THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The three phase induction motor is the most widely used electrical motor. Almost 80% of the
mechanical power used by industries is provided by three phase induction motors because of its
simple and rugged construction, low cost, good operating characteristics, the absence of
commutator and good speed regulation. In three phase induction motor, the power is transferred
from stator to rotor winding through induction. The induction motor is also called asynchronous
motor as it runs at a speed other than the synchronous speed.

Working Principle of an Induction Motor

In a DC motor, supply is needed to be given for the stator winding as well as the rotor winding.
But in an induction motor only the stator winding is fed with an AC supply.

 Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply. This alternating
flux revolves with synchronous speed. The revolving flux is called as ‘Rotating Magnetic
Field’ (RMF).

 The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an induced emf in the
rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The rotor
conductors are short circuited, and hence rotor current is produced due to induced emf. That
is why such motors are called as induction motors.
(This action is same as that occurs in transformers, hence induction motors can be called as
rotating transformers.)

 Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it. This rotor flux lags
behind the stator flux. The direction of induced rotor current, according to Lenz's law, is such
that it will tend to oppose the cause of its production.

 As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating stator flux
and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the stator RMF. Thus the rotor rotates in the
same direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative velocity. However, the rotor
never succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed.

Advantages of Induction Motor

1. The most important advantage of an induction motor is that its construction is quite
simple in nature. The construction of the Stator is similar in both Synchronous motors as
well as induction motors. However, a slip ring is required to feed DC Supply to the Rotor
in the case of a Synchronous Generator. These Slip rings are not required in a Squirrel
cage induction motor because the windings are permanently short circuited. When
compared with a DC Motor, the induction motor does not have Brushes and hence,
maintenance required is quite low. This leads to a simple construction.
2. The working of the motor is independent of the environmental condition. This is because
the induction motor is Robust and mechanically strong.
 3. A Squirrel cage induction motor does not contain Brushes, Slip rings and Commutators.
Due to this reason, the cost of the motor is quite low. However, Slip Rings are used in
Wound type induction motor to add external resistance to the rotor winding.
4. Due to the absence of Brushes, there are no sparks in the motor. It can also be operated in
hazardous conditions.
5. Unlike synchronous motors, a 3 phase induction motor has a high starting torque, good
speed regulation and reasonable overload capacity.
6. An induction motor is a highly efficient machine with full load efficiency varying from
85 to 97 percent.
Disadvantages of Induction Motor
1. A single phase induction motor, unlike a 3 phase induction motor, does not have a self
starting torque. Auxiliaries are required to start a single phase motor.
2. During light load conditions, the power factor of the motor drops to a very low value.
This is because during the start, the motor draws a large magnetising current to overcome
the reluctance offered by the air gap between the Stator and the Rotor. Also, the induction
motor will take very less current from the supply main. The vector sum of Load current
and Magnetising current lags the voltage by around 75-80 degrees and hence, the power
factor is low. Due to high magnetising current, the copper losses of the motor increase.
This in turn leads to decrease in the efficiency of the motor.
3. Speed control of an induction motor is very difficult to attain. This is because a 3 phase
induction motor is a constant speed motor and for the entire loading range, the change in
speed of the motor is very low.
4. Induction motors have high input surge currents, which are referred to as Magnetising
Inrush currents. This causes a reduction in voltage at the time of starting the motor.
5. Due to poor starting torque, the motor cannot be used for applications which require high
starting torque.

Three Phase Induction Motor Construction

Like any other type of electrical motor induction motor, a three phase induction motor is
constructed from two main parts, namely the rotor and stator:

1. Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A stator winding
is placed in the stator of induction motor and the three phase supply is given to it.
2. Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the
mechanical load through the shaft.

Fig. 1: Induction Motor – Stator and Rotor

The other parts of a three phase induction motor are:

1. Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is made up of steel.
2. Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.
3. One of the problems with electrical motor is the production of heat during its rotation. To
overcome this problem, we need a fan for cooling.
4. For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is needed.
5. There is a small distance between rotor and stator which usually varies from 0.4 mm to 4
mm. Such a distance is called air-gap.

Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor

The stator of the three-phase induction motor consists of three main parts: Stator frame, Stator
core and Stator winding or field winding.

Stator Frame
It is the outer part of the three phase induction motor. Its main function is to support the stator
core and the field winding. It acts as a covering, and it provides protection and mechanical
strength to all the inner parts of the induction motor. The frame is either made up of die-cast or
fabricated steel. The frame of three phase induction motor should be strong and rigid as the air
gap length of three phase induction motor is very small. Otherwise, the rotor will not remain
concentric with the stator, which will give rise to an unbalanced magnetic pull.

Fig. 2: Stator of three phase induction motor

Stator Core
The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In order to reduce the eddy
current loss, the stator core is laminated. These laminated types of structure are made up of
stamping which is about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. All the stamping are stamped together to form
stator core, which is then housed in stator frame. The stamping is made up of silicon steel, which
helps to reduce the hysteresis loss occurring in the motor.

Stator Winding or Field Winding

The slots on the periphery of the stator core of the three-phase induction motor carry three phase
windings. We apply three phase ac supply to this three-phase winding. The three phases of the
winding are connected either in star or delta depending upon which type of starting method we
use. We start the squirrel cage motor mostly with star-delta stater and hence the stator of squirrel
cage motor is delta connected. We start the slip ring three-phase induction motor by inserting
resistances so, the stator winding of slip ring induction motor can be connected either in star or
delta. The winding wound on the stator of three phase induction motor is also called field
winding, and when this winding is excited by three phase ac supply, it produces a rotating
magnetic field.

Types of Three Phase Induction Motor

The rotor of the three phase induction motor are further classified as -- Squirrel cage rotor and
Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor. Depending upon the type of rotor
construction used the three phase induction motor are classified as:

1. Squirrel cage induction motor

2. Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or phase wound induction motor.

The construction of a stator for both of the kinds of three phase induction motors is identical.
Squirrel Cage Three Phase Induction Motor
The rotor of the three phase squirrel cage induction motor is cylindrical and has slots on its
periphery. The slots are not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed as the skewing
prevents magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of the motor more
smooth and quieter. The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars. These
aluminum, brass or copper bars are called rotor conductors and are placed in the slots on the
periphery of the rotor. The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the copper, or aluminum
rings called the end rings. To provide mechanical strength, these rotor conductors are braced to
the end ring and hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and hence got its
name as squirrel cage induction motor. The squirrel cage rotor winding is made symmetrical. As
end rings permanently short the bars, the rotor resistance is quite small, and it is not possible to
add external resistance as the bars get permanently shorted. The absence of slip ring and brushes
make the construction of Squirrel cage three-phase induction motor very simple and robust and
hence widely used three phase induction motor. These motors have the advantage of adopting
any number of pole pairs.

