Contents

I MODULE 1: LASER ANDOPTICAL FIBERS 1

1 LASER
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Characteristics of a LASER beam
1.3 Interaction of radiation with matter
1.3.1 Induced Absorption
1.3.2 Spontaneous Emission
1.3.3 Stimulated Emission
1.4 Einstein's A and B co-efficients and expression for energy density
1.5 LASER Action and the Conditions for LASER action
1.5.1 Population Inversion and Pumping
1.5.2 meta-stable state
1.6 Requisites of a LASER system
1.6.1 Energy Source or Pumping Mechanism 6
1.6.2 Active medium 6
1.6.3 Resonant cavity (or) LASER cavity 6
1.7 Semiconductor LASER or Diode LASER 6

1.8 Applications of LASER 7

1.8.1 LASER Barcode Reader 7
1.8.2 LASER Printer 7
1.8.3 LASER Cooling
1.9 Model Questions
1.10 Numerical Problems

2 Optical Fibers 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Total Internal Reflection 11
2.3 Angle of acceptance and Numerical aperture 11
2.3.1 Condition for propagation 12
2.4 Modes of propagation 12
2.5 RI Profile 12
2.5.1 Types of optical fibers 13
2.6 Attenuation 13
2.6.1 Absorption loss 14
2.6.2 Scattering loss |4
2.6.3 Geometric effects 14

2.7 Applications of Optical Fibers 14

2.7.1 Fiber Optic Networking 14

2.7.2 Point to point communication using Optical Fibers 14

2.8 Model Questions 15
2.9 Numerical Problems 15

3
 Part I

MODULE 1: LASER AND OPTICAL

FIBERS

1
Chapter 1
LASER

1.1 Introduction Excited State Excited State

E.
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stim
ulated Emission of Radiation. The first LASER was built
by Theodore H Maiman in the year 1960. Thus it finds
AE = E, - E,
various applications starting from industries to communi
cation.
Ground State Ground State
Before After
1.2 Characteristics of a LASER
beam
Figure 1.1: Induced absorption
The LASER beam has the following four characteristics.
1. LASER beam is highly monochromatic.
2. LASER beam is highly coherent.
13.2 Spontaneous Emission
3. LASER beam is highly directional. Spontaneous emission is the process of emission of pho
ton, when an atom transits from higher energy level to
4. LASER is a high intensity beam of light. lower energy level without the influence of any external
energy.
1.3 Interaction of radiation with
Excited State Excited State
matter E. E,
The interaction between radiation and matter occurs
through the following three processes.
AE= E, - E,
1. Induced absorption
E, E,OOOo
Ground State
=I
2. Spontaneous emission Ground State
3. Stimulated emission Before After

1.3.1 Induced Absorption Figure 1.2: Spontaneous emission

When a photon of right energy is incident on the atom
then the photon is absorbed This process is induced by the
photon and hence it is called Induced Absorption.
Consider an atom in a lower energy states Ej, it will An electron in the higher energy state of an atom makes
excite to higher energy states E, by absorbing the incident a transition to lower energy state without the action of any
photon of energy E = hy = Ez - E. Here Ej energy external agency. the energy of the photon emitted is given
of the lower energy state, E, is the energy of the higher by E = hv = Ez- Ej. In this process the emitted photons
energy state, h is the Planck's constant v is the frequency need not travel in the same direction. Thus the light beam
of photon. is not directional.

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1.3.3 Stimulated Emission 2. Rate of Induced absorption= Bi2 NË Ey

When a photon of suitable energy interacts with an
atom in the higher energy state then the atom is stimulated Here B12 is proportionality constant called Einsteins coef
(Forced) to make transition from higher energy state to a ficient of Induced absorption.
lower energy state with the emission of a photon. Both
the incident photon and the emitted photons are coherent Rate of spontaneous emission:
and travel in the same direction. Thus the process is called
stimulated emission. The number of spontaneous emission per unit volume in
unit time is called rate of spontaneous emission. Rate of
Excited State Excited State spontaneous emission depends on
E
Since spontaneous emission is a voluntary process it is
AE = E, - E, independent of energy density Ey. The rate of sponta
AE = E- E, neous emission depends only on the number of atoms in
the higher energy state N2. Thus
E,OOo
Ground State
E,O0oo
Ground State 1. Rate of spontaneous emission o N
Before After 2. Rate of Spontaneous emission = A21 N2

Figure 1.3: Stimulated emission Here Az is the proportionality constant called Einstein's
co-efficient of spontaneous emission.

