ACTIVE COMPONETNTS

CONTENT
1. Introduction
2. Acknowledgements
3. Detailed explanation of each component

Introduction
Active components are essential in electronics, as they are devices that rely on an
external power source to function and are capable of controlling the flow of
electrical signals. They amplify, switch, or modulate electrical signals and are
foundational in electronic circuits. Below are detailed notes on various active
components in electronics:

Acknowledgements
`Academic Consultant Department of Physics Uttarakhand Open University,
Haldwani
`MIT OpenCoursewWare
`555 timers and its applications-MC Sharma
`Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology- Third edition
John Bird
`Teach Yourself Electricity and Electronics Third Edition- Stan
Gibilisco
`Electronics and Circuit Analysis- Ed. John Okyere Attia Boca Raton:
1999
`IM 555 timer.pdf- Texas instruments
The 555 timer IC
`<http://www.electronics.dit.ie/staff/mtully/555%20folder/555%20tim
er.htm>
`Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology-John Bird
`Inductors< http://wwwp.renhalI.com/floyd>
`<electronicshub.com>
`<IEEE.com>
 TRANSISTORS

•In the mid 1940’s a team of scientists working for Bell Telephone Labs in
Murray Hill, New Jersey, were working to discover a device to replace the
then present vacuum tube technology. Vacuum tubes were the only
technology available at the time to amplify signals or serve as switching
devices in electronics. The problem was that they were expensive, consumed
a lot of power, gave off too much heat, and were unreliable, causing a great
deal of maintenance. •The scientists that were responsible for the 1947
invention of the transistor were: John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William
Shockley. Bardeen, with a Ph.D. in mathematics and physics from Princeton
University, was a specialist in the electron conducting properties of
semiconductors. Brattain, Ph.D., was an expert in the nature of the atomic
structure of solids at their surface level and solid-state physics. Shockley,
Ph.D., was the director of transistor research for Bell Labs.
•Their original patent name for the transistor was:
“Semiconductor amplifier; Three-electrode circuit
element utilizing semi conductive materials.”
•In 1956, the group was awarded the Noble Prize in Physics for their
invention of the transistor. In 1977, John Bardeen was awarded the
Presidential Medal of Freedom.
 Walter Brattain devised - the first ever transistor

Transistors:
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

General configuration and definitions

The transistor is the main building block “element” of electronics. It is a

semiconductor device and it comes in two general types: the Bipolar Junction
Transistor (BJT) and the Field Effect Transistor (FET). Here we will describe the
system characteristics of the BJT configuration and explore its use in fundamental
signal shaping and amplifier circuits.

The BJT is a three terminal device and it comes in two different types. The npn
BJT and the pnp BJT. The BJT symbols and their corresponding block diagrams
are shown on Figure 1. The BJT is fabricated with three separately doped regions.
The npn device has one p region between two n regions and the pnp device has
one n region between two p regions.
The BJT has two junctions (boundaries between the n and the p regions). These
junctions are similar to the junctions we saw in the diodes and thus they may be
forward biased or reverse biased. By relating these junctions to a diode model the
pnp BJT may be modeled as shown on Figure 2.

The C three terminals of the BJT are called the Base (B), the
Collector (C) and the Emitter (E).

C
n
CC
p
n p

n
p

BB BB
E E E E
(a) npn transistor (b) pnp transistor

Figure 1. BJT schematics and structures. (a) npn transistor, (b) pnp transistor

C C
 Base-Collector junctionBase-Collector junction
BB
Base-Emitter junctionBase-Emitter junction

E
E
Figure 2
Since each junction has two possible states of operation (forward or reverse bias)
the BJT with its two junctions has four possible states of operation.

For a detailed description of the BJT structure see: Jaeger and Blalock,
Microelectronic Circuit Design, McGraw Hill.
Here it is sufficient to say that the structure as shown on Figure 1 is not
symmetric. The n and p regions are different both geometrically and in terms of
the doping concentration of the regions. For example, the doping concentrations in
the collector, base and emitter may be, 1015 ,1017 and 1019 respectively. Therefore
the behavior of the device is not electrically symmetric and the two ends cannot be
interchanged.

Before proceeding let’s consider the BJT npn structure shown on Figure 3.

Base-Emit t er j unction Base-Collect or j unct ion

E n p n C
IE IC
B RC
RE
IB
- V BE + - VCB +

Figure 3. Biasing voltages of npn transistor

With the voltage VBE and VCB as shown, the Base-Emitter (B-E) junction is forward
biased and the Base-Collector (B-C) junction is reverse biased.

The current through the B-E junction is related to the B-E voltage as

IE = Is (eVBE /VT −1) (1.1)

Due to the large differences in the doping concentrations of the emitter and the
base regions the electrons injected into the base region (from the emitter region)
results in the emitter current IE . Furthermore the number of electrons injected into
the collector region is directly related to the electrons injected into the base region
from the emitter region.

Therefore, the collector current is related to the emitter current which is in turn a
function of the B-E voltage.

The voltage between two terminals controls the current through the third
terminal.

This is the basic principle of the BJT

The collector current and the base current are related by

IC =βIB (1.2)
And by applying KCL we obtain

IE = IC + IB (1.3)

And thus from equations (1.2) and (1.3) the relationship between the emitter and
the base currents is

IE = (1+β)IB (1.4)

And
equivale
ntly

IC = IE (1.5)

The fraction is called α.