Fig. 3: Squirrel Cage Rotor

Advantages of Squirrel Cage Induction Rotor

1. Its construction is very simple and rugged.
2. As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors requires less maintenance.
Applications of Squirrel Cage Induction Rotor
We use the squirrel cage induction motors in lathes, drilling machine, fan, blower printing
machines, etc

Slip Ring or Wound Rotor Three Phase Induction Motor

In this type of three phase induction motor the rotor is wound for the same number of poles as
that of the stator, but it has less number of slots and has fewer turns per phase of a heavier
conductor. The rotor also carries star or delta winding similar to that of the stator winding.

The rotor consists of numbers of slots and rotor winding are placed inside these slots. The three
end terminals are connected together to form a star connection. As its name indicates, three
phase slip ring induction motor consists of slip rings connected on the same shaft as that of the
rotor.

Fig. 4: Slip-Ring or Wound Rotor

The three ends of three-phase windings are permanently connected to these slip rings. The
external resistance can be easily connected through the brushes and slip rings and hence used for
speed controlling and improving the starting torque of three phase induction motor. The brushes
are used to carry current to and from the rotor winding. These brushes are further connected to
three phase star connected resistances. An electrical diagram of a slip ring three phase induction
motor is shown below:

At starting, the resistance is connected to the rotor circuit and is gradually cut out as the rotor
pick up its speed. When the motor is running the slip ring are shorted by connecting a metal
collar, which connects all slip ring together, and the brushes are also removed. This reduces the
wear and tear of the brushes. Due to the presence of slip rings and brushes the rotor construction
becomes somewhat complicated therefore it is less used as compare to squirrel cage induction
motor.

Advantages of Slip Ring Induction Motor

1. It has high starting torque and low starting current.
2. Possibility of adding additional resistance to control speed.

Application of Slip Ring Induction Motor

Slip ring induction motors are used where high starting torque is required i.e in hoists, cranes,
elevator etc.
 Production of Rotating Magnetic Field
Consider three identical coils located on axes physically at 120º in space and each coils are
supplied from one phase of a balanced three phase supply as shown in fig. 5 (a). Each coils will
produce an alternating flux along its own axis. Let, the alternating fluxes are given by:

𝜑1 = 𝜑𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜑2 = 𝜑𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 120°)

𝜑3 = 𝜑𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 120°)

Here 𝜑𝑚 is the maximum flux due to any phase.

Fig. 5

The resultant flux produced by this system may be determined by resolving the components with
respect with respect to the physical axis as shown in fig. 5 (b).

The resultant horizontal component of flux is

1
𝜑ℎ = 𝜑1 − 𝜑2 cos 60° − 𝜑3 cos 60° = 𝜑1 − (𝜑2 + 𝜑3 ) cos 60° = 𝜑1 − (𝜑2 + 𝜑3 )
2
1
= 𝜑𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − [𝜑𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 120°) + 𝜑𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 120°)]
2
𝜑𝑚
= 𝜑𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − (sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 120° − cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 120° + sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 120° + cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 120°)
2
𝜑𝑚 1 3
= 𝜑𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − (2 sin 𝜔𝑡) (− ) = 𝜑𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
2 2 2
The resultant vertical component of flux is

𝜑𝑣 = 0 − 𝜑2 cos 30° + 𝜑3 cos 30° = cos 30° [−𝜑𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 120°) + 𝜑𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 120°)]
√3
= 𝜑 [−(sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 120° − cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 120°) + (sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 120° + cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 120°)]
2 𝑚
√3 √3 √3 3
= 𝜑 (2 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 120°) = 𝜑 (2 cos 𝜔𝑡) = 𝜑𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
2 𝑚 2 𝑚 2 2

The components 𝜑ℎ and 𝜑𝑣 are shown in fig. 5 (c).

3 2 3 2 3
Resultant flux 𝜑𝑟 = √𝜑ℎ2 + 𝜑𝑣2 = √(2 𝜑𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡) + (2 𝜑𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡) = 2 𝜑𝑚

This shows that, the resultant flux is independent of time. It is constant flux of magnitude equal
to 1.5 times the maximum flux per phase.
3
𝜑𝑣 ( 𝜑𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡) 𝜋
2
Also, tan 𝜃 = 𝜑 = 3 = cot 𝜔𝑡 = tan ( 2 − 𝜔𝑡)
ℎ ( 𝜑𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)
2

𝜋
So, 𝜃 = 2 − 𝜔𝑡

This shows that, the angle θ is independent of time. This also can be written as

(i) At ωt = 0°, θ = 90° corresponding to position A.

(ii) At ωt = 90°, θ = 0° corresponding to position B.
(iii) At ωt = 180°, θ = - 90° corresponding to position C.
(iv) At ωt = 270°, θ = - 180° corresponding to position D.

It is seen that, the resultant flux rotates in space in the clockwise direction with angular velocity
radian/second.
𝑃𝑁𝑠
Since 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 and 𝑓 = , the resultant flux rotates with Synchronous speed.
120

Principle of Operation of a Three-Phase Induction Motor:

For the sake of simplicity, consider one conductor on the stationary rotor as shown in fig. 6 (a).
Let this conductor be subject to the rotating magnetic field produced when a three-phase supply
is connected to the three phase winding of the stator. Let the rotation of the magnetic field be
clockwise. A magnetic field moving clockwise has the same effect as a conductor moving anti-
clockwise in a stationary field. By Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, a voltage will be
induced in the conductor. Since the rotor circuit is complete, either through the end rings or an
external resistance the induced voltage causes a current to flow in the rotor conductor. By
Fleming’s right-hand rule we can determine the direction of induced current in the conductor.
Since the magnetic field is rotating clockwise, and the conductor is stationary we can assume that
the conductor is in motion in the anti-clockwise direction with respect to the magnetic field. By
right hand rule the direction of the induced current is outwards (shown by dot) as given in Fig. 6
(b). The current in the rotor conductor produces its own magnetic field [Fig. 6 (c].