Rate of stimulated emission

When a photon of energy hy = Ez - E, interacts with
an atom in the higher energy state the stimulated emission The number of stimulated emission per unit volume in unit
takes place with the emission of two photons of same en time is called rate of stimulated emission. Rate of stimu
ergy that are highly directional and coherent.Thus stimu lated emission depends upon,
lated emission could be used to generate a highly coherent
1. Number of atoms in the higher energy state (N2 )
directional beam of light.
2. The energy density (E,).
1.4 Einstein's A and B co-efficients Hence

and expression for energy den 1. The Rate of stimulated emission oc N E,

sity 2. Rate of stimulated emission = B21 N2 Ey

Consider a system containing N atoms and is under ther Here the proportionality constant called B21 is Einstein's
mal equilibrium. Let E and E, be the lower and higher coeficient of stimulated emission.
energy levels that contain Nand N number of atoms re Under Thermal Equilibrium the total Energy of the Sys
spectively. Let the incident energy density of the radia tem remains unchanged. Hence Rate of Absorption is
tion be E,. Hence the system absorbs and emits the en equal to rate of emission.
ergy through the following processes. The energy of the :. Rate of Induced Absorption = [Rate of Spontaneous
photons absorbed and emitted by the atoms is E = hy = emission + Rate of Stimulated Emission]
.
(E2 - E;)
B12 NË Ey = A21 N2 + B21 N2 E, (1.1)
Rate of induced absorption
(B12 NË - B21 N2 ) Ey = Az1 N2
The rate of induced absorption is defined as the number
of induced absorption per second per unit volume in unit
Az1 N2
time. Rate of absorption depends on Ey = (1.2)
B12 NË - B21 N2
1. Number of atoms in the lower energy state N1.
Az1
Ey = (1.3)
2. The incident energy density Ey. N
B12 N- B21
Hence
A21
1. Rate of Induced absorption x N Ey
E, = B12 N
(1.4)
B21 B21 N

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According to Boltzmann relation the we have

(1.5)
NË
Lncident
Or we can re-Write as. photon

(1.6)
N2
Stage I Staee 2 Stage 3
Here h is the Planck's constant, c is the speed of light in
vacuum, Ais the wavelength of the photon, k is the Boltz
mann constant andT is the absolute temperature. Substi Figure 1.4: LASER action
tuting for in equation 1.4

LASER action could be achieved through the conditions

(1.7)
population inversion and meta-stable state.
Bae#-1|
According to Planck's radiation law, the equation for en 1.5.1 Population Inversion and Pumping
ergy density in the frequency domain is given by
If a system is under thermal equilibrium the number of
atoms in excited state is less than the number of atoms in
-3 (1.8) the lower energy state. For the production of LASER num
ber of stimulated emission must be more when compared
on comparing equations 1.7 and 1.8 we can get to induced absorption and spontaneous emission. This is
A2 8xhy possible only if the number of atoms in the higher energy
(1.9) state is more than the number of atoms in the lower en
BT
ergy state and is called population inversion. The means of
and achieving population inversion by supplying energy from
B12 a suitable source is called Pumping. In addition,to have
=1 (1.10)
B21 more stimulated emissions, the life time of atoms in the
or B12 = B21 excited state must be longer. Thus the essential conditions
This means that Probability of Induced absorption is for population inversion are
equal to Probability of Stimulated emission. Hence A21 1. Higher energy state should posses a longer life time.
& B21 can be replaced by A & B. Thus equation 1.7 could
be written as 2. The number of atoms in the higher energy state must
A
(1.11) be greater than the number of atoms in the lower en
ergy state.
Hence the expression for energy density in terms of Ein
stein's co-eficient A and B. 1.5.2 meta-stable state
The life time of an energy level is of the order of 10-8
1.5 LASER Action and the Condi second. If an atom posses unusual longer life time in an
tions for LASER action energy state such a state is referred to asa meta-stable state.
Usually the life time of meta-stable state varies from 10-2s
Consider a LASER system. Let an atom in the excited
to 10-s. Population inversion could be achieved with the
state is stimulated by a photon of right energy so that atom help of three energy state with one of them a meta-stable
state and is as shown in the figure 1.5. The population
makes stimulated emission. Two coherent photons are ob inversion is achieved between the state E2 andEj as state
tained. These two coherent photons if stimulate two atoms
in the exited state to make emission then four coherent pho E, is a meta-stable state.
tons are emitted. These four coherent photons stimulate 4 Note : The principles of Laser are
more atoms in the excited state resulting in &coherent pho
tons and so on. As the process continues number of coher 1. Stimulated Emission
ent photons increases. These coherent photons constitute
an intense beam of LASER. This phenomenon of building 2. Population Inversion
up of number of coherent photons so as to get an intense 3. meta-stable State
LASER beam is called lasing action.
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energy of
atom lifetime 10-7 s
1.7 Semiconductor LASER or Diode
excited
LASER
lifetime 103 s
state
Introduction
metastable
state Semiconductor diode LASER is an LED with heavily
doped P and N sections. First semiconductor LASER was
fabricated in 1962 using Ga- As by Hall with his co
workers. It is a low cost and high efficiency LASER.
ground
slate
Pollshod
Figure 1.5: Population inversion, E, is meta-stable state surface

