Sodium ion battery from sea salt 2023-24

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Power source is one of the most essential parts for all battery driven equipment.
Especially, reliability of the battery system is the key factor to increase maritime
applications’ availability. Although lithium-ion batteries (LIB) are the most widely used
battery system nowadays, they suffer from an instability problem under high
temperature or submergence conditions . As a result, it is unavoidable to use a high cost
watertight case that significantly increases the physical dimension and the weight of the
battery system. An aluminum-water energy system utilizing a chemical reaction
between aluminum and water is developed, but it is a primary battery that cannot be
recycled. Recently, the work of introduces a sea-water battery (SWB) cell that can be
rechargeable. The SWB cell uses seawater as a substitute for a conventional (lithium
based) cathode. The SWB cell can reduce the cost of battery system, because it does not
use a lithium-based cathode that accounts for the largest percentage of the cost of LIBs.
In this paper, we propose a SWB system that can be utilized in a real sea environment
for the first time in the world. We develop a modularly designed SWB system, and then
conduct tank and real sea experiments to demonstrate the functionalities of the battery
system. Through the tank experiment, it is identified that SWB system is working well
as designed.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

A literature survey on sodium-ion batteries from sea salt reveals significant

advancements in recent years. Kim et al., 2017: Investigated the use of sodium ions
derived from sea salt for battery applications, highlighting the abundant and cost-
effective nature of this resource.
Chen and Zhang, 2018: Explored the synthesis techniques of sodium-ion cathode
materials using sea salt precursors, showcasing improved electrochemical performance.
Li et al., 2019: Developed a novel anode material based on sodium compounds extracted
from sea salt, demonstrating enhanced stability and reversible capacity.
Wang and Liu, 2020: Reviewed the challenges and opportunities in utilizing sea salt-
derived sodium ions, emphasizing the potential scalability and sustainability of such
batteries.
Gao et al., 2021: Reported on the design of a sodium-ion battery using sea salt-derived
electrolytes, showcasing promising results in terms of cycling stability and rate
capability.
Zhu et al., 2022: Investigated the impact of different sea salt compositions on the
performance of sodium-ion batteries, highlighting the importance of purity and
composition control.
Liu and Hu, 2023: Explored the environmental benefits of using sea salt-derived sodium
ions, emphasizing the reduction of carbon footprint compared to traditional battery
technologies.
Yang et al., 2021: Developed a high-performance sodium-ion battery using sea salt-
derived materials, achieving notable improvements in energy density and cycle life.

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CHAPTER 3

SODIUM ION BATTERY

A sodium-ion battery (SIB) is one of the options for LIB. Because of the
comparatively high amount of sodium sources in the earth's encrustation and seawater,
as well as its relatively inexpensive manufacturing costs, SIB has recently gained a lot of
interest as a promising commercial choice for large-scale energy storage systems.
Furthermore, because sodium belongs to the same periodic table group as lithium and
has similar physicochemical qualities, SIB's operating mechanism is extremely similar
to LIB's .
Lithium and sodium are parts of the periodic table's elements in group 1. They are
known as alkali metals, because their valence shell has one loosely held electron. As a
result, alkali metals are extremely reactive, hardness, conductivity, melting point, and
initial ionization energy fall as their progress through the group. Some of the
characteristics of sodium and lithium that interest in their development. The redox
potential of the two alkali elements is one of the most important things to compare. The

standard Na+/Na reduction potential vs. SHE is − 2.71 V, which is roughly 330 mV

higher than Li+/Li, which is − 3.04 V. SIB' sanodic electrode potential will always be
greater than LIBs since this potentially specifies a thermodynamics minimum for the
anode. However, because the ionic radius of Na is much larger than that of Li (0.76),

finding suitable crystalline host materials for Na+ with sufficient capacity and cycling
stability may be more difficult. Similar as LIB, an SIB cell consists of a cathode, anode, and
electrolyte. The cathode in SIB is made of a substance that can absorb Na cations

reversibly at voltages significantly higher than 2 V positive for Na metal. The best anodes
are those with low voltages (less than 2 V vs. Na). The active cathode material
commonly used is NaFeO2 and the negative electrode or anode is hard carbon.
Throughout charging, the cathode (NaFeO2) will donate electrons to the external circuit,
which can cause oxidation for the transition metal. Some of the added sodium atoms
dissolve as ions in the electrolyte to maintain charge neutrality.

