblasts, and in some cells namely yeasts, are even highly
branched. Within the cell, mitochondria are frequently found to be located in
regions where there is a high demand for ATP.

The structure of mitochondria has been examined in great detail with the aid of
the electron microscope (refer to Fig. 1.13a). Figure 1.13b is a diagrammatic
representation of the structure of the mitochondrion and its membranes.
Mitochondria have a characteristic double membrane system with an outer
membrane enveloping an inner membrane. The two membranes are
separated by an inter-membrane space. The inner membrane forms
extensive invaginations, called cristae that help to increase the total surface
area of the inner membrane. The inner surface of the inner membrane
(cristae) has a number of small stalked door knob like structures called the
coupling factors. The coupling factors are responsible for the synthesis of
ATP. The matrix contains the mitochondrial genetic system as well as the
enzymes responsible for the central reactions of oxidative metabolism. The
initial stages of glucose metabolism (glycolysis) occur in the cytosol, where
glucose is converted to pyruvate. Pyruvate is then transported into
mitochondria, where its complete oxidation to CO2 yields the bulk of usable
energy (ATP) obtained from glucose metabolism. This involves the initial
oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, which is then broken down to CO2 via the
citric acid cycle. The oxidation of fatty acids also yields acetyl CoA, which is
similarly metabolized by the citric acid cycle in mitochondria. The enzymes of
the citric acid cycle (located in the matrix of mitochondria) thus are central
players in the oxidative breakdown of both carbohydrates and fatty acids.

In the subsections 1.4.9 and 1.4.10, we shall describe two organelles, which
are present in eukaryotic plant cells only. Let us learn their roles.

1.4.9 Chloroplast
One of the most distinguishing features of all eukaryotic plant cells is that in
addition to mitochondria, they contain special light harvesting organelles
known as the chloroplasts. These are the largest organelles in a plant cell
and are about 5-8 µm long and 2-3 µm thick (Fig. 1.14).

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.14: (a) Electron micrograph of chloroplast; (b) Diagrammatic

representation of chloroplast
26
Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

About 50% of the dry weight of the chloroplasts is protein, and the rest is
mostly lipids. The lipid material of the chloroplasts consists of chlorophyll,
carotenoids and phospholipids. Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, possess a
bilayer membrane.

The inner membrane is folded into closely packed membranes called the
lamellae. The lamellae flatten out at regular intervals into structures called the
thylakoids, which are frequently found stacked one above the other to form
grana. The matrix between the thylakoids is called the stroma and contains all
the proteins and other factors involved in the photosynthetic fixation of CO2
(Calvin cycle enzymes). The stroma also contains DNA and some of the
chloroplast DNA is synthesised within the organelle. The thylakoid membrane
contains all the factors associated with the photosynthetic electron transport
leading to the generation of NADPH and ATP, which are utilised for the
reduction of CO2 into sugars and starch. Some of the major electron carrier
proteins of the thylakoid membrane are the chlorophylls, constituting the light
harvesting photosystems, plastoquinones, plastocyanins, ferridoxins and
cytochrome bf. The chlorophyII pigments of the thylakoid membrane are
organised into two distinct photosystems called the photosystems I and II.
These two light harvesting systems respond to different regions of the visible
light spectrum. While photosystem I is sensitive to far red light, photosystem II
is sensitive to both far and near red light. Both systems function in a
coordinated manner to utilise light to generate both ATP and NADPH. In
marine bacteria and algae, chlorophylls are not present in separate organelles
but are found in association with the cell membrane itself. Plant chloroplasts
also possess a large number of starch granules. The chloroplast membranes
are functionally similar to the mitochondrial membranes in a number of
respects, as both are basically energy transducing membranes.

1.4.10 Vacuoles
A very conspicuous feature in most plant cells is the presence of one or more
large vesicles called vacuoles which are separated from the rest of the
cytoplasm by a thin membrane called the tonoplast. Vacuoles are small in
young cells, but grow larger as the cells grow older, and can occupy as much
as 50% of the cell volume. Vacuoles are filled with cell sap, and are used for
storing and transport of nutrients, metabolites and waste products. In certain
plants, vacuoles serve a special function of storing compounds, like rubber,
alkaloids, organic acids and other metabolites.

You can try to answer the following SAQs before proceeding to study the
method of separating the subcellular organelles.

SAQ 5
a) Match the following in A with those given in B
A B
i) Coupling factors a) Storing and transport of nutrients
ii) Inner membrane b) Cristae
iii) Vacuoles c) Powerhouse of cells
iv) Mitochondria d) ATP synthesis
27
Block 1 Cell Structure and Carbohydrates

b) Tick [ ] mark the following statements as true or false:

i) Photosystems are present on the inner mitochondrial membrane.
ii) Chlorophylls are constituents of photosystems I and II.
iii) Light energy is needed for electron transport in the thylakoid.
iv) Chloroplast and mitochondrial membranes are functionally identical.
v) Vacuoles are filled with cell sap.

1.5 METHOD FOR FRACTIONATION OF

SUBCELLULAR ORGANELLES
In order to study the composition and the metabolic role of the various
subcellular organelles in a cell, it becomes necessary that each of the
organelle is isolated from the cell. In fact, in biochemical work, the isolation of
the individual organelles from the cell is first step in metabolic studies. The
difference in the densities of organelles helps in isolating them from each
other. Hence, by a process of differential centrifugation the organelles of a cell
may be separated from one another. The procedure, as applied to a typical
liver cell, is depicted in Fig. 1.15.