1.6 Requisites of a LASER system Laser

beam

The three requisites of a LASER system are,

p- type
D.C Source

1. Excitation source for pumping action n- type Active

reglon

2. Active medium that supports meta-stable states

3. LASER cavity
Figure I.6: Semiconductor Diode LASER

1.6.1 Energy Source or Pumping Mecha

nism Construction

In order to achieve population inversion more and more Construction

atoms are to be moved to higher energy state and is called
pumping. This is achieved by supplying suitable energy The Ga - As LASER diode belongs to direct band gap
using an energy source. If optical energy is used then the semiconductors. The n-section is derived by doping the
pumping is called optical pumping and if electrical energy substrate with Tellurium and p-section is derived by dop
is used then the pumping is called electrical pumping. ing the substrate with Zinc. The diode used is in the form
of a cube with dimension 0.4 mm. The depletion region is
of thickness 0.1 micrometer and lies horizontal as shown
1.6.2 Active medium
in the figure 1.6.The current is passed through the ohmic
Population inversion occurs at certain stage in the ac contacts provided to the top and bottom faces. The front
tive medium due to the absorption of energy. The active and back faces are polished and made highly parallel to
medium supports meta-stable states. After this stage the each other to have a LASER cavity. The other two faces
active medium is capable of emitting LASER light. are roughened.
Conducion band
1.6.3 Resonant cavity (or) LASER cavity
energy
free electrons
The LASER Cavity consists of an active medium bound barrier
between two highly parallel mirrors. The reflection of electron
photons from the mirrors results in multiple traverse of energy Band gap (E)
photons through the active medium inducing more and + + + t + + + +
aser
more stimulated emissions. Thus amplification of light is ++ + + + ++ Light
free holes
achieved. This also helps to tap certain permissible part Valence band
of LASER energy from the active medium.The cavity res
onates and the output will be maximum when the distance
L between the mirrors is equal to an integral multiple of .
Here A is the wavelength of incident suitable radiation.the
length of the LASER cavity is expressed as Working
nd The Diode is forward biased using an external source.
L2 (1.12)

6
Therefore electrons and holes flow across junction. Hence

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the current flows through the diode. When a hole meets A barcode is a printed series of parallel bars or lines of
an electron it recombines with electron emitting a pho varying width that is used for entering data intoa computer
ton. This could be considered as the transition of electron system.
from conduction band to valance band. When the current
is low spontaneous emission is predominant. If the cur
rent is sufficiently high population inversion is achieved. A barcode scanner/reader is a device with lights, lenses,
The photons liberated initially due to spontaneous emis and a sensor that decodes and captures the information
sions induce further stimulated emissions. The LASER contained in barcodes. Laser scanners use a laser beam

cavity helps in the amplification of light. Finally this re as a light source and typically employ oscillating mirrors
sults in an avalanche of photons and hence the LASER ac or rotating prisms to scan the laser beam back and forth
tion is achieved. If the GaAs semiconductor is used then across the barcode. A photodiode then measures the re
the wavelength of the LASER emitted is 840nm. flected light from the barcode. An analog signal is created
from the photodiode, and is then converted into a digital
signal.
Advantages
1. It has excellent efficiency
1.8.2 LASER Printer
2. The output can be modulated
Laser printers ware invented at XEROX in 1969 by by re
3. It produces both continuous wave output or pulsed searcher Gary Starkweather.Laser Printers are digital print
output. ing devices that are used to create high quality text and
graphics on plain printer. A Diode Laser is used in the
4. It is highly economical process of printing in LASER Printer.
Applications
Construction
1. It is used in optical fiber communication.
2. It is used in commercial CD recording and reading. Lser Scanning Unlt

3. It is used in Barcode Reader, Laser printing and Laser Developr Corona Wire
Cooling. Monoet

1.8 Applications of LASER Pnotoreooptor

Assornbly

LASER has wide range of applications pertaining all

disciplines of engineering. Here the syllabus only two
applications are discussed relavant to computing.
Figure 1.9: Laser Printer Schematic
1.8.1 LASER Barcode Reader

Working Principle
1. A laser beam projects an image of the page to be
printed onto an electrically charged rotating Photo
sensitive drum coated with selenium.

