1

MANAKULA VINAYAGAR INSTITUTE

OF TECHNOLOGY

2024-25

I YEAR B.TECH.,

CSBL101/PHYSICS LAB

PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

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INDEX

Sl. No. Name of the Experiment Page. No.

1. Vernier Caliper 4

2. Screw Gauge 7

3. Travelling Microscope 10

4. Spectrometer 14

List of Experiments

1. Spectrometer - Solid Prism 19

2. Air – wedge 24

Spectrometer – Transmission grating 28

3

Newton’s rings
4 33

Spectrometer – Ordinary & Extraordinary rays

5 37

Half shade polarimeter – Determination

6. 42
of specific rotatory power .

Determination of Wavelength using laser

46
7. grating and particle size determination

Determination of Numerical aperture

8. 50
,acceptance angle of optical fiber

Compact disc-Determination of width of

9. 54
groove using laser
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INDEX

Experiment
Expt.
Date Name of the Experiment Completed Signature Mark
No
Date

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.
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A. VERNIER CALIPER
AIM:

To determine the external and internal diameter of the given hollow objects.

DESCRIPTION:

The vernier caliper consists of a long rigid rectangular steel strip, whose two edges
are divided into tenths of a cm and sixteenths of an inch. The jaws A and B are projecting at
right angles to its length.

The jaw A is fixed and jaw B slides forward and backward. The a jaw B carries a
vernier scale and it can be fixed at will by means of a screw ‘S’ attached to it. The object
whose length is to be determined is inserted between the jaws A and B. The two jaws can
be brought together and closed without a gap. The vernier scale consists of a 10 divisions,
which is equivalent to 9 main scale divisions.

LEAST COUNT (L.C):

It is the smallest division which it can read and is measured as the difference
between one main scale division i.e. 1 MSD – 1 VSD = L.C.

ZERO ERROR:

When the two jaws just close without gap, the zero of the main scale should
coincide with the zero of the vernier. The zero error is positive when vernier zero is after
the main scale zero. The zero is negative when the vernier zero is before the main scale
zero. Ordinarily, zero is negligible in the case of the vernier calipers and so error can be
considered to be nil.

DETERMINATION OF LEAST COUNT:

L.C. = 1M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D.

Value of 1 M.S.D. = 1/10 cm = 0.1 cm
Number of divisions of the vernier scale =10 divisions
Since 9 M.S.D are divided into 10 V.S.D.
i.e., 10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D.
1 V.S.D = 9/10 M.S.D.
1 V.S.D. = 9/10 X 1/10 = 9/100 cm
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Fig A.1 Vernier Calipers

(a) No error (b) + ve error

(c) – ve error (d) Vernier readings

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L.C. = 1 M.S.D. –1 V.S.D.

= 1/10 – 9/100
= 10 – 9 /100 = 1/100 cm
L.C. = 0.01 cm
PROCEDURE:

The given object is firmly gripped between the jaws, taking care not to press it too
hard. The main scale reading is the number of main scale divisions just in front of the
vernier zero. Then the vernier division, which coincides with any main scale division, is
noted. This is called vernier scale coincidence (VSC). The vernier scale reading is the
product of VSC and LC. The observations are repeated for various positions of the object.

To find the external diameter of the given material:

Least count= ………cm Zero error = ……………..divisions

Zero correction = ………………cm

Main Scale Vernier Scale Correct

Reading Coincidence Observed Reading (O.R.) =
S.No. Reading =
M.S.R + (V.S.C X L.C.)
(M.S.R) (V.S.C.) O.R.  Z.C.

Unit. cm div. cm cm

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean = ……………….…… x 10-2 m

Result:

The External diameter of the given material = …………………x 10 -2 m

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B. SCREW GAUGE
AIM:

To determine the thickness of the given glass plate.

DESCRIPTION:

It is based upon the principle of a screw. It consists of a U-shaped frame F having a

fixed end at A. A fine and accurately cut screw of a uniform pitch passes through the other
end B. A cap fits on to the screw and carries on its inner edge S, 100 equal division marks.
This is called head scale (a circular scale). When the screw head is rotated the cap moves
on the pitch scale C. Pitch scale is graduated in mm. Main scale reading is taken with
reference to a line known as reference line.

Determination of the least count (L.C.) of the screw gauge:

To find the least count of a screw gauge, the pitch is to be determined first.

Pitch = Distance moved by the head scale on the pitch scale/ number of rotations
given to the head scale.

= 5/5 mm = 1mm

The least count = Pitch / Total number of divisions on the head scale =
1/100 mm = 0.01mm

ZERO CORRECTION:

To find the zero correction two jaws are brought into contact by rotating the head.
If the zero of the head a scale does not coincide with the reference line, then there is a zero
error.

1. If the negative of the head scale is above the reference line, the zero error is
negative and zero correction is positive. [Fig. B.2(C)]

2. If the zero mark is below the reference line Z.E is positive and Z.C is negative.
[Fig. B.1( b ) ]

3. If the zero of the head scale coincides with the reference line, there is no zero
error or Z.C. [Fig.B.1 ( a) ].
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Fig B - Screw Gauge

(a) No error (b) Positive error

Fig B.1

(c) Negative error (d) Screw gauge reading

Fig B.2
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PROCEDURE:

The object of the glass plate kept in between the two jaws. i.e., without under
pressure. The pitch scale reading (PSR) is the number of pitch scale divisions just in from
of the edge of the head scale. The head scale coincidence (HSC) is the divisions on head
scale with the coinciding line HSR = HSC X L.C. The corrected HSR is obtained by adding
or subtracting the Z.C. accordingly.