For the transistors of interest β=100 which corresponds to α= 0.99 and IC IE .

The direction of the currents and the voltage polarities for the npn and the pnp
BJTs are shown on Figure 4.

C C

+
V
IB + -
- IB
V CE V BE +
+
 IC IC

BCE BVCE

IE IE

E E
(a) npn transistor (b) pnp transistor

Figure 4. Current directions and voltage polarities for npn (a) and pnp (b) BJTs

Transistor i-v characteristics

A. Transistor Voltages

Three different types of voltages are involved in the description of transistors and

transistor circuits. They are:

Transistor supply voltages: VCC , VBB .

Transistor terminal voltages: VC , VC , VE

Voltages across transistor junctions: VBE , VCE , VCB

All of these voltages and their polarities are shown on Figure 5 for the npn BJT.

Figure 5

Transistor Operation and Characteristic i-v curves

The three terminals of the transistors and the two junctions, present us with
multiple operating regimes. In order to distinguish these regimes we have to look
at the i-v characteristics of the device.

The most important characteristic of the BJT is the plot of the collector current, IC ,
versus the collector-emitter voltage, VCE , for various values of the base current, IB
as shown on the circuit of Figure 6.

IC

C
+
B VCE
IB
E

IE

Figure 6. Common emitter BJT circuit for determining output characteristics

Figure 7 shows the qualitative characteristic curves of a BJT. The plot indicates
the four regions of operation: the saturation, the cutoff, the active and the
breakdown. Each family of curves is drawn for a different base current and in this
plot IB4 > IB3 > IB2 > IB1

IC Saturation Breakdown
IB4
Active
IB3

IB2

IB1

IB=0

VCE
Cutof f
 Figure 7. BJT characteristic curve
The characteristics of each region of operation are summarized below.

1. cutoff region:
Base-emitter junction is reverse biased. No current flow

2. saturation region:
Base-emitter junction forward biased
Collector-base junction is forward biased
Ic reaches a maximum which is independent of
IB and β. No control. VCE <VBE

3. active region:
Base-emitter junction forward biased
Collector-base junction is reverse biased
Control, IC =βIB (as can be seen from Figure 7 there is a small slope of IC
with
VCE .

VBE <VCE <VCC

4. breakdown region:
IC and VCE exceed specifications
damage to the transistor

Basic BJT Applications

Switch

Consider the circuit shown on Figure 8. If the voltage vi is less than the voltage
required to forward bias the base-emitter junction then the current IB = 0 and thus
the transistor is in the cutoff region and IC = 0 . Since IC = 0 the voltage drop
across Rc is zero and so
Vo=Vcc.

If the voltage vi increases so that VBE forward biases the base-emitter junction the
transistor will turn on and
IB = vi −VBE (1.6)
RB

Once the transistor is on we still do not know if it is operating in the active region
or in the saturation region. However, KVL around the C-E loop gives

VCC = IC RC +VCE (1.7)

And so

VCE =VCC − IC RC (1.8)

Note that VCE =V0 as shown on Figure 8.

VCC

RC IC
load
Vo
RB +
vi VCE
IB +
VBE

Figure 8. npn BJT switch circuit

Equation (1.8) is the load line equation for this circuit. In graphical form it is
shown on Figure 9.
 IC
Largest current (saturation)

IB3
VCC/RC
Load li ne
IB2

IB1

VCC VCE
Figure 9

As the base current increases the transistor may operate at points along the load
line (thick dashed line on Figure 9). In the limit, the base current IB3 results in the
largest current IC . This is the saturation current and when the transistor operates at
this point it is said to be biased in the saturation mode. In saturation, the base-
collector junction is forward biased and the relationship between the base and the
collector current is not linear. Therefore the collector current at saturation is

IC (sat) = VCC −VCE (sat) (1.9)

RC

In saturation the collector-emitter voltage, VCE , is less than the VBE . Typically, the
VCE at saturation is about 0.2 Volts.
Digital Logic.
The circuit on Figure 10 shows the fundamental inverter circuit.
 VCC

RC IC

Vo
RB
vi
IB

Figure 10. Basic BJT inverter circuit

If the voltage vi is zero (low) the transistor is in the cutoff region, the current IC =
0 and the voltage V0 =VCC (high).
By contrast if the voltage vi is high, say equal to VCC , the transistor is driven into
saturation and the output is equal to VCE (sat) which is low.

With this fundamental circuit as the basis we are able to construct any other logic
operation.

Problem:
For the circuit shown below, complete the logic table:

V1 V2 V0
High Low
Low High
Low Low
high high

VCC

RC IC

Vo
RB
V1 RB
IB1 V2
IB2
Amplifier Circuit.