Fig. 6: Production of torque

We know that when a conductor carrying current is put in a magnetic field a force is produced on
it. Thus, a force is produced on the rotor conductor. The direction of this force can be found by
Fleming’s left-hand rule [Fig. 4.6 (d)]. It is seen that the force acting on the conductor is in the
same direction as the direction of the rotating magnetic field. Since the rotor conductor is in a
slot on the circumference of the rotor, this force acts in a tangential direction to the rotor and
develops a torque on the rotor. Similar torques are produced on all the rotor conductors. Since
the rotor is free to move, it starts rotating in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field.
Thus, a three-phase induction motor is self-starting. Since the operation of this motor depends
upon the induced voltage in its rotor conductors, is called an induction motor.

Speed and Slip:

An induction motor cannot run at synchronous speed. Let us consider for a moment that is rotor
is rotating at synchronous speed. Under this condition, there would be no cutting flux by the
rotor conductors, and there would be no generated voltage, no current and no torque. The rotor
speed is therefore slightly less than the synchronous speed. An induction motor may also be
called as Asynchronous motor as it does not run at synchronous speed. The difference between
the synchronous speed and the actual rotor speed is called the slip speed.

Thus, the slip speed expresses the speed of the rotor relative to the field.

If, Ns = synchronous speed in rpm and Nr = actual rotor speed in rpm and the slip speed = (Ns -
Nr) rpm.

The slip expressed as a fraction of the synchronous speed is called the per unit slip or fractional
slip. The per unit slip is usually called the slip. It is denoted by s.
 𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁𝑟
𝑠= per unit (p. u. )
𝑁𝑠
𝑁𝑠 −𝑁𝑟
Percentage slip = x100
𝑁𝑠

Alternatively, if, ns = synchronous speed in rps and nr = actual rotor speed in rpm and the slip
speed = (Ns - Nr) rps, then,
𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑟
𝑠= p. u.
𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑠 −𝑁𝑟
and percentage slip = x100
𝑁𝑠

𝜔𝑠 −𝜔𝑟
Also, 𝑠 = 𝑤𝑠

The slip at full load varies from about 5 percent for small motors to about 2 percent for large
motor.

Frequency of Rotor Voltage and Current:

The frequency of current and voltage in the stator must be the same as the supply frequency
given by

𝑁𝑠 𝑃
𝑓=
120
The frequency in the rotor winding is variable and depends on the difference between the
synchronous speed and the rotor speed. Hence the rotor frequency depends upon the slip. The
rotor frequency is given by

(𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁𝑟 )𝑃
𝑓𝑟 =
120
𝑓𝑟 𝑁𝑠 −𝑁𝑟
From the above two equation gives =
𝑓 𝑁𝑠

𝑁𝑠 −𝑁𝑟
But, =𝑠
𝑁𝑠

So, 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑠𝑓

That is, rotor current frequency = per unit slip x supply frequency

When the rotor is stationary (stand-still),

𝑁𝑠 −𝑁𝑟
Nr = 0, 𝑠 = = 1 and 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑓
𝑁𝑠
When the rotor is driven by a mechanical prime mover at synchronous speed Ns, then s = 0 and fr
= 0. Therefore, frequency of rotor current varies from fr = f at stand-still (s = 1) to fr = 0 at
synchronous speed (s = 0).

In our further discussion we take f = f1 and fr = f2.

So, 𝑓2 = 𝑠𝑓1

Rotor Current
Standstill condition:

Let, E20 = emf induced per phase of the rotor at standstill

R2 = resistance per phase of the rotor

X20 = reactance per phase of the rotor at standstill = 2πf1L2

Z20 = rotor impedance per phase at standstill

I20 = rotor current per phase at standstill

Z20 = R2 +jX20
𝐸 𝐸20
Rotor current per phase at standstill 𝐼20 = 𝑍20 =
20 √𝑅22 +𝑋20
2

𝑅 𝑅2
Power factor at standstill cos 𝜑20 = 𝑍 2 =
20 √𝑅22 +𝑋20
2

Rotor Current at Slip s:

Induced emf per phase in the rotor winding at slip s is E2s = s E20

Rotor winding resistance per phase = R2

Rotor winding reactance per phase at slip s is X20 = 2πf2L = 2π(sf1)L = sX20

Rotor winding impedance per phase at slip s is Z2s = R2 + jX2s = R2 +jsX20

𝐸2𝑠 𝑠𝐸20
Rotor current at slip s is 𝐼2𝑠 = =
𝑍2𝑠
√𝑅22 +(𝑠𝑋20 )2

𝑅 𝑅2
Power factor at slip s is cos 𝜑2𝑠 = 𝑍 2 =
2𝑠 √𝑅22 +𝑠 2𝑋20
2
Relationship between Rotor Copper Loss and Rotor Input:

Let, τd = developed torque = toque exerted on the rotor rotating flux

ns = synchronous speed in rps

nr = rotor speed in rps

Power transferred from stator to rotor = air-gap power Pg = ωsτd = 2πnsτd = input power to rotor

Total mechanical power developed by the rotor Pmd = ωsτd = 2πnrτd Watt

Total I2R loss in rotor = (power transferred to the rotor) – (total mechanical power developed by
the rotor)

Prc = Pg – Pmd = 2π (ns –nr) τd

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 2𝜋(𝑛𝑠 −𝑛𝑟 )𝜏𝑑

So, = =𝑠
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 2𝜋𝑛𝑠𝜏𝑑

Therefore, Rotor copper loss = s x rotor input

or, Prc =sPg = sPir

Thus, the rotor copper loss is equal to slip times the rotor input (air-gap power). The term sPg is
known as slip power, because it is proportional to the slip for a given value of Pg. It is the portion
of the air-gap power which is not converted into mechanical power.

Also, rotor input = mechanical power developed + rotor copper loss

Pir = Pmd + Prc

Prc = sPir = s (Pmd + Prc)

or, (1-s) Prc = sPmd

𝑠
or, 𝑃𝑟𝑐 = 1−𝑠 𝑃𝑚𝑑

𝑠
That is, rotor copper loss = 1−𝑠 x mechanical power developed by the rotor

or, Pg : Prc: Pmd = 1 : s : (1-s)

From the above discussion, it is seen that one the air-gap power Pg is determined, three quantities
may be found from the slip and synchronous speed.