Determination of the thickness of the glass plate

Screw gauge readings

L.C. = ……………mm Zero error =  …………………..…div

Zero Correction = (Z.E. x L.C.) ……………mm

Pitch Scale Head Scale Observed Reading Correct Reading

S.No. Reading Coincidence
(P.S.R.) (H.S.C.) = P.S.R. + (H.S.C x L.C.) = O.R.  Z.C.

Unit mm mm mm mm

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean thickness of the

Glass plate =……………………..……x 10-3m

RESULT:

Thickness of the given material = ……………………… x 10-3 m

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C. TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE
AIM:

To determine the thickness of the given material.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Traveling microscope 2. Glass slab 3. Reading lens.

DESCRIPTION:

Traveling microscope consists a compound microscope (fig. C.1) sliding along a

graduated vertical pillar. The vertical pillar is fixed to a horizontal base resting on screws.

The microscope can be raised or lowered along a vertical pillar by the screw S1.
The screw S2 is used to move the pillar horizontally. The object is viewed through the
eyepiece E where the objective lens O is turned towards the object. The focusing of the
microscope is done by a screw attached to the body of the microscope.

The main scale divisions are marked on the base and on the pillar. Vernier scales are
attached to the slipping microscope and to the base of the pillar.

The main scale is divided into millimeter and half a millimeters. Therefore, the
value of one main scale division (MSD) is 0.5 mm. The vernier scale is divided into 50
divisions, which is equivalent to 49 main scale divisions. Thus the value of one vernier
scale division (VSD) is 49/50 MSD.

PROCEDURE:

1. Determination of least count:

It is the small length, which can be measured using Travelling microscope. It is the
difference one Main Scale Division and one Vernier Scale Division.

Least Count (L.C.) = 1 Main Scale Division – Vernier Scale Division

L.C. = 1MSD –1VSD

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Fig C.1 – Travelling Microscope

Fig C.2 – Travelling Microscope reading

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The values of one main scale division (MSD) and one vernier scale division are noted.

2. To find the horizontal distance:

Two well-separated lines are drawn on a white paper and is placed on the base plate
of the Travelling microscope. The microscope is adjusted to focus the image on the line-1.
On the horizontal scale, main scale readings and vernier scale coincidence are noted. Then
reading is taken R1.

LEAST COUNT OF TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE:

Least count = 1MSD –1VSD

20 MSD = 1 cm

Value of 1MSD = 1/20 cm = 0.05 cm

Numbers of vernier scale division (n) =50

50 VSD = 49 MSD

Therefore, 1VSD = 49/50 MSD = 49/50 x 0.05 =0.49

L.C. = 0.05 – 0.049 = 0.001 cm

MSR VSC VSR = VSC x LC TR = MSR + VSR

cm div cm cm

Reading when line –1 is

focused R1

Reading when line-2 to

focused R2

For main scale reading, coincidence of the main scale divisions with the zero of the
vernier is noted in center metre.

For vernier scale coincidence of vernier scale division with the main scale division
is noted in division.

Total reading (TR) = MSR + (VSC x LC)

Now the microscope is horizontally moved to the other line l2 and focused for the
clear image. The main scale and vernier scale coincidence are noted as before.
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The total reading for this position is taken as R 2. The readings are tabulated and the
difference between R1 and R2 gives the distance between two lines.

RESULT:

The distance between the two horizontal lines is measured.

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D. SPECTROMETER
Aim:

To study the different parts and functions of the spectrometer.

Apparatus required:

1. Spectrometer 2. Glass prism 3. Reading lens.

Description:

Spectrometer is an instrument to obtain a pure spectrum. It is used to find the

refractive index of the prism. A standard form of the spectrometer is shown in figure (D.1).

It is mainly consists of three parts. 1. Collimator 2. Telescope 3. Prism table.

1. Collimator

It consists of a hollow brass tube with a collimating lens (L) at one end and a vertical
slit of adjustable width at the other end.

To obtain parallel beam of light rays, the distance between the slit and lens is adjusted
with the help of a screw attached to the collimator.

The collimator is rigidly fixed to the main part of the instrument and thus provides
parallel beam of light.

2. Telescope

It is an ordinary refracting telescope with an objective lens near the collimator eyepiece
at the other end. The eye piece of the telescope is fitted with cross-wires and slides in a tube.
The focusing of the telescope is done by a screw attached to the slide of the telescope.

The telescope is fitted on one arm of the spectrometer and can be rotated about the
central axis. The movement of the telescope can be read on a circular scale graduated in
degrees with the help of twoverniersV1 andV2.
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Fig D.1 Spectrometer

Fig D.2 Spectrometer readings

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3.Prism table

The prism table consists of two identical metal discs separated by three springs. These
springs are adjusted with the help of three leveling screws. The prism table can be raised or
lowered and fixed at any desired height by mean of a screw H.

The circular scale (main scale) is graduated in degrees and coaxial with the axis of
the rotation of the prism table and telescope. The circular scale is rigidly attached to the
telescope and is turned with it.

