Transformers

Stephen J. chapman
Types of transformer

Shell form transformer Core form transformer

 Construction of transformer

1. Less leakage flux.

2. Core insulated from high voltage winding

transformer - How do they get good primary-secondary isolation on

concentric windings? - Electrical Engineering Stack Exchange
The ideal transformer
The ideal transformer

𝑣𝑝(𝑡) 𝑁𝑝𝑖𝑠(𝑡)
• = = =𝑎
𝑣𝑠(𝑡) 𝑁𝑠 𝑖𝑝(𝑡)
• Voltage polarities are same at dotted ends.
• Current directions are apposite at dotted ends
• 𝑃𝑖𝑛=𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑃 cos 𝜃𝑃
• 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡=𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 cos 𝜃𝑠
• 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛
• 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛
• 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛
Impedance transformation
𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝑆
• Consider a load 𝑍𝐿 = =
𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝑆
• Apparent impedance of the primary circuit
• 𝑧𝐿′ = 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑎𝑉 𝑆
= 𝑎 2 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑎2 𝑍
𝐿
𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑆
𝑎
• The process of replacing one side of a transformer with its equivalent
at the other side’s voltage level is known as referring the first side of
the transformer to the second side.
 𝑉 480∠0
• 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = = 90.8∠−37.8𝑜 𝐴
𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒+𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (0.18𝛺+𝑗0.24𝛺)+(4𝛺+𝑗3𝛺)

• 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 90.8∠−37.8𝑜 5∠36.9𝑜 = 454∠−0.9𝑜

• Line losses

• 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = (𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 )2 𝑅𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = (90.8A )2 0.18𝛺 = 1484W

• Eliminate transformer T2 by referring the load over to the
transmission line’s voltage level
• Load impedance reflected to the transmission system’s voltage is
10 2
′ 2
• 𝑧 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑎 𝑍𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = ( ) (4𝛺 + 𝑗3𝛺)
1
• Total impedance at transmission level is
• 𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 400.18𝛺 + 𝑗300.24𝛺 = 500.3∠36.88𝑜
• Impedance reflected to the source’s voltage level
1 2
• 𝑧′𝑒𝑞= 𝑎2 𝑍
𝑒𝑞 == ( 10 ) 0.18𝛺 + 𝑗0.24𝛺 + 400𝛺 + 𝑗300𝛺 =
5.003∠36.88𝑜
• 𝑧′𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0.0018𝛺+ 𝑗0.0024𝛺 𝑧′ ′𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 4𝛺+ 𝑗3𝛺
 480∠0 480∠0
• 𝐼𝐺 = = = 95.94∠−36.88𝑜 𝐴
4.0018𝛺+𝑗3.0024𝛺 5.003∠36.88𝑜𝛺

𝑁𝑃 1
• 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1𝐼
𝐺 = 10 95.94∠−36.8𝑜 𝐴 = 9.594∠−36.88𝑜 𝐴
𝑁𝑆
1

𝑁𝑃 10
• 𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 2𝐼
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1 9.594∠−36.8𝑜 𝐴 = 95.94∠−36.88𝑜 𝐴
𝑁𝑆
2

• 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = (95.94∠−36.88𝑜 𝐴)(5∠36.87𝑜 𝛺)

• =479.7∠−0.01𝑜 𝑉
• 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = (𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 )2 𝑅𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒= (9.594A)2 0.18𝛺 = 16.7W

• Line loss reduced by 1484𝑊 = 90 times

16.7𝑊
Real Transformers
𝑑𝜆
• 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −
𝑑𝑡

• 𝜆 =∑ 𝑁
𝑖=1 ∅ 𝑖

•∅=𝜆
𝑁

• 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −𝑁 𝑑∅
𝑑𝑡
Real transformers
−1
• ∅𝑃 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑃 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑁𝑃

• ∅𝑃= ∅𝑀 + ∅𝐿𝑃

• ∅𝑆= ∅𝑀 + ∅𝐿𝑠

𝑑∅𝑃
• 𝑣𝑃 (𝑡) = 𝑁𝑃
𝑑𝑡
• 𝑣𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑃 𝑑∅𝑀 + 𝑁𝑃 𝑑∅𝐿𝑃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• 𝑣𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑒𝑃 𝑡 + 𝑒𝐿𝑃 𝑡