The basic inverter circuit also forms the basic amplifier circuit. The voltage
transfer curve (output voltage as a function of the input voltage) is the
fundamental characterization of an amplifier. For the circuit shown on Figure 11
the voltage transfer curve is shown on Figure 12.
Note the large slope of the curve in the active mode. A small change in the input
voltage VI induces a large change on the output V0 – an amplification. (we will
explore this in the laboratory)

VCC

RC IC

Vo
RB
vi
IB

Figure 11. BJT inverter amplifier

V0 Cutof f

Forw ard acti ve mo de

(large slop e)

Sa tur ation

VCE(s at)
VBE( on) VCC VI
Figure 12. Inverter amplifier voltage transfer characteristic curve
Transistor Connection

• Transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following ways

-Common base transistor
-Common Emitter transistor
-Common Collector transistor

COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

The common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the base is common to
both the input and output sides of the configuration.
COMMON EMMITER CONFIGURATION

The common-emitter terminology is derived from the fact that the emitter is
common to both the input and output sides of the configuration

COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

The common-collector terminology is derived from the fact that the collector is
common to both the input and output sides of the configuration.
Summery
DIODES
 NOTES ON DIODES AND RECTIFIERS
Definitions
What is the difference between the diode and the rectifier? As nouns, the
terms diode and rectifier are almost interchangeable. They are both
devices that allow current to flow only in one direction. The termdiode is
usually used for devices rated less than 0.5 A. The term rectifier is
usually used for devices rated greater than 0.5 A. The distinction between
diode and rectifier has nothing whatsoever to do with any difference in
the construction or with any difference in the physics of how they work.
Rectify is also a verb, “The AC current was rectified to make DC
current.”
Rectification is the process. “The signal rectification circuit used a
silicon diode.”

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:

DIODES.

diode ON: Vac = Vf (forward conduction) definition:

Vac = Vanode
cathode diode OFF:

Vac < Vf (I = 0)
· Conduct only when the forward bias exceeds the forward voltage drop of the
diode. They do not conduct when reverse biased.
· For voltage drop calculations, the current is zero if the bias is reverse or if the
bias is forward and less than the forward voltage drop Vf. If the diode is in
forward conduction, the resistance is zero and the forward voltage drop is
constant (Vf).

ZENER DIODES.

zener diode ON: Vac = Vf (forward

conduction) Vac = −Vr
(reverse conduction) zener diode OFF: −Vr <
Vac < Vf (I = 0)
 · Conduct in two different bias regions. 1) Zener diodes exhibit normal diode
behavior, they conduct when the forward bias exceeds the forward voltage
drop of the diode. 2) They conduct in the reverse direction when the
reverse bias exceeds the zener breakdown voltage.
· For voltage drop calculations, the current is zero if the bias is reverse and less
than the zener voltage, Vr, or if the bias is forward and less than the
forward voltage drop, Vf. If the diode is in forward conduction, the
resistance is zero and the forward voltage drop is constant Vf. If the diode
is in reverse conduction, the resistance is zero and the reverse voltage drop
is constant (Vr).
Diodes (normal diodes)

Diodes allow current to flow only in the forward direction. The forward
direction is shown in the schematic by the direction of the triangle.
Semiconductor diodes are formed by a pn junction. The most common
type of semiconductor diode is the silicon diode. Semiconductor pn
junction diodes can be formed from materials other than silicon, such as
germanium, selenium, and a host of semiconductor materials used in
light emitting diodes (LEDs). (The electrical characteristics of LEDs are
the same as normal diodes.)

Schematic symbol

Forward biased (Vanode > Vcathode). The diode is said to be forward biased
when the anode is more positive than the cathode. The ideal diode will
have zero resistance when forward biased, however real diodes require
that the forward bias exceed a threshold voltage Vf before forward
conduction begins. When the diode is in forward conduction, the voltage
drop across the diode is constant. The forward voltage drop is an intrinsic
property of the semiconductor material used to make the pn junction and
is related to the band gap. Thus Vf is the same for all silicon diodes.
Reverse biased (Vanode < Vcathode). The diode is said to be reverse biased
when the anode is more negative than the cathode. The ideal diode will
have infinite resistance when reverse biased. Real diodes do have some
leakage current when reverse biased. We will not need to worry about the
leakage current in this class.
If the reverse bias is great enough, the electric field within the pn
junction will cause the diode to begin to conduct in the reverse direction!
This reverse breakdown (called zener breakdown) occurs very sharply.
The large amount of current that will then flow could destroy the diode.
Special types of diodes called zener diodes are designed to operate in the
zener breakdown region. Normal diodes would be destroyed. A feature
of the zener breakdown is that the breakdown itself is determined by the
electric field in the junction. The relationship between the zener break
down voltage and the electric field in the junction is determined by the
thickness of the pn junction. Thus the zener voltage is not an intrinsic
property, but can be engineered to occur from a few volts to hundreds of
volts.
Peak Reverse Voltage This is the maximum reverse operating voltage.
Higher voltages may cause the diode to breakdown.
Current. This is the maximum current the diode is rated to conduct.
Greater currents may destroy it.
Forward Voltage Drop is the voltage drop across the diode when it is
forward conduction. For silicon diodes Vf = 0.6 V.
Zener Diodes

Zener diodes have all the same characteristics of normal diodes. The
difference is that
they are designed to operate in the reverse (zener) breakdown region. The only zener
diodes you are likely to encounter are silicon.
Schematic symbol

Practical information:

Zener Voltage. This is the reverse breakdown voltage −Vr. This is the
defining specification, Vr is typically written on the schematic like any
other component value. Current. This is the maximum current the diode
is rated to conduct. Greater currents may destroy it.
Forward Voltage Drop is the voltage drop across the diode when it is
forward conduction. For silicon diodes Vf = 0.6 V. ZENER DIODES
CONDUCT IN THE FORWARD DIRECTION AND HAVE THE
SAME FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP AS OTHER SILICON DIODES.
Counting Diode (Voltage) Drops