A separate circular plate mounted coaxially with circular scale carries two verniers
VA and VB.

The whole instrument is supported on a base provided with three levelling screws S 1
and S3.

PROCEDURE:

Initial adjustments

1. Eye piece: Focussing the cross-wires:

The telescope is turned towards a white wall and the eye-piece is moved inwards or
outwards until the cross wires are seen clearly.

2. Telescope: Adjusting for Parallel rays:

The telescope is turned towards a distant object. The distance between eye-piece and
objective is adjusted by the screw until a clear image is seen on the cross wire.

3. Collimator: Adjusting for Parallel rays:

The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. The silt is opened slightly and is
viewed through telescope. The image of the slit is illuminated by sodium light.

The distance between the slit and the collimating lens is adjusted till a clear well defined
image of the slit is obtained. The image of the slit may have a breadth of about 1mm.
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Determination of Least Count (L.C.) :

2 M.S.D. = 1


1
1 M.S.D. = =30 (1 = 60)
2

L.C. = 1 M.S.D. – V.S.D.

1 M.S.D. = 0.5 = 30

Number of Division in Vernier Scale = 30

30 VSD = 29 MSD

1 VSD = (29/30) MSD = (29/30) x 30 = 29

L .C. = 30 - 29

= 1 (one minute)

Example : In Fig. (b)

Vernier A Vernier B

MSR = 120.5 =12030 MSR = 300.5 = 30030

VSC = 5 div VSC = 5 div

VSR = 5 x L.C. = 5 VSR = 5 x L.C. = 5

TR = MSR + VSR TR = MSR + VSR

= 12030 + 5 = 30030 + 5

= 12035 = 30035

Total reading = MSR+ (VSC x LC)

Vernier – A Vernier – B
Ray
Total Total
MSR VSC MSR VSC
reading reading

Refracted
ray 12030 5 12035 30030 5 30035
readings
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4. Prism Table:

The clamping screw is released and the prism table is raised so that its upper surface is
just in level with the lower edge of the collimator.

The spirit level is placed on the prism table parallel to the line joining any two leveling
screws. Their positions are adjusted slowly till the bubble is exactly in the centre of the
spirit level.

Now the spirit level is placed perpendicular to the line joining the two screws and the
bubble is brought is brought at the centre by adjusting the third screw. The process is
repeated by keeping the spirit level at different places until the prism table is exactly
horizontal.

To find the least count of the Spectrometer:

The circle in the main scale is divided into 360 equal parts in degree. Each degree is
further divided into two parts. Thus the smallest main scale divisions is equal to 0.5 or
30.The vernier scale has 30 equal divisions that coincide with 29 divisions of the main
scale.

Readings:

We must take the readings from both Vernier A and Vernier B scales during the
experimentation. The main scale reading and Vernier coincidence are noted.

For main scale reading, coincidence of the main scale division with zero of the Vernier
scale is noted in degrees. For Vernier scale coincidence exact coincidence of Vernier scale
division with the main division is noted in division.

Total readings (TR)

TR = MSR + (VSC x LC)

Result:

The different parts and functions of the spectrometer are studied.

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1. SPECTROMETER - DISPERSIVE POWER OF A PRISM

Expt. No:

Date :

Aim:

To find the dispersive power of the material of the prism using spectrometer.

Apparatus Required:

1. Spectrometer, 2. Mercury vapour lamp, 3. Glass prism, 4. Reading

lens and 5. Spirit level.

Formula:

 v  r
Dispersive power 
 y 1

v = Refractive index of the prism for violet line

r = Refractive index of the prism for red line

y = Refractive index of the prism for yellow line

  A  D 
sin  
  2 
Refractive index of the prism
 A
sin  
2
A – Angle of the prism in degrees

D – Angle of minimum deviation in degrees.

Procedure:

The initial adjustments of the spectrometer namely adjustment of eye piece for
distinct vision of cross-wires, adjustment of telescope for the distant object and collimator
for parallel rays are made as usual.
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Fig 1.1 Position of the spectrometer – Angle of the prism

Fig 1.2 Position of the spectrometer – Angle of minimum deviation

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(i) Determination of the angle of prism (A)

Total reading = MSR + (VSC x LC) L.C. = 1

Vernier – A Vernier - B
Reflected
Ray
MSR VSC Total Reading MSR VSC Total Reading

Unit deg Div Deg deg div deg

Reading of
image
reflected
from one
face (left) (R1) (R1)

Reading of
image
reflected
from the
other face
(right) (R2) (R2)

2A = (R1~R2) 2A = (R1~R2)

Mean A = (2A + 2A) / 4 =

(ii) To find the angle of minimum deviation (D)

Total Readings = MSR + (VSC x LC) LC = 1

Refracted Angle of
Ray Vernier – A Vernier- B Minimum
readings Deviation Mean
D
Total Ver A Ver B
Lines of the MSR VSC Total MSR VSC deg
reading R1~R2 R1~R2
spectrum deg div reading R1 deg div
R2 deg deg

Violet R1 R1

Yellow R1 R1

Red R1 R1

Direct ray R2 R2
 22

Least count of the spectrometer:

2 M.S.D. = 1


1
1 M.S.D. = =30 (1 = 60)
2

L.C. = 1 M.S.D. – V.S.D.