Prc = s Pg

Pmd = (1-s) Pg
 𝑃𝑔
𝜏𝑑 =
𝜔𝑠

Developed Torque:

The developed torque or induced torque is defined as the torque generated by the internal electric
to mechanical power conversion. The torque is also called electromagnetic torque. The torque
differs from the torque actually available torque at the terminals of the motor by an amount equal
to the friction and windage torques in the machine. The developed torque is given by
Mechanical power developed 𝑃𝑚𝑑
𝜏𝑑 = Mechanical angular velopcity of the rotor = … … (1)
𝜔𝑟

Since, Pmd = (1-s)Pg and ωr = (1-s)ωs

(1−𝑠)𝑃𝑔 𝑃𝑔
𝜏𝑑 = = … … (2)
(1−𝑠)𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑠

The equation (2) is specially useful because it expresses developed torque directly in terms of
air-gap power Pg and synchronous speed ωs. Since ωs is constant and independent on the load
condition, τd is found directly if Pg is known. The equation (2) is applicable to the starting
condition when s = 1 and the torque cannot be calculated directly from equation equation (1)
when becomes an intermediate form.

Since the developed torque is given by equation (2), the air-gap power Pg is often called the
torque in ‘synchronous watt’.

Synchronous Watt is the torque that develops power of 1 Watt when the machine is running at
synchronous speed.

Output power Po = ωr τload

𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑚𝑑 − 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡
𝜏𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = =
𝜔𝑟 𝜔𝑟

Torque of an Induction Motor:

𝐸 𝑅 2 𝑅
3𝐸2𝑠 2 𝑅
3𝑠 2 𝐸2𝑜
Electrical power generated in rotor = 3𝐸2𝑠 𝐼2𝑠 cos 𝜑2𝑠 = 3𝐸2𝑠 𝑍2𝑠 𝑍 2 = 2
2
= 2
2𝑠 2𝑠 𝑍2𝑠 𝑅22 +(𝑠𝑋2𝑜 )2

All the power is dissipated as I2R loss (copper loss) in the rotor circuit. Input power to rotor =
2πnsτd

s x rotor input = rotor copper loss

2
3𝑠 2 𝐸2𝑜 𝑅2
𝑠2𝜋𝑛𝑠 𝜏𝑑 = 2
𝑅2 + (𝑠𝑋2𝑜 )2
 2
3𝐸20 𝑠𝑅2
𝜏𝑑 =
2𝜋𝑛𝑠 𝑅22 + (𝑠𝑋2𝑜 )2
2
𝑘𝑠𝐸20 𝑅2
𝜏𝑑 = 2
𝑅2 + (𝑠𝑋2𝑜 )2
3 3
where 𝑘 = 2𝜋n = 𝜔 = a constant
𝑠 𝑠

Starting Torque:

At start s = 1. Therefore, starting torque may be obtained by putting s = 1 in equation (2) and it
is:
2
𝑘𝐸20 𝑅2
𝜏𝑠𝑡 =
2𝜋𝑛𝑠 (𝑅22 + 𝑋2𝑜 2 )

The starting torque is known as Stand-still Torque.

Torque at Synchronous Speed:

At synchronous speed, s = 0, and therefore τd = 0. That is, at synchronous speed, developed

torque is zero.

𝐸2𝑜 𝑇𝑒2
=
𝐸1 𝑇𝑒1

𝑇𝑒2
𝐸2𝑜 = 𝐸
𝑇𝑒1 1

3 𝑇 2 𝑠𝑅
So, 𝜏𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑛 (𝑇𝑒2) 𝐸12 𝑅2 +𝑠 22𝑋 2
𝑠 𝑒1 2 2𝑜

3 𝑇 2
Let, 2𝜋𝑛 (𝑇𝑒2 ) = 𝑘 (a constant)
𝑠 𝑒1

𝑘𝐸12 𝑠𝑅2
𝜏𝑑 =
𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋2𝑜
2

Since E1 is nearly equal to V1,

𝑘𝑉12 𝑠𝑅2
𝜏𝑑 = 2 2
𝑅2 + 𝑠 2 𝑋2𝑜

Starting torque is obtained by putting s = 1in the above equation.

 𝑘𝑉12 𝑅2
𝜏𝑠𝑡 = 2 2
𝑅2 + 𝑋2𝑜

𝜏𝑑 ∝ 𝑉12

That is, the starting toque is proportional to the square of the stator applied voltage.

Condition for Maximum Torque:

The value of torque when motor is running is

𝑘𝑠𝐸2 𝑅2
20
𝜏𝑑 = 𝑅2 +(𝑠𝑋 2 … … (1)
2 20 )

If the impedance of the stator wining is assumed to be negligible, then for the given supply
voltage V1, E2o remains constant.
2
Let, 𝑘𝐸20 = 𝑘1 a constant

1 2 𝑘 𝑠𝑅
So, 𝜏𝑑 = 𝑅2 +𝑠 2𝑋 2
2 20

𝑘1 𝑅2
𝜏𝑑 =
𝑅22 2
𝑠 + 𝑠𝑋20
𝑘1 𝑅2
=
𝑅2
√( − 𝑋20 √𝑠) + 2𝑅2 𝑋20
√𝑠

The developed torque will be maximum when the right-hand side above equation is a maximum
which is possible when

𝑅2
− 𝑋20 √𝑠 = 0
√𝑠
Or, R2 = sX20 … … (5)

Or, R2 = X2s … … (6)

Hence the developed torque is maximum when the rotor resistance per phase is equal to the rotor
resistance per phase under running conditions.

The maximum torque is obtained by putting sX20=R2 in the expression for torque in equation (1),
2 2 2
𝑘𝑠𝐸20 𝑅2 𝑘𝑠𝐸20 𝑘𝑠𝐸20
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = =
𝑅22 + 𝑅22 2𝑅2 2𝑠𝑋20
 2
𝑘𝐸20
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = … … (7)
2𝑋20

This relation shows that the maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.

If sM = value of slip corresponding to maximum torque then from equation (5),

𝑅2
𝑠𝑀 =
𝑋20

We have N = Ns (1 - s)

Therefore, the speed of the rotor at maximum torque is

NM = Ns (1-sM)

From equation (7) for maximum torque the following conclusions can be drawn:

(a) Maximum torque is independent of rotor circuit resistance.

(b) Maximum torque varies inversely as standstill reactance of the rotor. Hence, for
maximum torque, X20 and, therefore, the inductance o the rotor should be kept as small as
possible.
(c) The slip at which the maximum torque depends upon the rotor resistance (sM = R2/X20).
Therefore, by varying resistance in the rotor circuit, maximum torque can be obtained at
ant desired slip or motor speed. It is to be noted that the resistance in the rotor circuit can
only be varied in slip ring rotors. In order to develop maximum torque at standstill, the
rotor resistance must be high (and equal to X20), but to develop maximum torque under
running conditions this rotor resistance must be low.