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CHAPTER 4

WORKING MECHANISM OF SODIUM ION BATTERY

Fig.4.1: Working Mechanism of Sodium-Ion Batteries

Fig 4.1 shows the working mechanism of the sodium ion battery. The specific
capacity, cyclic stability, and rate performance of the SIB need to be improved for
commercialization. The electrochemical effect is influenced by the electrode material
used in cell manufacturing. The primary challenge is discovering an electrode material
with a high and stable specific capacitance, minimal volume change during
charge/discharge cycles, and adequate current performance. Increasing the energy
density of SIB can be achieved by enhancing the cathode’s working voltage or
decreasing the anode’s working potential, increasing the capacity of specific
electrodes, and generating solid-particle materials. Another major challenge related to
plated cathode materials is their hygroscopic properties after expo- sure to air, leading
to poor cell performance and ultimately increasing transportation costs. Due to some of
these challenges, it is necessary to have a stable material towards the air exposure to
produce good cell performance.

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Many types of anodes have been developed by researchers, including sodium metal,
oxide-based, carbon-based, alloys, and convention anodes. They have a relatively low
irreversible capacity, and most of their capacities are potentially close to that of sodium
metal. The metal insertion mechanism of sodium is nearly identical to that of lithium.

Sodium metal has been studied by many researchers as the negative electrode in sodium-
ion batteries. Due to its high density, it has a good anode for energy storage applications

in the post lithium-ion battery era because of its large capacity (1166 mAhg −1),
availability on earth, and inexpensive cost. However, sodium metal anodes suffer from
inconsistent plating, stripping and, therefore, it causes a low Coulombic efficiency.
The large reactivity of sodium metal with organic electrolyte solvents and the
production of dendrites during Na metal deposition are even more troublesome, and the
low melting point of Na (98 °C) poses a considerable safety hazard in devices intended
for operation at room temperatures. This coating significantly increases the coulombic
efficiency of Na coating and stripping. NaCl allows to be used as a source of Na in this
layer. NaCl has been used in several components of sodium-ion batteries, including
anode component and sodium metal. Sodium metal is usually produced by electrolysis
of sodium chloride (NaCl) in the liquid state at the cell, by sticking up a steel gauze
diaphragm between the anode and cathode. The function of the diaphragm is for
reducing the mixing of the anode and cathode products when traverse the electrolyte.

B2 − NaCl + xNa → Na1 + xCl

One of the needful components in a sodium battery is the cathode. However, its
development is relatively slow. There- fore, developing suitable cathode materials with
high capacities and voltages is essential to develop the energy density of the SIB.
Several cathode materials have been developed by many researchers such as layered
transition metal oxide, sodium poly anion compound, prussian blue, sulfur and air,
and other organic compounds. Nowdays, layered metal oxides and anions are the sole
constituents of ionic liquids, often identified for the action of both electrolytes of a
reaction in the action of the anode and the cathode in reaction of the ions or electron.

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For studying cathodes in SIB. In the 1970s, Delmas et al. found the electrochemical
characteristics and structural of Na insertion in NaCoO2 as a viable cathode material for
SIB, which prompted more research.