1 M.S.D. = 0.5 = 30

Number of Division in Vernier Scale = 30

30 VSD = 29 MSD

1 VSD = (29/30) MSD = (29/30) x 30 = 29

L .C. = 30 - 29

= 1 (one minute)

Calculation:

  A  D    A  D    A  D 
sin   sin   sin  
v   2 
r   2 
y   2 
 A  A  A
sin   sin   sin  
2 2 2

v = r = y =

 v  r
Dispersive power  
 y 1
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(i) Determination of the angle of the prism (A):

The given prism is mounted vertically at the center of the prism table with its
refracting edge facing the collimator. Now the parallel rays of light emerging out from the
collimator falls almost equally on the two faces of the prism ABC as shown in (figure 1.1).

The telescope is turned to catch the reflected image from one face of the prism ad
fixed in that position. The tangential screw is adjusted until the vertical cross-wire
coincides with the fixed edge of the image of the silt

The readings on both the verniers are noted. Similarly the readings corresponding
to the reflected image of the slit on the other face are also taken. The difference between the
two readings of the same vernier gives twice the angle of the prism. Hence, the angle of the
prism ‘A’ is determined.

(ii) Determination of the angle of minimum deviation (D):

The prism table is rotated so that the beam of light from the collimator is incident on
one face of the prism and emerges out from the other face. The telescope is rotated to catch
the refracted image of the yellow slit. The prism table is rotated in such a direction so that
the refracted images move towards the direct beam. The telescope is rotated carefully to the
image in the field to view. At one stage, the image stops momentarily and turns back. This
is the position of the minimum deviation (fig. 1.2).

The telescope is rotated and made to coincide with the violet slit. The telescope is
fixed in this position and refracted ray reading of the telescope is noted. The experiment is
repeated for red slit. The prism is removed and the direct reading for the slit is taken. The
difference between the direct reading and the refracted ray reading corresponding to the
minimum deviation gives the angle of minimum deviation ‘D’. The dispersive power is
calculated using the given formula.

Result:

Dispersive power of the given prism = -------------------------------.

Viva Questions
1. What is diDetermine the refractive index of the material of the prism for
blue,green,yellow 1 &2 and extreme red, and calculate the dispersive power of the
same for blue & red,blue & green and yellow 1 & 2.
Ans-The angle of minimum deviation is to be found for blue, green,yellow 1 &2
and extreme red.The refractive index of the prism for blue line, green line,yellow
1& 2 line and extreme red has to be calculated.
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2.AIR – WEDGE
Expt. No:

Date :

Aim:

To find the thickness (diameter) of a thin wire by forming interference fringes using
air-wedge arrangement.

Apparatus required:

1. Travelling microscope 2. Sodium vapour lamp, 3. Thin wire.

4. Two optically plane rectangular glass plates, 5. Condensing lens 6. Reading

lens and wire.

Formula:

Thickness of the thin wire

l
t meters
2
 = Wave length of sodium light (5893 10-10 m)
l = Distance of the wire from the edge of contact in metres

 = Mean width of one fringe in metres

Procedure:

An air-wedge formed by keeping two optically plane glass plates in contact along
one of their edges. At the other end, the thin wire is introduced with its length perpendicular
to the length of the plate. The glass plates are tied together in this position by means of 2
rubber bands. It is then placed on the horizontal plate of the Travelling microscope.

The interference pattern can be obtained with the help of the glass plate inclined at
o
45 to the horizontal plane and a condensing lens (fig.3.1). Light from the sodium vapour
lamp is made to fall vertically on the air wedge. These interference fringes are viewed
through the Travelling microscope. A system of eqi-spaced straight alternately dark and
bright bands are obtained (see also fig 3.2)
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Fig 3.1 Air wedge arrangement

S = Source (Sodium vapour light)

L = Condensing lens (Convex lens)
G = Glass plate inclined at 45
L1,L2 = Transparent plane glass plates
W = Specimen

Fig 3.2 Interference – fringe pattern

 26

(1) Determination of the Band width ()

Travelling microscope readings: L.C.=………..………….cm

Microscope Readings
Order of Width of 3 Mean width of
the band bands one band (B)
MSR VSC MSR+ (VSC x LC)

Unit X 10-2 m Div X 10-2 m X 10-2 m X 10-2 m

n+3

n+6

n+9

n + 12

n + 15

n + 18

n + 21

n + 24

n + 27

n + 30

Mean =

(2) To determine the distance between Edge of contact and Paper:(l)

S.No. Position MSR VSC TR = MSR + (VSC x LC)

Unit X 10-2 m Div X 10-2 m

1. Rubber (R1)

2. Paper (R2)

l = R1-R2 = ………..……….. x 10-2m

 27

Calculation:

Wave length of the sodium light () = 5893 10-10 m

l
Thickness of the wire (t) = t  meters
2
Thickness of the wire (t) = ------------------ metres.
The cross wire of the telescope is adjusted to coincide with the center of well-
defined dark band near the edge of contact of the glass plates. It is take as the nth band. The
reading on the horizontal scale of the microscope is noted. The microscope is then moved
in the same direction by working the horizontal transverse screw and made to coincide with
every successive 3rd fringe. The readings are noted. This is continued till about till about 30
fringes are covered. The readings are tabulated. From these readings, the mean width of one
fringe () is found.