Maximum Torque at Running

To determine the condition for maximum torque at starting, put s = 1 in equation (5). Therefore,
the starting torque will be maximum when

𝑅2
=𝑠=1
𝑋20

or, R2 = X20

The rotor resistance is not more than 1 or 2 percent of the leakage reactance for higher
efficiency. In order to increase the starting torque, extra resistance should be added to the rotor
circuit at start and cut out gradually as motor speeds up.

Torque-Slip and Torque-Speed Characteristics:

2
𝑘𝑠𝑟2 𝐸20
We have 𝜏 = 2 … … (1)
𝑅2 +(𝑠𝑋20 )2
It is seen that, if R2 and X20 are kept constant, the torque τ depends upon the slip s. The torque-
Slip characteristic curve can be divided roughly into three regions -- Low-slip region, Medium-
slip region and High-slip region.

(a) Low-slip region :

At synchronous speed s = 0, therefore, the torque is zero. When the speed is very near to
synchronous speed, the slip is very low and (𝑠𝑋20 )2 is negligible in comparison with R2.
Therefore,

𝑘1 𝑠
𝜏=
𝑅2

If R2 is constant, (sX20)2,

𝜏 ∝ 𝑘2 𝑠

Relation (2) shows that the torque is proportional to the slip. Hence, when the slip is small
(which is the normal working region of the motor), the torque-slip curve is a straight line.

(b) Medium-slip region:

A slip increases, (that is, as the speed decreases with the increase in load), the term (𝑠𝑋20 )2
becomes large, so that 𝑅22 may be neglected in comparison with (𝑠𝑋20 )2 and

𝑘3 𝑅2
𝜏= 2
𝑠𝑋20

Thus, the torque is inversely proportional to the slip towards stand-still conditions. The torque-
slip characteristic values of the slip the graph changes from one form to another. In doing so, it
passes through the point of maximum torque when R2 = sX20. The maximum torque developed in
an induction motor is called the pull-out torque or breakdown torque. This torque is a measure of
the short-time overloading capability of the motor.

(c) High-slip region:

The torque decreases beyond the point of maximum toque. The result is that the motor slows
down and eventually stops. At this stage, the overload protection must immediately disconnect
the motor from the supply to prevent damage due to overheating.

The motor operates for the value of the slip between s = 0 and s = sM, where sM is the value of the
slip corresponding to the maximum torque. For a typical induction motor, the pull-out torque is 2
to 3 times the rated full load torque. Thus the motor can handle short-time overload, without
stalling. The starting torque is about 1.5 times the rated full load torque.
Fig. 7 shows the torque-slip curves for various values of rotor resistance. The torque-speed
curves are shown in fig. 8.

Fig. 7: Torque-Slip Curves

Fig. 8: Torque-Speed Curves

It is seen that although the maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance, yet the exact
location of τmax is independent on it. Greater the value of R2, greater is the value of slip at which
maximum torque occurs. It is also seen that as the rotor resistance is increased, the pull-out speed
of the motor decreases, but the maximum torque remains constant.

Torque-slip characteristics of induction machine (Generator, Motor and Braking mode) is shown
in fig. 9.

Fig. 9: Torque-Slip Characteristic of Induction Machine

Full-Load Torque and Maximum Torque:

Let, s = full load slip of the motor

τfl = full-load torque

τst = starting torque

𝑘𝑠𝑅 𝐸2
2 20
𝜏𝑓𝑙 = 𝑅2 +(𝑠𝑋 )2
… … (1)
2 20

𝑘𝐸2
2 … … (2)
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑋20
20

2 20 𝑘𝑅 𝐸2
At starting, s = 1. So, 𝜏𝑠𝑡 = 𝑅2 +𝑋 2 … … (3)
2 20

𝜏𝑓𝑙 𝑘𝑠𝑅 𝐸2
2 20 𝑘𝐸2 2𝑠𝑅2 𝑋20
So, 𝜏 = 𝑅2 +[𝑠𝑋 ⁄ 20 =
]2 2𝑋 2
… … (4)
𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 20 20 𝑅22 +(𝑠𝑋20
2 )

But, R2 = sMX20
𝜏𝑓𝑙 2
2𝑠.𝑠𝑀 𝑋20
So, 𝜏 = 2 𝑋 2 +𝑠 2𝑋 2
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑀 20 20

𝜏𝑓𝑙 2𝑠.𝑠𝑀
= 2 … … (5)
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠 2+𝑠𝑀

𝜏𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑅 𝐸2
2 20 20 𝑘𝐸2 2𝑅2 𝑋20 2(𝑠𝑀 𝑋20 )𝑋20
Also, 𝜏 = 𝑅2 +𝑋 2 ⁄2𝑋 = 𝑅22 +𝑋20
2 = (𝑠 2+𝑋 2
𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 20 20 𝑀 𝑋20 ) 20

𝜏𝑠𝑡 2𝑠
So, = 1+𝑠𝑀2 … … (6)
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑀

Equation (6) can also be obtained from equation (5) by putting s = 1 in it.

𝜏𝑠𝑡 2x1x𝑠𝑀 2𝑠𝑀

= 2 = 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 + 𝑠𝑀 1 + 𝑠𝑀

𝜏𝑠𝑡 𝑠 2 +𝑠 2
Also, = 𝑠(1+𝑠𝑀2 ) … … (7)
𝜏𝑓𝑙 𝑀

Winding EMFs:

Let, suffixes 1 and 2 be used for stator and rotor quantities respectively.

V1 = stator applied voltage per phase

T1 = number of stator winding turns in series per phase

T2 = number of rotor winding turns in series per phase

ȹ = flux per pole produced by the stator mmf = resultant air-gap flux

E1 = stator induced emf per phase

E20 = emf induced in the rotor per phase when the rotor is at standstill

E2s = emf induced in the rotor per phase when the rotor is rotating at slip s

R1 = resistance of stator winding per phase

R2 = resistance of rotor winding per phase

L20 = rotor impedance per phase at standstill due to leakage flux

X20 = leakage reactance of the rotor winding per phase when the rotor is at standstill

f1 = stator emf frequency (supply frequency)

f2 = frequency of the induced emf in the rotor at slip s

X2s = leakage reactance of the rotor winding per phase when the rotor is rotating at slip s

kd1 = distribution factor of the stator winding

kd2 = distribution factor of the rotor winding

kp1 = pitch factor or coil span factor of the stator winding

kp2 = pitch factor or coil span factor of the rotor winding

Stator induced emf per phase E1 = 4.44 kp1kd1f1ȹT1

Induced emf per phase in the rotor when the rotor is at standstill E20 = 4.44 kp2kd2f2ȹT2