(Note: You will get a diode drop for each direction of

current.) Consider diodes in series between node a and
node b.
S1) Follow the path from a to b.
A) If there are any regular (non-zener) diodes pointing against the current.
No current will flow in that direction; one would simply say no conduction
(infinite voltage drop).
B) If no regular diode opposes the current, count the number of diodes in
forward conduction and the number of zener diodes in reverse conduction. The
voltage drop DUE TO THE DIODES for current flowing froma→b is the sum of
these individual voltage drops. If any resistors are also in series between a and b,
they will contribute their iR drop to the total voltage drop between a and b, but
not to the total diode drop. The diode drop represents the minimum Vab required
to get current to flow.
 S2) The total diode drop between b and a is found by reversing the direction of
current and repeating the process.
Consider diodes in parallel between node a and node b.
P1) Determine the total diode drop for each parallel leg of the circuit between a and
b. The total diode drop for each leg can be found using the procedure for series case
described above. The diode drop for the parallel combination is determined by (equal
to that of) the leg with the smallest diode drop.
P2) The total diode drop for each parallel leg of the circuit between b and a is found
by reversing the direction of current and repeating the process.
Power Dissipation in Diodes

When a diode is conducting, power is dissipated (lost) in the diode

because there is both a voltage drop across it and a current through it.

diode ON: forward conduction: P = IVf (Note Vf is a constant!)

reverse conduction: P = IVr (Zener ONLY!!! Note Vr is a constant!)
diode OFF: P = 0 (I = 0)
Diodes are nonlinear devices: V/I ≠ constant! For diodes, resistance not
constant, it is a dynamic property. Thus we cannot use Ohm’s Law to
define the power in terms of current and resistance or voltage and
resistance as we did for resistors!!
The Check Valve Analogy. An excellent analogy of how rectifiers work is the fluid
check valve. In fluids the analogy of voltage is the pressure and of current is the flow rate.
.
For example, you could be ask to count diode drops between two points
in the circuit, or between one point and common (ground). To do this
you will need to count the number of diodes along the DC path between
these two points.
· The diodes along this path MUST be pointed in the same direction on the
path, so that a DC current could flow along the path.
· The path cannot go through a capacitor, because capacitors block DC
current, thus would not be a DC path.
· The direction of the path with respect to the diodes is not important.
Tracing a path opposite to the direction of the diodes simply means the
current would flow in the opposite direction, but this is still a valid DC
path.
· Note that the DC path may flow through the common. All points
connected to common are in fact connected together. Common is a single
node!

Diode drops with two or more parallel paths

· If there is more than one DC path, with the diodes pointed the
same direction
(current flowing the same direction between the two nodes), the
number of diodes drops equal to the smallest number. If one of the
DC paths has no diodes, the number of diode drops is zero.
· It is possible to have a different DC path for each direction of
current. In this case you can have a different diode drop for each
direction of current flow.

Current flow in parallel paths containing diodes.

· For very small currents, the voltage drop across resistors can be
ignored in comparison to the voltage drop across the diodes. The
current will flow through the path with the smallest diode drop.
· If there are resistors in the path, increasing current will increase
the voltage drop across the resistors. The total voltage drop along
that path will be the sum of the voltage drops in the resistors and
the diode drops. Under this condition, additional current may flow
through parallel paths with higher diode drops. The details depend
on the circuit.

INTERGRATED CIRCUITS (ICs)