The distance ‘l’ between the edges of contact and the wire is measured with the help
of the Traveling microscope. Assuming the wavelength of sodium light, the thickness of the
thin wire is calculated by using the given formula.

Result:

Thickness of the given thin wire is = ------------------------ metres.

Viva Questions:

1.From interference fringes with the help of two optically plane glass plates, wire and
sodium vapour lamp (  =589.3nm).Record the readings for two different lengths.
Determine the width of one fringe and hence calculate the thickness of the given
wire.

Sol:The experiment has to be performed by taking two sets of ‘l’ (l1 &l2 )values i.e
the distance between wire or paper and tied end must be changed.The calculation
of ‘t’ is made with l1 & l2 values.
 28

3.SPECTROMETER - GRATING
Expt. No:

Date :

Aim:

To find the wavelengths of prominent spectral lines in the mercury spectrum.

Apparatus required:

1. Spectrometer, 2. Plane transmission grating, 3.Reading lens.

4. Sodium vapour lamp, and 5. Mercury vapour lamp

Formula:

sin 
1) Number of lines on grating N= l/m
n

 - Angle of second order diffraction in degrees

 - Wavelength of green light (5461 A0)

2) To determine the Wave lengths of the prominent lines in the mercury (Hg) spectrum

sin  0
 A
Nn
 - Angle of diffraction in degrees

n – Order of diffraction (spectrum)

N – Number of lines per metre in the grating.

Procedure:

1.To standardize the grating:

 Turn the telescope to obtain the image of the slit.

 Turn the telescope to both sides to obtain green lines. Note the reading of both the verniers.

 Calculate the difference in the reading to obtain the diffraction angle. Then from the
equation, number of lines per unit length of the grating can be calculated.
 29

2. Adjustment of the grating for normal incidence

The initial adjustments of the spectrometer are made as usual. The plane
transmission grating is mounted on the grating table. The telescope is released and placed in
front of the collimator. The direct reading is taken after making the vertical cross-wire to
coincide with the fixed edge of the image of the slit, which is illuminated by a source of
light (sodium vapour lamp or mercury vapour lamp).

The telescope is then rotated by an angle 900 (either left or right side) and fixed.
The grating table is rotated until seeing through the telescope the reflected image of the slit
coincides with the vertical cross-wire. This is possible only when a light emerging out from
the collimator is incident at an angle 450 to the normal to the grating.

The vernier table is now released and rotated by an angle 45 0 towards the
collimator. Now light coming out from the collimator will be incident normally on the
grating (fig. 4.1).

Fig 4.1 Normal Incident Position Fig 4.2 Spectrometer Grating

 30

Determination of Least Count:

2 M.S.D. = 1


1
1 M.S.D. = =30 (1 = 60)
2

L.C. = 1 M.S.D. – V.S.D.

1 M.S.D. = 0.5 = 30

Number of Division in Vernier Scale = 30

30 VSD = 29 MSD

1 VSD = (29/30) MSD = (29/30) x 30 = 29

L .C. = 30 - 29= 1 (one minute)

I. Determination of number of lines/ m of the grating (n) Standardization

of equipment:
For green light, λ = 5461x10-10m

Vernier - I Vernier - II
Mean sin 
2θ 2θ θ N= l/m
Rays
deg deg
2θ deg n
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR deg
degree div degree degree div degree
Second
order
diffracted
Green
left
Second
order
diffracted
Green
right
2. Wave lengths of the spectral lines of the mercury spectrum

The slit is now illuminated by white light from mercury vapour lamp. The central
direct image will be an undispersed image. The telescope is moved to either side of the
direct image, the diffraction pattern of the spectrum of the first order and second order are
seen.The readings are taken by coinciding the prominent lines violet, green, yellow and red
with the vertical cross wire. The readings are tabulated and from this, the angles of
diffraction from colours are determined. The wave lengths from different lines are
determined. The wave lengths for different lines are calculated by using the given formula.
The number of lines per metre in grating is assumed.
 31

2.Determination of wavelengths of various spectral lines:

Least count:. ……………. N= …………....……..lines/metre Order of the spectrum n = ……….
Total Reading (T.R.) = MSR + (VSC x L.C.)

Reading for the diffracted image Difference

between
Left side Right side readings Mean Mean sin 
=
Colors Vernier A (A1) Vernier B (B1) Vernier A (A2) Vernier B (B2) 2  Nn
2 2
deg deg m
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR A1-A2 B1-B2

Deg div Deg deg div deg deg div Deg deg div deg deg deg

Violet-1

Violet-2

Blue

Green

Yellow

Red
 32

III. To determine the resolving power of grating:

𝐝𝛉 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏
Spectral lines = nN
𝐝𝛌 𝝀𝟐 − 𝝀𝟏

Calculations:

Result:

1.Wavelengths of the prominent spectral lines in the mercury spectrum are calculated and tabulated.

2.Resolving power of grating is determined.

University questions:

1. Assuming the wavelength of green as 546.1nm, standardize the given grating i.e find the number of lines
per meter in the grating and then determine the wavelength of the prominent spectral lines of mercury
spectrum (first order violet,blue, yellow-1.yellow-II, extreme red).
 33

4. NEWTON’S RINGS
Expt. No:

Date :

Aim:

To find the radius of curvature of the given convex lens using Newton’s ring apparatus.