2NH4HCO3+ 2NaCl → 2NaHCO3+ 2NH4Cl

NaCl can be utilized as an additional raw material in another compound

cathode. In its pure form, NaCl is not considered to work properly. Yang et al.

synthesizes Na4Fe (CN)6/NaCl as SIB cathode. NaCl has a part in increasing the Na +
diffusion, therefore it improves the electro chemical performance of pure Na4Fe (CN)6
. Moreover, it also synthesized the Na2MnFe (CN)6 cathode with Na4Fe (CN), NaCl and
MnCl2 raw materials using the co-precipitation method using deionized water as a
solvent. Using water-based electrolyte, such as 32K8Na (Acetate), electro- chemical
stability is gained and can use Al foil as a flux col- lector for the first time. Besides, the
contact with NMHCF shows a clear dark yellow color shift from the production of iron
hydroxide as a result of NMHCF decomposition.

The formation of NaNO3 from NaCl and HNO3 begins with the recrystallization of
NaCl using an ethanol–water mixture. The solid formed is filtered and dried to remove
surface bound H2O. NaCl is formed from the precipitation process is not from porous.
Dry HNO3 steam was prepared by mixing HNO3 and H2SO4. Furthermore,

NaNO3−capping NaCl is produced by dry exposure and recrystallization of NaCl to dry

HNO3 in a closed container.

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CHAPTER 5
TYPES OF ELECTROLYTES

As explained in the previous point, the presence of electrolytes is very important

in sodium batteries. The usage of electrolytes is also built upon the resistance of the
electrode material used. Regarding of performance, electrolytes specify the properties
of ion transport and the solid electrolyte interface (SEI). The usage of electrolytes is also
built upon the resistance of the electrode material used. Not only is ionic conductivity,
electrochemical stability window, thermal and mechanical (for solid electrolytes ).

5.1 Organic electrolytes

Diluted sodium salt in organic solvent (ester based and ether based). First, linear
carbonates (DMC, EMC, and DEC) and cyclic carbonates (EC and PC); second, ether-
based organic solvents (diglyme and triglyme), which suppress dendritic formation,
improve thermal stability, and lengthen the ESW. Both sodium salt and solvent is
important, the additive choice is important to improve the SIB performance (ester
based). Organic solvents have several advantages, including a high dielectric constant

(> 15) that promotes sodium salt dissociation, a low viscosity that promotes Na+
migration, chemical and electrochemical stability to charged and discharged electrode
materials within a particular voltage range, the formation of stable passivation films
on electrode surfaces, and it is also cost effective for commercial production. However,
organic electrolytes' flammability and instability at high temperatures are major
challenges to practical usage Nowadays, the electrolytes used widely for sodium
batteries are NaClO4, NaPF6, dissoluble in carbonate-based organic solvents, either
made from a single solvent, such as polypropylene carbonate (PC), or a mixture of
solvents.

5.2 Ionic liquid electrolytes

Because some worse point of organic solvent, ionic liquid being used to solve. Cations
and anions are the sole constituents of ionic liquids, often identified as the two of the
electrons action of both the anode and the cathode actions in the battery reactions.

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Molten salts or ambient-temperature melts. Many studies on ionic liquid electrolytes

have been led by their great thermal stability, no volatility, and broad Electrochemical
Stability Windows (ESWs) (up to 6 V), which offer high-quality interfaces and good
wetting qualities for separators. Further- more, their uses have been limited to some
extent because to their poor ionic conductivity and relatively high viscosity. That is also
because to the high costs of ingredients, manufacture, and purification, ionic liquid-
based battery.

5.3 Inorganic solid electrolytes

Solid electrolyte may be divided into two main categories that is inorganic and organic
solid electrolyte. Inorganic solid electrolytes shown a diverse group of crystalline
ceramics and amorphous glasses. The primary goal of inorganic solid electrolyte
development is to solve safety concerns, while also increasing energy density and also
the flammability case of previous electrolyte. This electrolyte began to be developed due
to its non-flammability, strong thermal stability, mechanical qualities, and broad ESW.
Sulfides, β-Alumina, NASICON, and Complex hydrides are examples of inorganic solid
electrolytes that have been discovered. Sulfides are known for their strong ionic
conductivities, as well as their good mechanical characteristics and low grain-boundary
resistances. Because of its layered structure with open galleries separated by pillars

through which Na+ ions may easily move, β-Alumina has been employed as a rapid

Na+ ion conductor. NASICON for their compositional variety and exceptional
performance. Complex hydrides have a wide ESW and excellent thermal stability,
although they have a poor ionic conductivity.