Induced emf per phase in the rotor when the rotor is rotating at slip s is E2s = sE20

So, E2s = 4.44 kp2kd2sf2ȹT2

Let, kp1kd1 = kw1 = winding factor of stator and kp2kd2 = kw2 = winding factor of rotor

So, E1 = 4.44kw1f1ȹT1

So, E2s = 4.44kw2sf2ȹT2

Let us define Te1 = kw1T1 and Te2 = kw2T2

𝐸 𝑘 𝑇 𝑇
So, 𝐸 1 = 𝑘𝑤1 𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑒1 = 𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 (effective turns ratio of the induction motor) … … (11)
20 𝑤2 2 𝑒2

where, Te1 and Te2 are called effective stator and rotor turns per phase respectively.
𝐼2′ 𝑇
= 𝑇𝑒2 = 𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 … … (12)
𝐼2 𝑒1

Equation (11) shows that the ratio between stator and rotor emfs is constant at standstill. This
ratio depends on the turns ratio modified by distribution and pitch factors of the windings. The
induction motor, therefore, behalves like a transformer. It is to be noted that the factors for stator
and rotor windings are not the same, because the number of slots in them may be different.

Development of the Circuit Model (Equivalent Circuit) of an Induction Motor:

An induction motor is based for its operation on the induction of voltages and currents in its rotor
circuit. Because the induction of voltages and currents in the rotor circuit of an induction motor
is essentially a transformer operation, the equivalent circuit of an induction motor is very similar
to equivalent circuit of a transformer.

Equivalent circuit enables the performance characteristics of the induction motor to be evaluated
for steady state conditions by simple network calculations. The equivalent circuit of an induction
motor is drawn only or one phase.

The Stator Circuit Model

The stator model of the induction motor is shown in fig. 10.

Fig. 10: Stator model of induction motor

It consists of stator phase winding resistance R1, a stator phase winding leakage reactance X1.
These two components appear right at the input to the machine model.

The no-load current I0 is simulated by a pure inductive reactance X0 taking the magnetizing
component Iµ and a non-inductive resistance R0 carrying core loss component Iω. Thus,

I0 = Iµ + Iω

It is to be noted that he total magnetizing current I0 is considerably larger in the case of induction
motor as compared to a transformer. This is due to the higher reluctance caused by the air-gap of
the induction motor. The magntising reactance X0 in an induction motor will have a much
smaller value. In a transformer, I0 is about 2 to 5% of the rated current while in an induction
motor it is approximately 25 to 40% of the rated current depending upon the size of the motor.
Rotor Circuit Model:

In an induction motor, when 3-phase supply is applied to the stator windings, a voltage is
induced in the rotor windings of the machine. In general, the greater the relative motion of the
rotor and stator magnetic fields, the greater the resulting rotor voltage. The largest relative
motion occurs when the rotor is stationary. This condition is called the standstill condition. This
is also known as the locked-rotor or blocked-rotor condition. If the induced rotor voltage at this
condition is E20 then the induced voltage at any slip is given by

E2s = sE20

The rotor resistance R2 is a constant (except for the skin effect). It is independent on slip.

The reactance of the induction motor rotor depends upon the inductance of the rotor and the
frequency of the voltage and current in the rotor.

If, L2 = inductance of the rotor, the rotor reactance is given by

X2 = 2πf2L2

But, f2 = sf1

So, X2 = 2πsf1L2 = s (2πf1L2)

or, X2 = sX20

where X20 is the stand-still reactance of the rotor.

The rotor impedance is given by,

Z2s = R2 +jX2s

or, Z2s = R2 +jsX20

The rotor current per phase may be expressed as,

𝐸 𝑠𝐸20
𝐼2𝑠 = 𝑍2𝑠 = 𝑅 … … (1)
2𝑠 2 +𝑗𝑠𝑋20

The circuit interpretation of equation (4) is shown in fig. 8. It shows that I2 is a slip frequency
current produced by a slip frequency induced voltage sE20 acting in the rotor current having an
impedance per phase of (R2 + jsX20).

By dividing both the numerator and denominator of equation (1) by the slip s, we get,
𝐸20
𝐼2𝑠 = 𝑅2 … … (2)
+𝑗𝑋20
𝑠
The circuit implementation of equation (2) is shown in fig. 11. It is to be noted that the
magnitude and phase angle of I2s remain the same by this operation. However, there is a
significant difference between equation (1) and (2). In equation (2), I2 considered to be produced
by a constant line frequency voltage E20 acting in a rotor circuit having an impedance per phase
𝑅
of ( 𝑠2 + 𝑗𝑋20 ). Hence the I2 of equation (5) is the line frequency current, while I2 of equation (1)
is a slip frequency current.

Fig. 11: Rotor circuit model

It is also to be noted that the rotor circuit model of fig. 11 has a constant resistance R2 and a
variable leakage reactance sX20. Similarly, the rotor circuit model of fig. 12 has a constant
leakage reactance X20 and a variable resistance R2/s.

Fig. 12: Rotor equivalent circuit

The significance of equation (2) should be understood clearly. This equation describes the
secondary circuit of a fictitious transformer, one with a constant voltage ratio and with the same
frequency of both sides. This fictitious stationary rotor carries the same current as the actual
rotating rotor, and, thus produces the same mmf wave. This concept of fictitious station rotor
makes it possible to transfer the secondary (rotor) impedance to the primary (stator) side.

It should be noted that when rotor currents and voltages are reflected into the stator, their
frequency is also changed to stator frequency.

Separation of Mechanical Load from Rotor Copper Loss in the Circuit Model:

In the circuit model shown in fig. 12, the resistor 𝑅2′ /𝑠 consumes the total rotor input (air-gap
power). Therefore, the air-gap power is given by,
 2 𝑅2′
𝑃𝑔 = 3 𝐼2′ … .. (1)
𝑠

The actual resistive losses (copper losses) in the rotor circuit are given by,
2
𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 = 3 𝐼2′ 𝑅2′ … … (2)

Developed mechanical power

2 𝑅2′ 2
𝑃𝑚𝑑 = 𝑃𝑔 − 𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 = 3 𝐼2′ − 3 𝐼2′ 𝑅2′
𝑠

2 1
𝑃𝑚𝑑 = 3 𝐼2′ 𝑅2′ ( − 1)
𝑠

2 2 1
𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 + 𝑃𝑚𝑑 = 3 𝐼2′ 𝑅2′ + 3 𝐼2′ 𝑅2′ ( − 1)
𝑠