Apparatus required:

Newton’s rings apparatus, sodium vapour lamp, traveling microscope, condensing lens, convex
lens, reading lens etc.,

Formula:

 Dn
2 2
D
The radius of curvature of the given convex lens,R = n  m meters
4 m

where Dn  m  Dn is the mean value of the difference between squares of diameters of nth and (n+m)
2 2 th

ring.

λ – Wavelength of the monochromatic source (5893x10-10m)

m – Integer

Procedure:

A plano-convex lens L is placed on an optically plane glass plate P. Now a thin film of airwedge is
formed between the glass plate and the lens. Monochromatic light is allowed to fall on the thin film of air
with the help of lens C and glass plate G inclined at 450 . Due to multiple reflections of light between the
glass plate P and lens L with plano-concave air film, a system of concentric alternate bright and dark rings
known as Newton’s rings are seen with the help of a microscope above the glass plate G. Leaving the first
few rings from the centre (say 3), the cross-wire of the microscope is placed tangentially on n+27th ring on
the left side of the centre (taking care to note that the microscope is capable of moving from n+27th ring on
the extreme left to n+27th ring on the extreme right without any obstruction). The reading is noted from the
horizontal scale of microscope. Similarly the cross-wire is placed on n+24, n+21, n+18…etc., upto the nth
ring and the corresponding readings are noted. Now the crosswire is placed tangentially on the nth ring at
the right side of the centre leaving symmetrically the same few rings as above and the readings of the
microscope scale is noted. Similar readings are noted when the cross-wire is placed on n+3,

Newton’s Ring setup:

 34

n+6….. n+27 rings. The observations are tabulated as in table 1. The difference between the corresponding
readings on the left and right will give the diameter of nth, n+3th, n+6th….. etc rings. The squares of
diameters are also found. The squares of diameters are also found. The difference of above square for m
rings (say 15) are found successively and the mean of consistent values is taken from the last column of the
table. Radius of curvature of lens is found using then above formula.
 35

1.Determination of radius of curvature of a given lens

Travelling microscope readings: L.C.=………..………….cm

Microscope reading Microscope reading Diameter

Order
of the
of D 2x 10-4m Dn+m 2-Dn2
ring D
Ring MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR x 10-2m
x 10-2m div x 10-2m x 10-2m div x 10-2m

n+3

n+6

n+9

n+12

n+15

n+18

n+21

n+24

n+27

n+30

Mean=
 36

Calculation:

Result:

Radius of curvature of the convex lens R =…………………….. m

 37

5.DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX OF AN ORDINARY

AND EXTRAORDINARY RAYS OF A QUARTZ PRISM
Expt. No:

Date :

Aim:

To determine the refractive indices for ordinary and extraordinary rays of a quartz prism.

Apparatus required:

Spectrometer, quartz prism, reading lens, sprit level etc.,

Formula:

The refractive index is given by formula,

𝐴+𝐷
sin⁡( 2 )
µ=
𝐴
sin⁡( )
2

A – Angle of prism - degree

D – angle of minimum deviation – degree

Procedure:

Preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made.

Angle of the prism(A):

The given prism is placed on the prism table in such a way that its refracting edge almost bisecting
the collimator lens. The image of the slit is reflected by one of the polished faces is viewed first with naked
eye and then with telescope. The telescope is fixed such that the vertical cross wire coincides with the
image of the slit. The readings of both the Vernier are taken. Likewise the image of the slit reflected by the
other face is viewed and the reading is observed. The difference between the two set of readings given
twice the angle of the prism from which the angle of prism is found.

The prism table is turned such that rays of light from the collimator fall on one of the polished
surface of the prism. The image of the slit as refracted by the prism is viewed with the telescope. The prism
table is now rotated such that the refracting edge of the prism approaches the collimator lens. The image is
 38

followed with the telescope. At one stage the image stops and turns back. This is the position of minimum
deviations.

Most of the monochromatic sources and polychromatic sources are not polarized. When the lines
from these sources (sodium and mercury sources) are allowed to pass through the crystals like quartz,
calcite, etc., they are split into ordinary and extra ordinary light rays travelling with different velocities.
Hence their refractive indices also get changed. This causes giving rise to two images. For example, there
will be a spectrum violet to yellow for ordinary rays separated from violet to yellow spectrum for
extraordinary rays, overlapping one over another.

To distinguish between ordinary and extraordinary spectrum a nicol prism could be used before the
slit which cuts the ordinary rays which is always from the direct ray. Now the spectrum is set in the
minimum deviation position. The readings are taken for extra ordinary rays. Now if the nicol prism is
rotated further, the extra ordinary ray is vanished and the ordinary ray spectrum is visible. Take the angle of
minimum of deviation for these lines and calculate the refractive indices for the spectral lines of ordinary
and extra ordinary spectrum.