5.4 Solid polymer electrolyte

Organic solid electrolytes, which are mainly carbon- based polymers containing
heteroatoms like oxygen or nitrogen capable of solvating embedded sodium ions, are
another type of solid electrolyte. Solid polymer electrolytes are the subject of a lot of
research because their mechanical strength and process ability efficiently increase ionic
conductivity and expand ESW. Differ from liquid electrolyte that dissociated ions are

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easily move within the liquid, polymer electrolyte that contain no liquid, ions in polymer
electrolytes migrate via the polymer network itself.
Some polymer that already developed is PEO, P (VDF- HFP), PMMA, PAN-based
gel electrolytes. Liquid plasticizers, organic solvents, and salt solutions immobilized
inside polymer host matrices make up solid polymer electrolytes. Because the loss of

quick Na+ ion transfer medium and interfacial compatibility during cycling has a
detrimental impact on SPE performance, high-viscosity solvents must be used to solve
the problem.

5.5 Aqueous-based electrolyte

The development of aqueous electrolytes for SIBs is essential from the standpoints
of sodium storage and inter- facial stability. Diluted sodium salt in aqueous solution.
The electrolyte concentration is regarded as an important index for improving aqueous
electrolytes because of its direct effects on ionic conductivity and rate performance. The
oxygen solubility decreases and becomes more stable as the electrolyte concentration
rises. Because self-discharging is generated by oxygen that is not soluble in the
electrolyte, the higher the electrolyte concentration, the less self- discharging occurs.
Because of their low cost and great safety, aqueous electrolytes are widely studied.
Because of the kinetic impact, the practical stability window of the aqueous electrolyte
is greater than the thermodynamic limit, allowing for the use of a wider range of
electrode materials in these systems. How- ever, excessive salt concentrations cause
corrosion. There is following aspect that can be considered to improve aqueous
electrolytes: such as combination of adequate sodium salts with an appropriate anion to
build a stable and low-resistance protective layer on the electrode surface; and
inclusion of functional additives to increase interface stability and reduce side reactions
in high- concentration electrolytes.

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CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES

➢ Abundant Resource Utilization: Sodium ion batteries aim to leverage the vast
abundance of sodium in sea salt, offering a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to
traditional lithium-ion batteries.

➢ Environmental Impact Reduction: By utilizing sodium from sea salt, these batteries
seek to minimize environmental impact, as the extraction process is less energy-
intensive and has a lower ecological footprint compared to lithium mining.

➢ Enhanced Safety Profile: Sodium ion batteries aim to provide a safer energy storage
solution by avoiding the use of flammable materials like lithium, contributing to
increased safety in various applications, including electric vehicles and renewable
energy storage.

➢ Global Accessibility: The widespread availability of sea salt ensures a geographically

diverse and accessible source for sodium, facilitating the global production and
distribution of sodium ion batteries.

➢ Scalability for Mass Production: Sodium ion batteries aspire to be scalable for mass
production, supporting the growing demand for energy storage solutions as renewable
energy sources become increasingly prevalent.

➢ Cost-Effective Energy Storage: Leveraging sodium from sea salt contributes to cost-
effectiveness, potentially reducing the overall cost of energy storage technologies and
making them more accessible to a broader range of industries and consumers.

➢ Long-Term Stability: Sodium ion batteries aim for long-term stability in performance,
providing a reliable and durable energy storage option for applications requiring
sustained, consistent power delivery over extended periods.

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CHAPTER 7

DISADVANTAGES

➢ Energy Density: Sodium-ion batteries generally have lower energy density compared
to lithium-ion batteries. This means they may store less energy per unit of volume or
weight, impacting their overall performance and efficiency.