• 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) = 𝑁𝑆 𝑑∅𝑆
𝑑𝑡

𝑑∅𝑀 𝑑∅𝐿𝑆
• 𝑣𝑆 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑆 + 𝑁𝑆
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• 𝑣𝑆 𝑡 = 𝑒𝑆 𝑡 + 𝑒𝐿𝑆 𝑡
𝑒𝑃 𝑡 𝑁𝑝 𝑣𝑃(𝑡)
• = =𝑎 ≈
𝑒𝑠(𝑡) 𝑁𝑠 𝑣𝑆(𝑡)
Excitation current and Magnetization current
• Excitation current
The non zero primary current when secondary circuit is open circuited.
Excitation current consists of magnetization current and core loss current.
• Magnetization current
The current required to produce the flux in the core.
• Core loss current
The current required to make up for hysteresis and eddy currents in the
core.

• Reading assignment ( see details of excitation current from textbook )

Basis of ideal
transformer
• Zero eddy current
• Zero hysteresis
• Zero flux leakage
• Zero winding resistance
• Ideal magnetization curve
• as shown in figure
The equivalent Circuit of a transformer
• Copper losses (𝐼2 𝑅) are resistive heating losses in the winding
modelled by series resistance 𝑅𝑃

• Leakage flux is modelled by series reactance 𝑋𝑃.

• Core losses (hysteresis and eddy currents) is

modelled by a parallel resistance 𝑅𝑐

• Magnetization current is modelled by parallel reactance 𝑋𝑀.

The equivalent Circuit of a transformer
a) The transformer model
referred to its primary
voltage level.

b) The transformer model

referred to its secondary
voltage level.
Approximate equivalent circuits
Approximate equivalent circuits
 Determining component values: Open circuit
test
• For calculating Impedance of excitation current branch 𝑅𝑐 ∥ j𝑋𝑀 .

• All currents flow through excitation branch. Series Impedance ignored.

1
• 𝑍𝐸 = 𝑅𝑐 ∥ j𝑋𝑀 =
𝑌𝐸

• 𝑌𝐸 = 𝐺𝐶 −𝑗𝐵𝑀
• 𝑌𝐸 = 𝐼𝑂𝐶
𝑉𝑂𝐶

𝑃𝑂𝐶
• 𝜃 = cos−1
𝑉𝑂𝐶𝐼𝑂𝐶

• Power factor is Always lagging.

𝐼𝑂𝐶
• 𝑌𝐸 = ∠−𝜃
𝑉𝑂𝐶
 Determining component values: Short circuit
test
• For calculating Impedance of series impedance

• Negligible current flow through excitation branch (ignored)

• 𝑍𝑆𝐸 =
𝑉 𝑆𝐶
𝐼 𝑆𝐶

𝑃𝑆𝐶
• 𝜃 = cos−1
𝑉𝑆𝐶𝐼𝑆𝐶
• 𝑍𝑆𝐸 = 𝑉𝑆𝐶 ∠𝜃
𝐼𝑆𝐶

• 𝑍𝑆𝐸 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞

• 𝑍𝑆𝐸 = 𝑅𝑃 + 𝑎2 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑗(𝑋𝑝 + 𝑎2 𝑋𝑒𝑞 )

 Open circuit test and short circuit test
• For short circuit test, usually low voltage side of transformer is short
circuited.

• For open circuit test, usually high voltage side of transformer is open
circuited.

• All elements must be referred to same side to create final circuit.

 8000
•𝑎 = = 33.33
240

𝑃𝑂𝐶
• 𝑃𝐹 = cos 𝜃 = = 0.234 lagging
𝑉𝑂𝐶𝐼𝑂𝐶

𝐼𝑂𝐶 1 1
• 𝑌𝐸 = ∠− cos−1 𝑃𝐹 = 0.0297∠−76.5° = −𝑗
𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑋𝑀

1 1
• 𝑅𝐶 = 𝛺 = 144, 𝑋𝑀 = 𝛺 = 34
0.00693 0.02888
 𝑃𝑆𝐶
• 𝑃𝐹 = cos 𝜃 = = 0.196 lagging
𝑉𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶

𝑉𝑆𝐶
• 𝑍𝑆𝐸 = ∠ cos−1 𝑃𝐹 = 195.6∠78.7° = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞
𝐼𝑆𝐶

• 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 38.4𝛺 , 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 192𝛺

𝑅 = (33.33) 2 144𝛺 = 159k𝛺

• 𝐶𝑃
#
• 𝑋𝑀𝑃 = (33.33)2 34.63𝛺 = 38.4𝑘𝛺
• State steps of OC test and SC test. No explanations
Full voltage regulation(VR) and efficiency
𝑉𝑆,𝑛𝑙−𝑉𝑆,𝑓𝑙
• 𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝑆,𝑓𝑙
• Ideally VR should be zero percent.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
• η= × 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
• η= × 100%
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡+𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
• η= × 100%
𝑃𝑐𝑢+𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒+𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
 The transformer Phasor diagram
𝑉𝑃
• = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐼𝑠+ 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞 𝐼𝑠
𝑎
 2300
•𝑎 = = 10
230

−1 𝑃𝑂𝐶
•𝜃 = cos = 84°
𝑉𝑂𝐶𝐼𝑂𝐶

𝐼𝑂𝐶 −1 2.1𝐴
• 𝑌𝐸 = ∠− cos 𝑃𝐹 = ∠−84°
𝑉𝑂𝐶 230𝑉
• = 0.000954−𝑗0.00908 = 1 −𝑗 1
𝑅𝐶 𝑋𝑀

• 𝑅𝐶 = 1050𝛺, 𝑋𝑀 = 111𝛺
 −1 𝑃𝑆𝐶
•𝜃 = cos = 55.4°
𝑉𝑆𝐶𝐼𝑆𝐶

𝑉𝑆𝐶
• 𝑍𝑆𝐸 = ∠ cos−1 𝑃𝐹 = 4.45 + 𝑗6.45𝛺 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞
𝐼𝑆𝐶

• 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4.45𝛺 , 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 6.45𝛺

• 𝑅𝐶 = 1050𝛺, 𝑋𝑀 = 111𝛺
 𝑅𝐶𝑃 = (33.33)2 144𝛺 = 159k𝛺
#
𝑋𝑀𝑃 = (33.33) 34.63𝛺 = 38.4𝛺
2

𝑅 = (10) 2 1050𝛺 = 105k𝛺

• 𝐶𝑃
#
• 𝑋𝑀𝑃 = (10)2 111𝛺 = 11kΩ
 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑠 = 4.45𝛺2 = 0.0445𝛺
• (10)
#
• 𝑋𝑒𝑞𝑠 = 6.45𝛺2 = 0.0645Ω
(10)
 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐼𝑠,𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = = 15000𝑉𝐴 = 65.2𝐴
𝑉𝑆,𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 230𝑉

• PF = 0.8 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 ⟹ 𝜃 = −36.9°

• 𝑉𝑆,𝑛𝑙 = 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐼𝑠+ 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞 𝐼𝑠

𝑎
• 𝑉𝑃 = 230∠0° + .045𝛺 65.2∠−36.9° + 𝑗(.0645𝛺)(65.2∠−36.9° )
𝑎
• = 234.85∠0.40°

𝑉𝑆,𝑛𝑙−𝑉𝑆,𝐹𝑙
• 𝑉𝑅 = × 100%= 234.85−230 × 100%= 2.1%
𝑉𝑆,𝑓𝑙 230
• PF = 1 ⟹ 𝜃 = 0°

𝑉𝑃
• = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐼𝑠 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞 𝐼𝑠
𝑎
𝑉𝑃
• = 230∠0° + .045𝛺 65.2∠0° + 𝑗(.0645𝛺)(65.2∠0° )
𝑎
• = 232.94∠1.04°

𝑉𝑆,𝑛𝑙−𝑉𝑆,𝑓𝑙 232.94−230
• 𝑉𝑅 = × 100%= × 100%= 1.28%
𝑉𝑆,𝑓𝑙 230
• PF = 0.8 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 ⟹ 𝜃 = 36.9°

𝑉𝑃
• = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐼𝑠 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞 𝐼𝑠
𝑎
𝑉𝑃
• = 230∠0° + .045𝛺 65.2∠36.9° + 𝑗(.0645𝛺)(65.2∠36.9° )
𝑎
• = 229.85∠1.27°