ANGLE OF PRISM
 39

ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION

Table : I Determination of angle of prism (A)

Least count:1’

Vernier - I Vernier - II 2A
A
Rays (a~b)
deg
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR deg
degree div degree degree div degree

left
(a) (a)

right
(b) (b)

\
 40

Table : II Determination of refractive index of ordinary ray

Vernier - I Vernier - II
Mean
Spectral D D
D µ
lines deg deg
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR deg
degree div degree degree div degree

Violet

Blue

Bl.green

Green

Yellow

red

Direct
Ray
 41

Table : III Determination of refractive index of Extra - ordinary ray

Vernier - I Vernier - II
Mean
Spectral D D
D µ
lines deg deg
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR deg
degree div degree degree div degree

violet

Blue

Bl.green

Green

Yellow

red

Direct
Ray
 42

Result:
1. The angle of the prism (A) =……………………..

2. The refractive indices for the ordinary extra ordinary rays are found and tabulated.

6.LAURENT HALF SHADE POLARIMETER

(Determination of specific rotatory power of an optically active solution)

Expt. No:

Date :

Aim:
To determine specific rotatory power of an optically active solution
of different concentration using Laurent half shade polarimeter.

Apparatus Required:
Laurent half – shade polarimeter, optically active solution,
monochromatic source of light etc.,

Formula:
10 deg
Specific rotatory power 𝑆 =
lcdm

l-Length of the sample liquid tube – (m)

C – Concentration of the given solution – gm/cc

𝜃 - Angle of rotation – degrees

Procedure:
The Laurent half shade polarimeter consist of two nicol prism,
the polarizing nicol and analyzing nicol arranged along a
horizontal axis. A small circular field at one end of the polarizing
nicol prim is illuminated source ‘S’. At the end is fixed a half
shade which is circular frame and half of which is a glass plate
and other is made of quartz. Nicol is fitted at center of a circular
scale divide in degree and provide with at accurate reading.
 43

Observation are made through a low power telescope suitable

arranged. Between the half shade and the analysis nicol there is a
canal the tube of any liquid. Te tube is generally 5 to 10cm long
and is provided with glass at its ends.

Determination of specific rotator power of an optically solution using polarimeter:

The tube is first filled with water. Care is taken to see that
there are no air bubbles inside the tube. The tube is fixed on the
canal. The analyzing nicol is adjusted until the two halves of the
half shade, as seen through the telescope, appear equally dark.
The observation is repeated Several times by approaching he
critical position from left and from right and the mean reading of
the vernier is taken. The inner length of the tube is

also taken. A graph is drawn for concentration versus and angle of

rotation. The specific rotator power is calculated from the relation.
 44

Tabular column:
Determination of the specific rotatory power:
Least Count = 6’

Specific
Water Solution
Rotatory
Angle
power
Sl. Concentration of
S=
No (gm/cc) MSR VSR TR (1) MSR VSR TR (2) rotation
(degree) (div) (degree) (degree) (div) (degree) 10 deg
(Ɵ deg)
lc dm

1. Water

2. 0.02

3. 0.04

4. 0.06

5. 0.08

6. 0.1

Mean =
 45

MODEL GRAPH:

Calculation:

Result;

The specific rotatory power of an optically active solution

(i) By formula =
(ii) By graph =
 46

7.DETERMINATION OF WAVE LENGTH USING LASER GRATING,

PARTICLE SIZE
Expt. No:

Date :

Aim:

To determine the wavelength of the given laser source using grating, size of the given micro
particles (powder) using diode laser .

Apparatus required:

1. He-Ne laser or diode laser, 2. Fine micro particles having nearly same size(say lycopodium
powder), 3.Laser power meter, 4. Grating,

Formula:

1. Wave length of the given laser source of light

sin  0
 A
Nn
 - Angle of diffraction in degrees

n – Order of diffraction (spectrum)

N – Number of lines per metre in the grating.

2. Grain size (diameter) ‘2d’ of the grain is

nD
2d  metres
xn
n – Order of diffraction

 - Wave length of laser light used in metres

D – Distance between glass plate and the screen in metres

xn – Distance between central bright spot and the nth fringe.

 47

Procedure:

1. Determination of wave length

He-Ne laser is kept horizontally and switched on (extreme care should be taken to avoid direct
exposure of laser light on eyes). The grating is held normal to the laser beam. This is done by adjusting the
grating in such way that the reflected laser beam coincides with beam coming out of the laser source.

After adjusting for normal incidence, the laser light is exposed to the grating and it is diffracted by
it. On the other side of the grating on the screen, the diffracted laser spots are seen. The distances of
different orders from the center spots are seen. The distances of different orders from the center spot (x n)
are measured.

The distance between the grating and screen (D) is measured.Using the formula, ‘’ is
sin  0
calculated.The wave length of the laser light is found withthe formula   A .The number of lines in
Nn
the grating is assumed (as 15,000 lines per inch, it may be taken as 592885 lines per metres).

2.Determination of particle size

A glass plate is taken and powder of the particle size in the range of micro metre is sprinkled on the
glass plate. This glass plate is kept between laser light and screen.

Now laser beam gets diffracted by the particles present in the glass plate. By adjusting the distance
between the glass plate and the screen, a circular fringe pattern is seen on the screen. The fringes are the
first order and second order fringes respectively. Now distance between the screen and the glass plate (D) is
measured. The distance of the first order and second order fringe from the center of spot are also measured.

nD
Using the formula, 2d  metres the particle size can be found. The experiment is repeated for
xn
different D values.
 48

Fig 7.1 Laser Grating

Fig 7.2 Particle size determination by Laser

(1) Determination of wavelength of Laser light:

Distance between grating and screen (Y) = ……………… metres
Number of lines in the grating per metres (n) = …………………… lines/metre

Distance from center Y

x x 2 x sin 
z x y sin   
2

to maxima x 1 2
z nm
(m) 2
S.No.