 he circuits discussed so far

T in the text consisted of

separately manufactured
components (e.g. resistors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors etc.)
joined by wires or plated
conductors on printed boards.
Such circuits are known as discrete circuits because each component added to the
circuit is discrete (i.e. distinct or separate) from the others. Discrete circuits have
two main disadvantages. Firstly, in a large circuit (e.g. TV circuit, computer
circuit) there may be hundreds of components and consequently discrete assembly
would occupy a large space. Secondly, there will be hundreds of soldered points
posing a considerable problem of reliability. To meet these problems of space
conservation and reliability, engineers started a drive for miniaturized circuits.
This led to the development of microelectronics in the late 1950s.
Microelectronics is the branch of electronics engineering which deals with micro-
circuits. A micro-circuit is simply a miniature assembly of electronic components.
One type of such circuit is the integrated circuit, generally abbreviated as IC. An
integrated circuit has various components such as resistors, capacitors, diodes,
transistors etc. fabricated on a small semiconductor chip. How circuits containing
hundreds of components are fabricated on a small semiconductor chip to produce
an IC is a fascinating feat of microelectronics. This has not only fulfilled the
everincreasing demand of industries for electronic equipment of smaller size,
lighter weight and low power requirements, but it has also resulted in high degree
of reliability. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the various aspects of
integrated circuits.
23.1 Integrated Circuit
An integrated circuit is one in which circuit
components such as transistors, diodes,
resistors, capacitors etc. are automatically part
of a small semiconductor chip.
An integrated circuit consists of a number of
circuit components (e.g. transistors, diodes,
resistors etc.) and their inter connections in a
single small package to perform a complete
electronic function. These components are
formed and connected within a small chip of semiconductor material. The
following points are worth noting about integrated circuits : Fig. 23.1
(i) In an IC, the various components are automatically part of a small semi-
conductor chip and the individual components cannot be removed or replaced.
 This is in contrast to discrete assembly in which individual components can be
removed or replaced if necessary.
(ii) The size of an *IC is extremely small. In fact, ICs are so small that you
normally need a microscope to see the connections between the components. Fig.
23.1 shows a typical semi-conductor chip having dimensions 0.2 mm × 0.2 mm ×
0.001 mm. It is possible to produce circuits containing many transistors, diodes,
resistors etc. on the surface of this small chip.
(iii) No components of an IC are seen to project above the surface of the chip.
This is because all the components are formed within the chip.
23.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Integrated Circuits
Integrated circuits free the equipment designer from the need to construct circuits
with individual discrete components such as transistors, diodes and resistors.
With the exception of a few very simple circuits, the availability of a large number
of low-cost integrated circuits have
largely rendered discrete circuitry
obsolete. It is, therefore, desirable to
mention the significant advantages of
integrated circuits over discrete circuits.
However, integrated circuits have some
disadvantages and continuous efforts
are on to overcome them.
Advantages : Integrated circuits
possess the following advantages over
discrete circuits :
(i) Increased reliability due to lesser number of connections.
(ii) Extremely small size due to the fabrication of various circuit elements in a
single chip
of semi-conductor material. Integrated circuits
(iii) Lesser weight and **space requirement due to miniaturized circuit.
* Since it combines both active (e.g., transistors, diodes etc.) and passive
elements (e.g., resistors, capacitors etc.) in a monolithic structure, the
complete unit is called an integrated circuit.
** Typically, this is about 10% of the space required by comparable discrete
assembly.
(iv) Low power requirements.
(v) Greater ability to operate at extreme values of temperature.
(vi) Low cost because of simultaneous production of hundreds of alike circuits
on a small semiconductor wafer.
(vii)The circuit lay out is greatly simplified because integrated circuits are
constrained to use minimum number of external connections.
Disadvantages : The disadvantages of integrated circuits are :
(i) If any component in an IC goes out of order, the whole IC has to be
replaced by the new one.
(ii) In an IC, it is neither convenient nor economical to fabricate capacitances
exceeding 30 pF. Therefore, for high values of capacitance, discrete components
exterior to IC chip are connected.
(iii) It is not possible to fabricate inductors and transformers on the surface of
semi-conductor chip. Therefore, these components are connected exterior to the
semi-conductor chip.
(iv) It is not possible to produce high power ICs ( greater than 10 W ).
(v) There is a lack of flexibility in an IC i.e., it is generally not possible to
modify the parameters within which an integrated circuit will operate.
23.3 Inside an IC Package
The IC units are fast replacing the discrete components in all electronic
equipment. These are similar to the discrete circuits that they replaced. However,
there are some points to be noted. An integrated circuit (IC) usually contains only
transistors, diodes and resistors. It is usually very difficult to form inductors in an
IC. Also, only very small capacitors, in the picofarad range, can be included.
When inductors and large values of C are needed, they are connected externally to
an IC. The various components in an IC are so small that they cannot be seen with
a naked eye. Therefore, individual components cannot be removed or replaced. If
a single component within an IC fails, the complete IC is replaced. When studying
circuits using ICs, we are more concerned with the external connections to the ICs
than with what is actually going on inside. We cannot get into an IC to repair its
internal circuitry.
23.4 IC Classifications
Four basic types of constructions are employed in the manufacture of integrated
circuits, namely ; (i) mono-lithic (ii) thin-film (iii) thick-film (iv) hybrid.
Monolithic ICs are by far the most common type used in practice. Therefore, in
this chapter we shall confine our attention to the construction of this type of ICs
only. It may be worthwhile to mention here that regardless of the type of method
used to fabricate active and passive components, the basic characteristics and
circuit operation of an IC are the same as for any of their counterparts in a similar
circuit using separate circuit components.
23.5 Making Monolithic IC
A monolithic IC is one in which all circuit components and their inter-
connections are formed on a single thin wafer called the substrate.
The word monolithic is from Greek and means “one stone.” The word is
appropriate because all the components are part of one chip. Although we are
mainly interested in using ICs, yet it is profitable to know something about their
fabrication. The basic production processes for the monolithic ICs are as follow :
(i) p-Substrate. This is the first step in the making of an IC. A cylindrical p-
type *silicon crystal is grown having typical dimensions 25 cm long and 2.5 cm
diameter [See Fig. 23.2 (i)] . The crystal is then cut by a diamond saw into many
thin wafers like Fig. 23.2 (ii) , the typical thickness of
* Since silicon possesses characteristics which are best suited to IC
manufacturing processes.
the wafer being 200 µm. One side of wafer is polished to get rid of surface
imperfections. This wafer is called the substrate. The ICs are produced on this
wafer.