𝑉𝑆,𝑛𝑙−𝑉𝑆,𝑓𝑙 229.85−230
• 𝑉𝑅 = × 100%= × 100%= −0.062%
𝑉𝑆,𝑓𝑙 230
• Copper loss 𝑃𝐶𝑢 = (𝐼𝑠 )2 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (65.2)2 0.0445𝛺=189W

𝑣
( 𝑝 𝑎) 2 (234.85)2
• Core loss 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = = = 52.5W
𝑅𝑐 1050

• 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 cos 𝜃=230*65.2* cos 36.9°=12000W

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 12000𝑊
• η= × 100% = × 100% = 98.03%
𝑃𝑐𝑢+𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒+𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 189𝑊+52.5𝑊+12000𝑊

• Remaining part of problem is assignment

The Autotransformer
The Autotransformer
The Autotransformer
• Used when required turn ratio is small i.e. near unity.
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝑐 𝐼𝑆𝐸
• = =
𝑉𝑆𝐸 𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝐼𝐶

• 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑐
• 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑆𝐸
• 𝐼𝐻 = 𝐼𝑆𝐸
• 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑆𝐸
The Autotransformer
• Used when required turn ratio is near unity.
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝑐 𝐼𝑆𝐸
• = =
𝑉𝑆𝐸 𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝐼𝐶

• 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑐
𝑁𝑆𝐸
• 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑁𝐶
𝑉𝐿 𝑁𝐶
• =
𝑉𝐻 𝑁𝐶+𝑁𝑆𝐸
The Autotransformer
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝑐 𝐼𝑆𝐸
• = =
𝑉𝑆𝐸 𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝐼𝐶

• 𝐼𝐻 = 𝐼𝑆𝐸 , 𝐼 𝐿 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑆𝐸

𝑁𝑆𝐸
• 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑆𝐸 + 𝐼𝑆𝐸
𝑁𝐶

𝐼𝐿 𝑁𝐶+𝑁𝑆𝐸
• =
𝐼𝐻 𝑁𝐶
Apparent power of the autotransformer
• 𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡
• = 𝑉𝐻 𝐼𝐻= 𝑆𝐼𝑂

• 𝑆𝑊 = 𝑉𝐶 𝐼𝐶 = 𝑉𝑆𝐸 𝐼𝑆𝐸

• 𝑉𝐿 (𝐼𝐿 −𝐼𝐻 ) = (𝑉𝐻 −𝑉𝐿 )𝐼𝐻

• (𝑉𝐻−𝑉𝐿)= (𝐼𝐿−𝐼𝐻)
𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐻
𝑉𝐻 𝐼𝐿
• =
𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐻
Apparent power of the autotransformer
𝑆𝑊 𝑉 𝐶𝐼 𝐶
• =
𝑆𝐼𝑂 𝑉 𝐿𝐼 𝐿
𝐼𝐶
• =
𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝐿−𝐼𝐻 𝐼𝐻
• = = 1−
𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝐿
𝑁𝐶
• = 1−
𝑁𝐶+𝑁𝑆𝐸
• = 𝑁𝑆𝐸
𝑁𝐶+𝑁𝑆𝐸
 𝑁𝐶+𝑁𝑆𝐸
• 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝐿=132V
𝑁𝐶
𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 100𝑉𝐴
• 𝐼𝑠,𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = = = 8.33𝐴
𝑉𝑆,𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 12𝑉
• 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 = 𝑉𝐻 𝐼𝐻=(132V)(8.33A)=1100A

𝑆𝑊 𝑁𝑆𝐸
• =
𝑆𝐼𝑂 𝑁𝐶+𝑁𝑆𝐸

• 𝑆𝐼𝑂 = 11
𝑆𝑊
• End result of SC test 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 100𝛺 , 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 100𝛺

• End result of OC test 𝑅𝐶 = 1𝛺, 𝑋𝑀 = 1𝛺

• 100 VA transformer, 100V/10V transformer.

• derive equivalent circuit expression referred to primary.
• derive equivalent circuit expression referred to secondary.
•What is the objective of performing direct
load test on a transformer.
•Draw the circuit diagram of the test.
•Explain the procedure of test.
•Assume suitable values of current and
voltage and draw graphs to prove the
objectives of load test.