X1(m) X2(m) X10-2m x 10-10m

1.

2.
 49

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

(2) Determination of Particle size (Lycopodium powder):

Distance between the Order of Distance between the

Particle size
S.No. screen and the glass diffraction central bright point and
2d
plate (D) (n) nth fringe (xn)

Unit X 10-2m X 10-2m X 10-5m

1 1

2 1

3 1

Mean 2d = …………………………x 10-5m

Result:
1. Wave length of the laser light source = -----------------------------
2. The average size of the particles = -----------------------------

University Question:

1. Determine (i) the wavelength of the given laser light and (ii) the angle of divergence. (iii)
the average size of the particles of a given powder using laser light of wavelength 650 nm
(iv) numerical aperture of the given optical fiber. (v) the grating element using laser light
of wavelength 650 nm.
 50

8.DETERMINATION OF NUMERICAL APERTURE, ACCEPTANCE

ANGLE OF AN OPTICAL FIBRE
Expt. No:

Date :

Aim:

Determination of numerical aperture of an optical fibre.

Apparatus required:

1. He-Ne laser or diode laser, 2.Laser power meter, 3. Optical fibre cables
of various length, 4.Optical fibre connectors,5. Numerical aperture jig, 6.
Mandrel for optical fibre, 7.Glass plate, 8. Screen and 9. Meter scale.

Formula:

1. Numerical aperture and acceptance angle

Numerical aperture NA  w2 / 4l 2  w2
Acceptance angle Sin θ = NA

θ = Sin-1 NA
w = is the diameter of the Laser light falling on the screen in the numerical
aperture jig in meters

l = is the distance between the optic fibre output tip and the screen in the
numerical aperture jig in metres.

2.Angle of divergence (  )
r2  r1
Angle of divergence (  )  deg rees
d 2  d1
r1 -radius of the beam spot at a distance d1 .
r2 -radius of the beam spot at a distance d 2 .
 51

Procedure:

3. Numerical aperture
Using LASER, we can find the numerical aperture of the fibre optic cable. The given LASER
source is connected to the optical fibre cable. The other end is exposed to the air medium in the dark place.
The emerging light is exposed on a plain paper.

Now, we get illuminated circular patch on the screen. The distance from the fibre end to circular
image(d) is measured using metre scale. Similarly the radius of the circular image is also measured. Thus,
the acceptance angle is calculated. From the acceptance angle, the numerical aperture of the cable is found
out by using the formula.

Fig. 8.1 Experimental setup for numerical aperture measurement

Fig. 8.2 Angle of divergence

 52

To determination Numerical aperture and acceptance angle:

Acceptance angle Numerical

Distance from the Radius of
aperture
S.No. fibre and to the circular
w

circular image ‘l’ image ‘w’ l NA  sin 

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Mean ……………… Mean ………………

.
To find the angle of divergence:

S.no r1 d1 r2 d2 
r2  r1
 deg rees
d 2  d1

10-3 m 10-2 m 10-3 m 10-2m

 53

Angle of Divergence:

Angle of divergence gives the angular spread of the laser beam.Here the laser source
and a stand is kept at some distance say d 1 and the radius of the beam spot is
measured.Now by varying the distance to d 2 ,the radius of the beam spot is again
measured.By substituting these values in the given formula, the angle of divergence can
be calculated.The experiment is repeated for various values of d 1 and d2 and the mean
angle of divergence is determined.

Result:
1. Numerical aperture of the optical fibre = ---------------------------

2.Acceptance angle of the optical fibre = ------------------------------

 54

9.COMPACT DISC-DETERMINATION OF WIDTH OF THE GROOVE

USING LASER
Expt. No:

Date :

Aim:

To determine the width of the groove of compact disc using diode laser .

Apparatus required:

1. He-Ne laser or diode laser 2.Compact disc 3.Meter scale.

Formula:

n
Width of a groove in a compact disc d = 10 -6 m
sin 

x
  tan 1 Angle of diffraction in degrees
z

x-Distance between central maxima and first order spectrum

n – Order of diffraction (spectrum)

 -wavelength of semiconductor diode laser(6600 A0)

Procedure:

1. Determination of width of compact disc:

A compact disc is taken whose groove width is to be determined.. This is kept between laser light
and screen.

Now laser beam gets diffracted by the compact disc. By adjusting the distance between the CD and
the screen, a circular fringe pattern is seen on the screen. The fringes are the first order and second order
fringes respectively. Now distance between the screen and the glass plate (Z) is measured. The distance of
the first order and second order fringe from the center of spot are also measured. The same procedure is
repeated by changing the distance between the cd and screen
 55

Determination of width of compact disc:

Wavelength of laser =6600x10-10 m

Distance Order of the Distance between central maxima d=

between CD image
and first order spectrum n
and screen sin 
(z)
S.No.
x
X10-2m n LHS RHS Mean   tan 1 x 10-6m
z
X1  X 2
X1 X2 x
2
X10-2m X10-2m

X10-2m
1. 20

2. 25

3. 30

4.

Mean=
Result:
Width of the groove of a Compact disc =