Intro.
md 2024-09-04
1. Introduction to SQL
SQL (Structured Query Language) is the cornerstone of managing and interacting with relational databases.
It’s a standardized language that allows users to perform various operations on the data stored in a database,
such as querying, updating, and managing the database structure. SQL is essential for developers, data
analysts, and database administrators who work with relational databases.
History of SQL
Origin and Development
Early 1970s: SQL was developed at IBM by Raymond Boyce and Donald Chamberlin. Initially named
SEQUEL (Structured English Query Language), it was designed to manipulate and retrieve data stored in
IBM's first relational database, System R.
Renaming: Due to trademark issues, SEQUEL was renamed SQL.
User-Friendly Syntax: The language was designed with a syntax that is close to natural English, making
it easier for users to learn and apply compared to previous query languages.
Standardization
1986: The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standardized SQL, making it a universally
recognized language for database management.
1987: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) adopted SQL as a standard, further
solidifying its position in the industry.
Evolution: SQL has evolved over the years with various versions introducing new features such as
support for XML, triggers, and procedural extensions like PL/SQL (Procedural Language/SQL) and T-SQL
(Transact-SQL).
Importance of SQL in Database Management
Data Manipulation: SQL allows efficient querying, updating, and deletion of data.
Cross-Platform Consistency: Being a standardized language, SQL ensures that data manipulation and
retrieval are consistent across different database management systems (DBMS) like MySQL, PostgreSQL,
Oracle, and SQL Server.
Scalability: SQL can handle large datasets, making it suitable for both small applications and large
enterprise systems.
What is SQL?
Definition and Purpose
SQL is a programming language specifically designed for managing and manipulating relational
databases. It allows users to define the structure of the data (using DDL - Data Definition Language),
manipulate the data itself (using DML - Data Manipulation Language), control access to the data (using
DCL - Data Control Language), and manage transactions (using TCL - Transaction Control Language).
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Overview of Relational Databases
Relational Database: A collection of data organized into tables (also known as relations). Each table
consists of rows (records) and columns (attributes).
Relationships: Tables can be related to each other through keys (Primary Key, Foreign Key), enabling
complex queries that retrieve data from multiple tables.
Normalization: A process used in relational databases to reduce redundancy and improve data
integrity by organizing data into related tables.
SQL Syntax
Basic SQL Syntax Rules
Case-Insensitive: SQL keywords can be written in uppercase or lowercase, but the standard convention
is to write them in uppercase for readability.
Semicolon (;): SQL statements usually end with a semicolon, especially in environments where
multiple statements are executed sequentially.
Comments:
Single-line comments: -- This is a comment
Multi-line comments: /* This is a multi-line comment */
Structure of SQL Statements
A basic SQL query typically follows this structure:
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
SELECT: Specifies the columns of data to retrieve.
FROM: Specifies the table from which to retrieve the data.
WHERE: Filters the results based on a specific condition.
Example:
SELECT ProductName, Price
FROM Products
WHERE Price > 500;
This query retrieves the names and prices of products that cost more than $500 from the Products table.
Writing Your First SQL Query
Let’s write a simple SQL query step by step:
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1. Scenario: Retrieve the names and cities of customers who are located in the USA from the Customers
table.
2. Query:
SELECT CustomerName, City
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'USA';
3. Explanation:
SELECT CustomerName, City: Specifies the columns to be retrieved.
FROM Customers: Indicates the table where the data is stored.
WHERE Country = 'USA': Filters the results to include only customers from the USA.
Additional Example Tables
To better understand how SQL works with relational databases, consider the following example tables:
Products Table
A table that stores information about products.
ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Price
1 Laptop 1 2 800
2 Smartphone 2 1 600
3 Tablet 3 2 300
Columns:
ProductID: Unique identifier for each product.
ProductName: Name of the product.
SupplierID: ID of the supplier providing the product.
CategoryID: ID of the category to which the product belongs.
Price: Price of the product.
Sample Query:
SELECT ProductName, Price
FROM Products
WHERE CategoryID = 2;
This query retrieves the names and prices of products in category 2 (e.g., Electronics).
Orders Table
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A table that stores information about customer orders.
OrderID CustomerID OrderDate TotalAmount
101 1 2024-08-10 1500
102 2 2024-08-11 2000
103 1 2024-08-12 500
Columns:
OrderID: Unique identifier for each order.
CustomerID: ID of the customer who placed the order.
OrderDate: Date when the order was placed.
TotalAmount: Total amount for the order.
Sample Query:
SELECT OrderID, TotalAmount
FROM Orders
WHERE CustomerID = 1;
This query retrieves the order IDs and total amounts for orders placed by customer 1.
Visual Representation of Relationships
Here’s how these two tables (Products and Orders) could be related in a relational database:
Products Table: Stores product details.
Orders Table: Stores order details and may reference products through a foreign key (though not
explicitly shown in this example).
This relationship allows for complex queries that retrieve data from both tables, such as finding all orders that
include a specific product.
Example Query Using JOIN:
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Products.ProductName, Orders.TotalAmount
FROM Orders
JOIN OrderDetails ON Orders.OrderID = OrderDetails.OrderID
JOIN Products ON OrderDetails.ProductID = Products.ProductID
WHERE Products.ProductName = 'Laptop';
This query retrieves all orders that include the product 'Laptop', showing the order ID, product name, and
total amount.
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