Fig. 23.2
(ii) Epitaxial n layer. The next step is to put the wafers in a diffusion
furnace. A gas mixture of silicon atoms and pentavalent atoms is passed over the
wafers. This forms a thin layer of n- type

Fig. 23.3
semi-conductor on the heated surface of substrate [See Fig. 23.3 (i) ]. This thin
layer is called the *epitaxial layer and is about 10 µm thick. It is in this layer that
the whole integrated circuit is formed.
(iii) Insulating layer. In order to prevent the contamination of the epitaxial
layer, a thin SiO2 layer about 1µm thick is deposited over the entire surface as
shown in Fig. 23.3 (ii) . This is achieved by passing
pure oxygen over the epitaxial layer. The oxygen
atoms combine with silicon atoms to form a layer of
silicon dioxide (SiO2).
(iv) Producing components. By the process of
**diffusion, appropriate materials are added to the
substrate at specific locations to produce diodes,
transistors, resistors and capacitors. The production of
these components on the wafer is discussed in Art 23.6.
(v) Etching. Before any impurity is added to the
substrate, the oxide layer (i.e. SiO2 layer) is etched. The
process of etching exposes the epitaxial layer and
permits the production of desired components. The
terminals are processed by etching the oxide layer at the Fig. 23.4
desired locations.
(vi) Chips. In practice, the wafer shown in Fig. 23.4 is divided into a large
number of areas. Each of these areas will be a separate chip. The manufacturer
produces hundreds of alike ICs on the wafer over each area. To separate the
individual ICs, the
* The word “epitaxial” is derived from the Greek language and means
arranged upon.
** In IC construction, diffusion is the process of deliberately adding controlled
impurities at specific locations of substrate by thermal processes.
wafer is divided into small chips by a process similar to glass cutting. This is
illustrated in Fig. 23.4. It may be seen that hundreds of alike ICs can be produced
from a small wafer. This simultaneous mass production is the reason for the low
cost of integrated circuits.
After the chip is cut, it is bonded to its mounting and connections are made
between the IC and external leads. The IC is then encapsulated to prevent it from
becoming contaminated by the surrounding atmosphere.
23.6 Fabrication of Components on Monolithic IC
The notable feature of an IC is that it comprises a number of circuit elements
inseparably associated in a single small package to perform a complete electronic
function. This differs from discrete assembly where separately manufactured
components are joined by wires. We shall now see how various circuit elements
(e.g. diodes, transistors, resistors etc.) can be constructed in an IC form.

Fig. 23.5

(i) Diodes. One or more diodes are formed by diffusing one or more small n-
type deposits at appropriate locations on the substrate. Fig. 23.5 shows how a
diode is formed on a portion of substrate of a monolithic IC. Part of SiO2 layer is
etched off, exposing the epitaxial layer as shown in Fig. 23.5 (i) . The wafer is
then put into a furnace and trivalent atoms are diffused into the epitaxial layer.
The trivalent atoms change the exposed epitaxial layer from n-type semi-
conductor to p- type. Thus we get an island of n-type material under the SiO2
layer as shown in Fig. 23.5 (ii).
Next pure oxygen is passed over the wafer to form a complete SiO2 layer as shown
in Fig. 23.5 (iii). A hole is then etched at the centre of this layer ; thus exposing
the n- epitaxial layer [See Fig. 23.5 (iv)]. This hole in SiO2 layer is called a
window. Now we pass trivalent atoms through the window. The trivalent atoms
diffuse into the epitaxial layer to form an island of p- type material as shown in
Fig. 23.5 (v). The SiO2 layer is again formed on the wafer by blowing pure
oxygen over the wafer [See Fig. 23.5 (vi)]. Thus a p-n junction diode is formed on
the substrate.
The last step is to attach the terminals. For this purpose, we etch the SiO2 layer at
the desired locations as shown in Fig 23.6 (i) . By depositing metal at these
locations, we make electrical contact with the anode and cathode of the integrated
diode. Fig. 23.6 (ii) shows the electrical circuit of the diode.

Fig. 23.6
(ii) Transistors. Transistors are formed by using the same principle as for
diodes. Fig. 23.7 shows how a transistor is formed on a portion of the substrate of
a monolithic IC. For this purpose, the steps used for fabricating the diode are
carried out upto the point where p island has been formed and sealed off [See Fig.
23.5 (vi) above]. This Fig. is repeated as Fig. 23.7 (i) and shall be taken as the
starting point in order to avoid repetition.
 Fig. 23.7

A window is now formed at the centre of SiO2 layer, thus exposing the p- epitaxial
layer as shown in Fig. 23.7(ii) . Then we pass pentavalent atoms through the
window. The pentavalent atoms diffuse into the epitaxial layer to form an island
of n-type material as shown in Fig. 23.7 (iii). The SiO2 layer is re-formed over the
wafer by passing pure oxygen [See Fig. 23.7 (iv)] . The terminals are processed
by etching the SiO2 layer at appropriate locations and depositing the metal at these
locations as shown in Fig. 23.7 (v). In this way, we get the integrated transistor.
Fig. 23.7 (vi) shows the electrical circuit of a transistor.
(iii) Resistors. Fig. 23.8 shows how a resistor is formed on a portion of the
substrate of a monolithic IC. For this purpose, the steps used for fabricating diode
are carried out upto the point where n island has been formed and sealed off
[Refer back to Fig. 23.5 (iii)] . This figure is repeated as Fig. 23.8 (i) and shall be
taken as the starting point in order to avoid repetition.
A window is now formed at the centre of SiO2 layer, thus exposing the n- epitaxial
layer as shown in Fig. 23.8 (ii). Then we diffuse a p-type material into the n-type
area as shown in Fig. 23.8 (iii) . The SiO2 layer is re-formed over the wafer by
passing pure oxygen [See Fig. 23.8 (iv)] . The terminals are processed by etching
SiO2 layer at two points above the p island and depositing the metal at these
locations [See Fig. 23.8 (v)]. In this way, we get an integrated resistor. Fig. 23.8
(vi) shows the electrical circuit of a resistor.
 Fig. 23.8

The value of resistor is determined by the material, its length and area of cross-
section. The high-resistance resistors are long and narrow while low-resistance
resistors are short and of greater cross-section.