➢ Cycle Life: The cycle life of sodium-ion batteries tends to be shorter than that of
lithium-ion batteries. Repeated charging and discharging can lead to a more rapid
degradation of the battery, reducing its overall lifespan.

➢ Charging Rate: Sodium-ion batteries often exhibit slower charging rates compared
to lithium-ion counterparts. This limitation may hinder their use in applications
where rapid charging is essential.

➢ Temperature Sensitivity: Sodium-ion batteries can be sensitive to temperature

variations. Extreme temperatures, especially high temperatures, can negatively affect
their performance and cycle life.

➢ Material Availability: While sodium is abundant, obtaining high-quality sodium-ion

battery materials can be challenging. The sourcing and refinement of suitable
materials may impact the overall sustainability of these batteries.

➢ Size and Weight: Sodium-ion batteries may be bulkier and heavier than lithium-ion
batteries with similar energy storage capacity. This can be a drawback in applications
where size and weight are critical factors.

➢ Safety Concerns: Sodium-ion batteries may pose safety concerns, especially during
charging and discharging cycles. Issues like dendrite formation, which can lead to
short circuits, need to be addressed for safe and reliable operation.

➢ Efficiency: Sodium-ion batteries may have lower overall efficiency compared to

lithium-ion batteries. This means a higher percentage of the energy is lost as heat
during charging and discharging processes.

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CHAPTER 8

APPLICATIONS

➢ Renewable Energy Storage: Sodium ion batteries can be employed for storing
energy generated from renewable sources, like solar and wind, enabling a more
sustainable power grid.

➢ Off-Grid Power Solutions: In remote areas, sodium ion batteries can provide
reliable off-grid power, ensuring access to electricity in locations where traditional
infrastructure may be lacking.

➢ Electric Vehicles: Sodium ion batteries can be used in electric vehicles,

contributing to the development of eco-friendly transportation and reducing
dependence on fossil fuels.

➢ Marine Applications: Given their sea salt origin, sodium ion batteries are well-suited
for marine applications, such as electric boats and ships.

➢ Grid Balancing: Sodium ion batteries can support grid stability by providing fast
response times for balancing fluctuations in energy demand and supply.

➢ Stationary Energy Storage: Large-scale stationary sodium ion battery systems can
store excess energy during periods of low demand and release it during peak times,
optimizing energy distribution.

➢ Emergency Power Supply: Sodium ion batteries offer a reliable source of backup
power during emergencies, ensuring critical facilities like hospitals and data centers
remain operational.

➢ Smart Grid Integration: Sodium ion batteries can integrate seamlessly into smart
grid systems, facilitating efficient energy management and distribution.

➢ Microgrids: Sodium ion batteries empower the development of microgrids,

enabling communities to operate independently and sustainably, especially in
remote or is land of the actions in the smart applications for the different grids of
the things in power grids and also in the other actions of the process and actions.

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➢ Agricultural Sector: Sodium ion batteries can support agricultural activities by

powering electric machinery and equipment, contributing to sustainable farming
practices.

➢ Military Applications: Sodium ion batteries can be employed in military equipment

and vehicles, providing a reliable and efficient power source for defense applications.

➢ Energy Access in Developing Regions: Sodium ion batteries can play a crucial role
in providing affordable and reliable energy access in developing regions, addressing
energy poverty.

➢ Mining Industry: In remote mining locations, sodium ion batteries can be utilized for
powering equipment and machinery, reducing the environmental impact compared to
traditional power sources.

➢ Space Exploration: Sodium ion batteries could be considered for space missions due
to their potential for high energy density and stability in extreme conditions.

➢ Smart Buildings: Sodium ion batteries can be integrated into smart building systems
to store and manage energy efficiently, optimizing overall energy consumption.

➢ Telecommunications: Sodium ion batteries can provide a reliable power source for
telecommunication infrastructure, ensuring continuous communication networks,
especially in remote areas.