2 1
𝑃𝑔 = 3 𝐼2′ [𝑅2′ + 𝑅2′ ( − 1)]
𝑠
1 𝑅2′ 𝑅2′
Also, 𝑅2′ + 𝑅2′ (𝑠 − 1) = 𝑅2′ + − 𝑅2′ =
𝑠 𝑠

𝑅2′
It is seen that may be divided into two components: 𝑅2′ representing the rotor copper loss per
𝑠
𝑅2′
phase, and (𝑅2′ + ) representing the developed mechanical power.
𝑠

𝑅2′
In other words, the variable resistance in fig. 12 may be replaced by the actual rotor winding
𝑠
resistance R2 and the variable resistance Rmech which represents the mechanical shaft load. That is

𝑅2
𝑅𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = (1 − 𝑠)
𝑠

Fig. 13: Per phase rotor equivalent circuit with rotor copper loss and mechanical load
separated

This expression is useful in analysis because it allows any mechanical load to be represented in
the equivalent circuit by a resistor. The modified per phase rotor equivalent circuit is shown in
fig. 13.
The Complete Circuit Model (Equivalent Circuit) Referred to Stator:

In order to obtain the per phase equivalent circuit for an Induction Motor, it is necessary to refer
the rotor part of the model over to the stator circuits frequency and voltage level.

Fig. 14: Per phase complete equivalent circuit of induction motor referred to stator

In an ordinary transformer, the voltage, current and impedance on the secondary side can be
transferred to the primary side by means of the turns ratio a of the transformer.

𝐸1 = 𝐸2′ = 𝑎𝐸2
𝐼2
𝐼1 = 𝐼2′ = 𝑎

and 𝑍2′ = 𝑎2 𝑍2

when the prime refers to the reflected values of voltage, current and impedance.

Similar transformation can be done for the induction motor’s rotor circuit.

If 𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 = effective turns ratio of the induction motor

𝑅2′ = resistance of the rotor winding per phase referred to the stator side
′
𝑋20 = standstill rotor reactance per phase referred to stator side

𝐸2 𝐸2′
=
𝑇𝑒2 𝑇𝑒1

𝑇𝑒1
𝐸2′ = 𝐸 = 𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐸2 = 𝐸1
𝑇𝑒2 2

Similarly,

𝐼2
𝐼2′ =
𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓

′ 2
𝑅2
𝑍20 = 𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 ( + 𝑗𝑋20 )
𝑠
The complete equivalent circuit of an induction motor is shown in fig. 14.

It is to be noted that the form of this circuit is identical with that of the 2-winding transformer.

Approximate Equivalent Circuit:

It is usual to simplify this equivalent circuit still further by shifting the shunt impedance branches
R0 and X0 to the input terminals as shown in fig. 15. This approximation is based on the
assumption that V1 = E1 = E’2. The circuit shown in fig. 15 is called the approximate equivalent
circuit per phase of the induction motor. In this circuit the only component that depends on slips
is the resistance representing the developed mechanical power by the rotor. All other quantities
are constant, and reactances correspond to those at the fixed stator frequency f1. This
approximate equivalent circuit model has become the standard for all performance calculation of
the induction motor.

Fig. 15: Approximate equivalent circuit

Referring to fig. 15, the following equations can be down for one phase at any given slip s.

Impedance beyond AA’ is

𝑅2′
𝑍𝐴𝐴′ = (𝑅1 + ) + 𝑗(𝑋1 + 𝑋2′ )
𝑠

𝑉1
𝐼2′ =
𝑍𝐴𝐴′
𝑉1
or, 𝐼2′ = 𝑅′2
(𝑅1 + )+𝑗(𝑋1 +𝑋2′ )
𝑠

So, I2′ = 𝐼2′ ∠ − φ2

= 𝐼2′ cos 𝜑2 − 𝑗𝐼2′ sin 𝜑2

𝑋1 +𝑋2′ 𝑅1 +(𝑅2′ /𝑠)

where tan 𝜑2 = 𝑅′
and cos 𝜑2 = |𝑍𝐴𝐴′ |
𝑅1 + 2
𝑠
No-load current, I0 =Iω + Iµ
𝑉 𝑉
So, 𝐼0 = 𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑋1
0 0

1 1
𝐼0 = 𝑉1 ( −𝑗 )
𝑅0 𝑋0

Total stator current 𝐼1 = 𝐼2′ + 𝐼0

Total core loss 𝑃ℎ+𝑒 = 3𝑉1 𝐼0 cos 𝜑0

𝑅2′
Stator input = 3𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜑1 = 3𝑉1 𝐼2′ cos 𝜑2 + 𝑃ℎ+𝑒 = 3𝐼2′ (𝑅1 + ) + 𝑃ℎ+𝑒
𝑠

𝑅2′ 𝑉12 (𝑅2′ /𝑠)

Air-gap power per phase 𝑃𝑔 = 3𝑉1 𝐼2′ cos 𝜑2 = 𝐼2′ = ′ 2
𝑠 𝑅 2
(𝑅1 + 2 ) +(𝑋1 +𝑋2′ )
𝑠

𝑃𝑔 𝑉12 (𝑅2′ /𝑠)

Developed torque 𝜏𝑑 = 𝜔 = ′ 2
𝑠 𝑅 2
[(𝑅1 + 2 ) +(𝑋1 +𝑋2′ ) ]
𝑠

Power Flow Diagram:

The input power to the induction motor is in the form of three phase voltage and currents is given
by 𝑃𝑖𝑠 = √3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos 𝜑𝑖 = 3𝑉𝑠𝑝 𝐼𝑠𝑝 cos 𝜑𝑖

where, 𝜑𝑖 is the input power factor.

2
The losses in the stator are (a) I2R losses in the stator winding resistances 𝑃𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 3𝐼𝑠𝑝 𝑅𝑠𝑝 . These
losses are known as stator copper losses. (b) Hysteresis and eddy current losses in the stator core
Ps (h+e). These losses are called stator core losses.

The power output of the stator P0s = Pis – PSCL – Ps (h+e)

This power P0c is transferred to the rotor of the machine across the air-gap between the stator and
rotor. It is called air-gap power Pg of the machine.

Thus, power output of the stator = air-gap power = input power to rotor

or, P0s = Pg = Pir

The losses in the Rotor are (a) I2R losses in the rotor resistance 𝑃𝑟𝑐 = 3𝐼22 𝑅2 . These losses are
known as rotor copper losses. (b) Hysteresis and eddy current losses in the rotor core Pr(h+e).
These losses are called rotor core losses. (c) Friction and windage losses Pfw. (d) Stray load
losses Pmisc, consisting of all losses not covered above, such as losses due to harmonic fields.
Mechanical Power Developed: If rotor copper losses are subtracted from rotor input power Pg,
the remaining power is converted from electrical to mechanical form. This is called developed
mechanical power Pmd.