Fig. 23.9
(iv) Capacitors. Fig. 23.9 shows the process of fabricating a capacitor in the
monolithic IC. The first step is to diffuse an n- type material into the substrate
which forms one plate of the capacitor as shown in Fig. 23.9 (i). Then SiO2 layer
is re-formed over the wafer by passing pure oxygen as shown in Fig. 23.9 (ii).
The SiO2 layer formed acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. The oxide layer is
etched and terminal 1 is added as shown in Fig. 23.9 (iii) . Next a large
(compared to the electrode at terminal 1) metallic electrode is deposited on the
SiO2 layer and forms the second plate of the capacitor. The oxide layer is etched
and terminal 2 is added. This gives an integrated capacitor. The value of
capacitor formed depends upon the dielectric constant of SiO2 layer, thickness of
SiO2 layer and the area of cross-section of the smaller of the two electrodes.
23.7 Simple Monolithic ICs
It has been seen above that individual components can be integrated in a
monolithic IC. We shall now see how an electronic circuit comprising different
components is produced in an IC form. The key point to keep in mind is that
regardless of the complexity of the circuit, it is mainly a process of etching
windows, forming p and n islands, and
connecting the integrated components.
(i) Two-diode IC. Fig. 23.10 (i) shows a
two-diode IC with a common anode whereas Fig.
23.10 (ii) shows a two-diode IC with individual
anode.
Two points are worth noting. Firstly, any circuit
[ like the one shown in Fig 23.10 (i) or Fig 23.10
(ii)] is not integrated individually ; rather
hundreds of alike circuits are simultaneously
fabricated on a wafer. The wafer is then cut into chips so that each chip area
represents one circuit. This is the key factor for low cost of ICs and is exerting
considerable influence on electronics engineers to switch over to IC technology.
Secondly, ICs are usually not as simple as shown in Fig. 23.10. In fact, actual ICs
Monolithic IC contain a large number of components.

Fig. 23.10
(ii) Another simple IC. Fig.23.11 shows an IC consisting of a capacitor,
resistor, diode and transistor connected in series. The interconnection of the
circuit elements is accomplished by extending the metallic deposits from terminal
to terminal of adjacent components.
It is interesting to see that p substrate isolates the integrated components from each
other. Thus referring to Fig. 23.11, depletion layers exist between p substrate and
the four n islands touching it. As the depletion layers have virtually no current
carriers, therefore, the integrated components are insulated from each other.
23.8 IC Packings
In order to protect ICs from external environment and to provide mechanical
protection, various forms of encapsulation are used for integrated circuits. Just as
with semi-conductor devices, IC
Plastics are cheaper than hermatic but are still not regarded as satisfactory in
extremes of temperature and humidity. Although ICs appeared in the market
several years ago, yet the standardisation of packages started only in the recent
years. The three most popular types of IC packages are shown in Fig. 23.12.
(i) Fig. 23.12 (i) shows TO-5 package* which resembles a small signal
transistor in both appearance and size but differs in that it has either 8, 10 or 12
pigtail-type leads. The close leads spacing and the difficulty of removal from a
printed circuit board has diminished the popularity of this package with the users.
(ii) Fig. 23.12 (ii) shows a flat pack container with 14 leads, seven on each
side.
(iii) Fig. 23.12 (iii) shows the dual-in-line (DIL) pack in 14-lead version. The
14-pin DIL is the
* This was the earliest type of package and it was natural for the semi-
conductor manufactures to use modified transistor cases.
most popular form and has seven connecting pairs per side. The pairs of pins of
this pack are in line with one another, the pins being 2.5 mm apart to allow IC to
be fitted directly into the standard printed circuit boards.
23.9 IC Symbols
In general, no standard symbols exist for ICs. Often the circuit diagram merely
shows a block with numbered terminals. However, sometimes standard symbols
are used for operational amplifiers or digital logic gates. Some of the symbols
used with ICs are shown below.