Fig 1.15: The process of subcellular fractionation of liver cells.

In this technique the tissue e.g., from the rat liver, is homogenised in a
medium, such as, isotonic sucrose (0.25 M,) at 4o C K using a homogeniser.
The tissue homogenate is then subjected to centrifugation at different speeds,
for specified time intervals, so that increasing gravitational force is exerted and
the organelles are separated on the basis of their size and weight. Thus, the
nuclei are first to sediment at 600 g, being the heavy organelle. The
mitochondria, being the next dense material, separate at 15,000 g, while
microsomal fraction, separate at 100,000 g. Subcellular fractions, thus
obtained, are metabolically active, e.g., mitochondrial oxidative
phosphorylation can easily be demonstrated with isolated mitochondria.
28
Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

SAQ 6
Fill in with the appropriate word or number given in the brackets:
a) Mitochondria sediments at .......................... g.
b) Nucleus sediments at .......................... g.

1.6 SUMMARY
 The cell is a fundamental structural and functional unit of an organism.

 Lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and carbohydrates constitute the four major
classes of carbon compounds found in all organisms.

 According to the Carl Woese system of classification, the tree of life

consists of three domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryota.

 Living organisms are also classified as prokaryotes or eukaryotes,

depending on their cell type. The prokaryotic cell has a very simple
structural organisation with no nucleus, while the eukaryotic cell is more
complex and possesses a nucleus along with a number of well-defined
intracellular organelles.

 Prokaryotes possess within the cytoplasm a single circular molecular of

DNA not bound by a nuclear membrane. They also have an
extrachromosomal DNA called the plasmid.

 The DNA of a eukaryotic cell is organised into a number of chromosomes

within a well-defined nucleus.

 The structure of a cell is designed primarily to facilitate distribution of

various cellular functions to different structural elements. The cell
membrane protects the cell from its environment, and functions to
selectively transport various molecules across it. Plant cells and some
bacterial cells also have a cell wall, in addition to the cell membrane.

 The various organelles in a eukaryotic cell have their own identity and
perform distinct functions. The ribosomes associated with the
endoplasmic reticulum are the chief sites or protein synthesis in a cell.
The Golgi bodies are the key elements involved in the processing and
sorting of newly synthesised proteins.

 Certain enzymatic reactions in a cell occur within specialised structures,

such as, the lysosomes and peroxisomes.

 Microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilaments are the structural

elements of the cell cytoskeleton and provide a rigid framework to the cell.
These are responsible for the movement of metabolites and structures
within the cell.

 The mitochondria and chloroplasts are important energy transducing

organelles of eukaryotic cells and generate ATP through oxidation of
substrates and by capturing light energy, respectively. 29
Block 1 Cell Structure and Carbohydrates

 Animal cells lack chloroplast and vacuoles.

 The various organelles of a cell can be fractionated by differential

centrifugation.

1.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

2. What are the functions of the cell membrane in a eukaryotic cell?

3. What would be the consequences if peroxisomes were absent in cells?

4. What are lysosomes and what is their role?

5. What is the role of the Golgi bodies in the formation of membrane

proteins?

6. Compare the thylakoid and mitochondrial membranes.

7. How would you isolate liver mitochondria?

1.8 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. (a) False (b) True (c) True (d) False

2. (a) Cell (b) Plasmid (c) Prokaryotic (d) Peptidoglycan

3. a) Singer and Nicolson 4) Fluid mosaic model

b) Selective barrier 1) Cell membrane
c) Histones 2) Basic protein
d) Protein synthesis 3) Ribosomes
e) Smooth ER 5) Cholesterol

4. a) i) involved in sorting and processing of proteins

b) i) hydrolytic
ii) catalase
iii) alpha and beta
iv) cytoplasm
5. a) i) Coupling factors b) Cristae
ii) Inner membrane d) ATP synthesis
iii) Vacuoles a) Storing and transport of
nutrients
iv) Mitochondria c) Powerhouse of cells

b) i) False ii) True iii) True iv) False v) True

30 6. a) 15,000 g b) 600 g
Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Table 1.3

2. Cell membrane protects the cell from its environment, acts as a barrier for
selective transport of molecules, and is involved in cell recognition, cell-
cell communication, cell responses and motility.

3. Hydrogen peroxide, resulting from certain oxidative reactions, in the cell,

is extremely toxic and is produced only within peroxisomes, where it is
also destroyed. In the absence of peroxisomes, the resulting hydrogen
peroxide would prove fatal to the cell.

4. Intracellular degradation of certain macromolecules, such as, proteins

nucleic acids and lipids cannot occur indiscriminately within cells, Hence,
such enzymatic hydrolytic reactions occur in lysosomes, since the lytic
enzymes are specifically contained in them.

5. Proteins destined to become part of the cell membranes, are synthesised

on the ribosome of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, and are glycosylated
in the Golgi bodies, These marked proteins are then transferred to the
membranes.

6. The thylakoid membrane of the chloroplasts harvests light energy, and

couples it to drive the synthesis of ATP and generate NADPH. The
mitochondrial membrane, however, uses NADH, generated during
substrate oxidation, to generate ATP. The thylakoid membrane has only
electron carrier proteins.

7. Liver homogenate is centrifuged at 600  g, and the supernatant from this

is again centrifuged at 15,000  g. The pellet (sediment) from this step
contains mostly mitochondria.

31