Fig.16: Power flow diagram of an induction motor

Developed mechanical power = rotor input – rotor copper loss

Pmd = Pir – Prc

or, Pmd = Pg – Prc

Pmd = Pg – 3I’2R2

The output of the motor is given by

P0 = Pmd – Pfw – Pmisc

P0 is called shaft power or useful power.

Frictional Losses:

At starting and during acceleration, the rotor core losses are high. With the increase in speed
these losses decreases. The friction and windage losses are zero at start. With increase in speed
these losses increase. As a result, the sum of friction, windage, and core losses is roughly
constant with changing speed. Therefore, these categories of losses are sometimes lumped
together and called rotational losses. Rotational losses are defined as follows:

Prot = Pfw +Ph+e + Pmisc

Then, P0 = Pmd –Prot = Pmd – Prot = Pfw +Ph+e + Pmisc

The relationship between the input electric power and the output mechanical power of an
induction motor is shown in the power flow diagram (fig. 12).

Representation of Core Losses in the Circuit Model:

There is no general agreement as to how to treat core losses in the circuit model. The core losses
of an induction motor consist of stator core losses and rotor core losses. The rotor core losses
vary with rotor frequency and hence with the slip. Under normal running conditions the slip is of
the order of 3% and therefore the rotor frequency is about 1.5 Hz for stator frequency of 50 Hz.
For his reason, the rotor core losses are negligible, an all the core losses are lumped together in
the stator of the circuit model. These losses are represented in the induction motor equivalent
circuit by the resistor R0.

Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters:

The two tests – (a) No-load test and (b) Blocked Rotor test can be used to determine the
equivalent circuit parameters.

No-Load Test:

This test is similar to the open-circuit test on a transformer. The motor is uncoupled from its load
and the rated voltage at the rated frequency is applied to the stator to run the motor without load.
The input power is measured by the two-wattmeter method. An ammeter and a voltmeter are
connected as shown in fig. 17. The ammeter measures the no-load current and the voltmeter
gives the normal rated supply voltage. Since the no-load current is 20-30% of the full load
current, the I2R losses in the primary may be neglected as they vary with the square of the
current. Since the motor is running at no-load, total input power Pi equal to constant iron loss,
friction and windage losses of the motor.

Fig. 17: No-load test of induction motor

Pconstant = Pi = P1 + P2 = sum of the two wattmeter readings

Since the power factor of the induction motor under no-load condition is generally less than 0.5,
one wattmeter will show negative reading. It is therefore, necessary to reverse the direction of
current coil terminals to take the reading.
As in the case of transformer, the constants R0 and X0 can be calculated from the readings
obtained in the no-load test.

Let, Vinl = input line voltage, Pinl = total 3-phase input power at no-load, I0 = input line current
and Vip = input phase power

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑙 = √3𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑙 𝐼0 cos 𝜑0

𝐼𝜇 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜑0

𝐼𝜔 = 𝐼0 cos 𝜑0

𝑉𝑖𝑝
𝑅0 =
𝐼𝜔

𝑉𝑖𝑝
𝑋0 =
𝐼𝜇

Separation of Losses:

Friction and windage losses can be separated from the no-load loss P0. A number of readings of
P0 at no-load is taken at different stator applied voltages from rated to breakdown value at rated
frequency. A curve P0 versus V is plotted as shown in fig. 18. The curve is nearly parabolic at
voltages near normal, since iron losses are almost proportional to the square of the flux density
and, therefore, the applied voltage. The curve is extended to the left to cut the vertical axis at A.
at the vertical axis V = 0 and hence the intercept OA represents the voltage independent loss, that
is, the loss due to friction and windage Pwf.

Fig. 18: Separation of loss of induction motor

Blocked Rotor or Short Circuit Test:

This test is analogous to the short-circuit test of a transformer. In this test, the shaft of the motor
is clamped (locked) so that it cannot move and rotor winding is short circuited. In a slip-ring
motor, the rotor winding, is short-circuited through slip-rings and in the cage motor bars are
permanently short-circuited. This test is also called the locked-rotor test. The circuit diagram for
blocked rotor test is shown in fig. 19.

Fig. 19: Blocked rotor test of induction motor

A reduced voltage at reduced frequency is applied to the stator through a three-phase auto-
transformer so that full-load rated current flows in the stator. The following three readings are
obtained.

(1) Total power input on short-circuit Psc = algebraic sum of the two wattmeter readings

The power input in this test is equal to the sum of the copper losses of stator and rotor for all the
three phases. This is due to the fact that a reduced voltage is applied to the stator, and rotation is
not allowed and, therefore, core and mechanical losses are negligible.

(2) Reading of ammeter Iscl = line current on short-circuit

(3) (3) Reading o voltmeter Vscl = line voltage at short-circuit

So, 𝑃𝑠𝑐 = √3𝑉𝑠𝑐𝑙 𝐼𝑠𝑐𝑙 cos 𝜑𝑠𝑐

where, cos 𝜑𝑠𝑐 is the power factor on short-circuit.

𝑃𝑠𝑐𝑝
Equivalent resistance of the motor referred to stator 𝑅𝑒1 = 2
𝐼𝑠𝑐𝑝

𝑉𝑠𝑐𝑝
Equivalent impedance of the motor referred to stator 𝑍𝑒1 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐𝑝

2 2
Equivalent reactance of the motor referred to stator 𝑋𝑒1 = √𝑍𝑒1 − 𝑅𝑒1

It is to be noted that the blocked-rotor test should be performed under the same conditions of
rotor current and frequency that will exist under normal operating conditions. T normal operating
conditions, the slip of the most induction motors is only 2-4%, an the resulting rotor frequency is
in the range of 1-2 Hz for s stator frequency of 50 Hz. Therefore the blocked rotor test should be
performed at a reduced frequency because the rotor effective resistance and leakage reactance at
the reduced frequency (corresponding to lower value of slip) may differ considerably from their
values at the rated frequency. In order to obtain accurate results, the blocked rotor test is
performed at a frequency 25% or less of the rated frequency. The leakage reactances at the rated
frequency are obtained by considering that the reactance is proportional to the frequency.
However, for motors of less than 20 kW rating, the effects of frequency are negligible and the
blocked-rotor test can be performed directly at the rated frequency.