Fig. 23.13 Fig. 23.14

Fig. 23.13 shows the symbol of an IC r-f amplifier containing 3 transistors, 3
resistors and 8 terminals. Similarly, Fig. 23.14 shows an IC audio amplifier which
contain 6 transistors, 2 diodes, 17 resistors and has 12 terminals.
23.10 Scale of Integration
An IC chip may contain as large as 100,000 semiconductor devices or other
components. The relative number of these components within the chip is given by
referring to its scale of integration. The following terminology is commonly used.
Scale of integration Abbreviation Number of components
Small *SSI 1 to 20
Medium MSI 20 to 100
Large LSI 100 to 1000
Very large VLSI 1000 to 10,000
Super large SLSI 10 ,000 to 100,000
23.11 Some Circuits Using ICs
Integrated circuits are fairly complex because they contain a large number of
circuit components within a small semiconductor chip. While studying circuits
using ICs, we are more concerned with the external connections to the IC rather
than what is actually going on inside.
(i) IC Fixed 5-volt Voltage Regulator. The IC voltage regulator is a device
that is used to hold the output voltage from a dc power supply constant as the
input voltage or load current changes. For example, LM 309 (fixed postive)
provides a + 5 V d.c. output. This regulator is frequently used in digital circuits.
Fig. 23.15 shows the circuit of the voltage regulator using LM 309. It is a three
terminal device with terminals labelled as input, output and ground terminal. It
provides a fixed 5 V between the output and ground terminals.
* SSI stands for small scale integration.
 Fig. 23.15
The LM 309 has a number of advantages over the zener diode. First, it is much
more accurate than the zener diode. Secondly, there is built-in overload
protection. The LM 309 also has overheating protection. If the internal
temperature becomes excessive, it shuts off until the temperature is reduced, at
which point it will start up again.
(ii) IC Adjustable Voltage Regulator. Sometimes, we want a voltage
regulator whose voltage we can vary. An example of such a voltage regulator is
LM 317 whose schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 23.16. By varying the value
of R2, the output voltage of the regulator can be adjusted. The following equation
is used to determine the regulated d.c. output voltage for an LM 317 regulator

Vout = 1.25 ⎜⎛⎝ R R1 2 +1⎟⎞ ⎠

circuit :

Example 23.1. In LM 317 voltage regulator shown in Fig. 23.16, R2 is adjusted to

2.4 kΩ. If the value of R1 is 240 Ω, determine the regulated d.c. output voltage for
the circuit.

Fig. 23.16
⎛ R2 ⎞

⎝
Solution. Vout = 1.25 ⎜ R1 +1⎟⎠

= 1.25 ⎛⎝ 2.4240 kΩΩ +1⎟ ⎠ = 13.75 V

⎜ ⎞

(iii) The 555 Timer as monostable multivibrator. Fig. 23.17 shows the
circuit of the 555 timer as a monostable multivibrator. The R and C are the
external components whose values determine the time T ( in seconds) for which
the circuit is on. This time is given by ;
T = 1.1 RC

Fig. 23.17
Example 23.2. The monostable multivibrator like the one in Fig. 23.17 has the
values of R =
1.2 kΩ and C = 0.1 μF. Determine the time T for which the circuit is on.
Solution. The time T for which the circuit is on is given by ;
T = 1.1 RC = 1.1(1.2 × 103) (0.1 × 10– 6)
= 132 × 10– 6s = 132 μs
(iv) The 555 Timer as astable multivibrator. Fig. 23.18 shows the 555 timer
as an astable multibrator. Note that the circuit contains two resistors (R1 and R2)
and one capacitor (C) and does not have an input from any other circuit. The lack
of a triggering signal from an external source is the circuit recognition feature of
the astable multivibrator.

Fig. 23.18
The time T1 for which the output is ‘high’ is given by ;
T1 = 0.694 (R1 + R2) C
The time T2 for which the output is ‘low’ is given by ;

∴ Total period T for the oscillation is

T2 = 0.694 R2C

T = T1 + T2 = 0.694 (R1 + 2 R2) C

The frequency f of the astable multivibrator is given by ;
1= 1 = 1.44
f=

T 0.694 (R1 + 2R2) C (R1 + 2R2 ) C

Note that f will be in Hz if resistance is in ohms and capacitance in farads.
Example 23.3. Determine the frequency of the circuit shown in Fig. 23.18. Given
that R1 = 3 kΩ ; R2 = 2.7 kΩ and C = 0.033 μF.
Solution. The frequency of the circuit is given by ;

f Here R1 + 2R2 = 3 kΩ + 2 × 2.7 kΩ = 8.4 × R RC

∴
103Ω ;
f C = 0.033 μF = 0.033 × 10– 6 F

= 5.19 × 103 Hz = 5.19 kHz

(v) Op-Amp Half-wave Rectifier. Fig. 23.19 shows the half-wave rectifier
using an *OpAmp. The use of Op-Amp greatly reduces the effect of diode offset
voltage and allows the circuit to be used in the millivolt region.

Fig. 23.19
When the input signal goes positive, the output of Op-Amp goes positive and turns
on the diode. The circuit then acts like a voltage follower and the positive half-
cycle appears across the load resistor RL. On the other hand, when the input goes
negative, the Op-Amp output goes negative and turns off the diode. Since the
diode is open, no voltage appears
across the load resistor RL.
Therefore, the voltage across RL is
almost a perfect half-wave signal.
(vi) Logarithmic amplifier.
A logarithmic amplifier produces
an output voltage that is
proportional to the logarithm of
the input voltage. If you place a
**diode in the feedback loop of an Fig. 23.20
Op-Amp as shown in Fig. 23.20, you have a log amplifier. The output is limited to
a maximum value of about 0.7V because the diodes logarithmic characteristic is
limited to voltages below 0.7V.
Now-a-days, Op-Amp is produced as an IC.
The forward characteristic of a diode is logarithmic upto a forward voltage of
about 0.7V.
Also, the input must be positive when the diode is connected in the direction
shown in Fig. 23.20. To handle negative inputs, you should reverse the direction
of the diode. Fig. 23.21