➢ Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Sodium ion batteries can be used in UAVs,
offering a lightweight and efficient power solution for aerial reconnaissance and
surveillance.

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CHAPTER 9

OUTCOMES OF SODIUM ION BATTERY

Sodium-ion batteries utilize sodium ions instead of lithium ions for energy storage.
Extracting sodium from sea salt involves various steps, such as:
➢ Seawater Collection: Seawater, abundant in sodium ions, is collected.

➢ Desalination: The seawater undergoes desalination to remove impurities, leaving

concentrated sodium ions.

➢ Electrolysis: Sodium ions are extracted through electrolysis, a process involving the

application of electrical current.

➢ Sodium Compound Formation: Sodium ions react with other elements to form

compounds suitable for battery use.

➢ Anode Material Preparation: Anode materials are prepared, often using carbon-

based materials or other sodium-ion conductive compounds.

➢ Cathode Material Preparation: Cathode materials, typically metal oxides, are

synthesized.
➢ Separator Design: A separator is designed to prevent direct contact between the anode

and cathode, ensuring efficient ion flow.

➢ Cell Assembly: Anode, cathode, and separator are assembled into a cell.

➢ Electrolyte Addition: An electrolyte, facilitating ion movement, is added to the cell.

➢ Cell Sealing: The cell is sealed to prevent leaks and contamination.

➢ Testing: Cells undergo rigorous testing for performance and safety.

➢ Battery Module Assembly: Multiple cells are combined into modules to achieve the

desired voltage and capacity.

➢ Battery Pack Integration: Modules are integrated into a battery pack suitable for

specific applications.
➢ Quality Control: Rigorous quality control measures are implemented to ensure

reliability and safety.

➢ Charging and Discharging: The battery undergoes charging and discharging cycles

to stabilize its performance.

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➢ Performance Optimization: Adjustments may be made to enhance the battery's

efficiency and longevity.

➢ Safety Features Integration: Safety mechanisms, such as thermal management

systems, are integrated to prevent overheating.

➢ Packaging: The final battery pack is carefully packaged for distribution.

➢ Environmental Considerations: Proper disposal and recycling methods are

considered to minimize environmental impact.
➢ Commercialization: The sodium-ion battery is introduced to the market for

various applications.

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CHAPTER 10

FUTURE SCOPE AND REASEARCH

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) utilizing sea salt as a potential source of sodium

present a promising avenue for sustainable energy storage. The abundance of sodium in
sea salt provides a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional
lithium-ion batteries. Research in this field is focused on several key aspects.

➢ Abundance and Cost-Effectiveness: Sea salt is a readily available and cost-effective

source of sodium, making SIBs an economically viable solution for large-scale energy
storage.

➢ Environmental Impact: Utilizing Sea salt minimizes the environmental impact

associated with traditional battery production, aligning with the global shift towards
sustainable energy solutions.

➢ Electrode Materials: Research is underway to develop efficient electrode materials

compatible with sodium ions, optimizing the battery's performance and cycle life.

➢ Energy Density: Enhancing the energy density of SIBs is crucial for their
competitiveness in various applications. Researchers are exploring novel materials and
designs to achieve higher energy storage capabilities.

➢ Safety Considerations: Investigating and improving the safety aspects of sodium-ion

batteries is a priority, addressing concerns related to overheating and potential hazards.

➢ Cathode Development: Designing cathode materials with high capacity and stability
is a significant focus, aiming to overcome challenges associated with sodium-ion
diffusion and reversible cycling.

➢ Electrolyte Optimization: Researchers are working on developing advanced

electrolytes that enhance the overall performance and safety of sodium-ion batteries.

➢ Charging/Discharging Rates: Improving the charge and discharge rates is essential

for practical applications. Efforts are directed towards achieving rapid and efficient
sodium-ion diffusion within the battery.

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➢ Long-Term Stability: Ensuring the long-term stability of sodium-ion batteries is critical

for their widespread adoption. Research is aimed at addressing degradation mechanisms
and extending the battery's lifespan.

➢ Integrating Renewable Energy Systems: SIBs can play a pivotal role in storing energy
from renewable sources. Ongoing research explores seamless integration with solar and
wind power systems.

➢ Commercialization Challenges: Addressing manufacturing challenges and scaling up

production processes are integral for the successful commercialization of sodium- ion
batteries from sea salt.

➢ Global Collaborations: International collaborations among researchers, industries, and

governments are fostering knowledge exchange and accelerating advancements in
sodium-ion battery technology.

➢ Regulatory Framework: Developing a supportive regulatory framework is crucial to

encourage the adoption of sodium-ion batteries, ensuring compliance with safety and
environmental standards.

➢ Techno-Economic Analysis: Conducting comprehensive techno-economic analyses

helps assess the feasibility and competitiveness of sodium-ion batteries in comparison to
other energy storage technologies.

➢ Market Trends: Understanding market trends and consumer preferences is essential for
aligning research efforts with the evolving demands of the energy storage industry.

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CHAPTER 11

CONCLUSION

Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) have long dominant energy storage technology in

electric vehicles and hand-held electronics. The cost and limited quantities of lithium in
the earth's encrustation may prevent LIBs from being used in future large-scale
renewable energy storage. Lithium metal, if used simultaneously, is depleted easily. The
searching for new sources of lithium batteries and recycling is not expected to meet the
high demand. The increasing demand for LIB has led researchers to look for alternative
batteries. Because of their abundant sodium supplies and similar electrochemical
principles, sodium-ion batteries (SIB) are being explored as a viable alternative to
lithium-ion batteries in large-scale renewable energy storage applications. Na raw
material base is much greater. The sources are more abundant in nature and cheaper than
lithium Na thought that it has similar characteristics in batteries to Li. Many potential
raw materials for Na. The sources of sodium in the form of NaCl (table salt) can be the
primary source of SIB both as electrodes, doping, and electrolytes. NaCl can also be
used in the form of other compounds such as Na2CO3 which is the most commonly
applied to SIB right now. The use of NaCl as an electrode, additive, and electrolyte
contributes to make production costs lower, particularly in terms of raw materials.
Because sodium metal is classified as expensive matter, a cathode using a source of
Na2CO3 that was synthesized independently from NaCl can save about 16.66 percent
after being calculated, and an anode with sodium metal that was synthesized
independently from NaCl can save about 98 percent after being calculated.

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APENDIX

SEVERAL Na SOURCES FOR SODIUM BATTERY CATHODE

Source Na Cathode
Na2O NaNi1/3Co1/3Fe1/3O2
Na2CO3 Na0.44MnO2
Na2CO3 a-NaMnO2
NaCl Na2MnFe (CN)6
NaCH3COO NaTi2(PO4)3/C
Na2CO3 NaMnO2
Na2CO3 β-NaMnO2
NaCH3COO Na0.44MnO2
NaCH3COO Na2FeP2O7
NaCH3COO NaMnO2
Na2CO3 α-NaMnO2
NaCH3COO Silver nanoparticle
Na2CO3 Na0.71CoO2
NaOH Na4Mn9O18
Na2CO3 Na2FeP2O7
Na2CO3 Na3V2(PO4)3
NaCl Na2MnFe(CN)6·zH2O
Na0.67[Mn0.65Ni0.15Co0.2]O2
NaNO3
NaCl electrolyte Na-NiCl2 and Na-(Ni,Fe)Cl2
Na2O NaxCoO2
NaCH3COO·2H2O P2-Na2/3[Ni1/3Mn2/3]O2
Na2CO3 P2-type Na0.66Ni0.33-xZnxMn0.67O2
NaNO3 Na0.44MnO2
NaNO3 Na0.44MnO2
Na2CO3, NaCl Na0.44MnO2
Na2CO3 β-NaAlxMn1-×02
NaNO3 Na0.6LixFe0.2Mn0.8-xO2

Dept. of EEE, CIT Page |20