2. Photo conductivity allows charge to leak away from

Figure 1.7: Barcode Reader the areas which are exposed to light and the area gets
positively charged.
3. Toner particles are then electrostatically picked up by
the drum's charged areas, which have been exposed
to light.
Figure 1.8: barcode 4. The drum then prints the image onto paper by direct
contact and heat, which fuses the ink to the paper.

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Advantages 3. Explain the terms, (i) Induced absorption, (ii) Sponta

neous emission, (ii) Stimulated emission, (iv) Popu
1. Laser printers are generally quiet and fast. lation inversion, (v) Meta-stable state & (vi) Resonant
2. Laser printers can produce high quality output on or cavity.
dinary papers. 4. Explain the rates of absorption and emission and
hence derive an expression for energy density using
3. The cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than Einstein's A and B coefficients.
other printers.
5. Explain requisites of LASER system.
Disadvantages 6. What is Semiconductor LASER? Describe with en
1. The initial cost of laser printers can be high. ergy band diagram the construction working of
Semiconductor diode LASER along with applica
2. Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix tions.
printers and ink-jet printers 7. Discuss the working of LASER barcode reade.

1.8.3 LASER Cooling 8. With the help of a sketch describe the principle, con
struction and working of the LASER Printer.
Principle of LASER Cooling Laser cooling is the use of
dissipative light forces for reducing the random motion and 9. Explain LASER Cooling and its application.
thus the temperature of small particles, typically atoms or
ions. Depending on the mechanism used, the temperature 1.10 Numerical Problems
achieved can be in the millikelvin, microkelvin, or even
nanokelvin regimne. 1. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
LASER if the transition between them produces light
Iop of wavelength 6493 Å, assuming the ambient temper
Lascr Photon
ature at 27°C.

lon abohs pcton

2. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
medium at thermal equilibrium, if the wavelength of
Spontancous On average ion light emitted at 291 Kis 6928 ¢.
is slowed down
(cooled)
direction
3. The ratio of population of two energy levels out of
which one corresponds to metastable state is 1.059 x
a
Lmited ught
obeerve jon
10-30, Find the wavelength of light emitted at 330 K.
4. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
Figure 1.10: Laser Cooling medium at thermal equilibrium, if the wavelength of
light emitted at 300 K is 10um. Also find the effec
tive temperature when energy levels are equally pop
If an atom is traveling toward a laser beam and absorbs ulated.
a photon from the laser, it will be slowed by the fact that 5. The average power output of a LASER beam of wave
the photon has momentum p = = . It would take a length 6500 is 10 mW. Find the number of photons
large number of such absorptions to cool the atoms to near emitted per second by the LASER source.
OK. The following are the types of laser cooling
6. The average power of a LASER beam of wavelength
" Doppler Cooling. 6328 is 5 mW. Find the number of photons emitted
per second by the LASER source.
" Sisyphous Cooling.
7. A pulsed LASER has an average power output 1.5
mW per pulse and pulse duration is 20 ns. The
1.9 Model Questions number of photons emitted per pulse is estimated to
be 1.047 x10. Find the wavelength of the emitted
1. What is LASER? Enumerate the Characteristics of a LASER.
LASER Beam.
8. A pulsed LASER with power 1 mW lasts for 10 ns.
2. Discuss the three possible ways through which radia If the number of photons emitted per pulse is 5 x10".
tion and matter interaction can take place. Calculate the wavelength of LASER.

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9. A Ruby LASER emits a pulse of 20 ns duration with

average power per pulse being 100 kW. If the number
of photons in each pulse is 6.981lx 10'5, calculate the
wavelength of photons.
10. In a LASER system when the energy difference be
tween two energy levels is 2 x 10- J, the average
power output of LASER beam is found to be 4 mW.
Calculate number of photons emitted per second.

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Chapter 2
Optical Fibers
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Total Internal Reflection

Optical fibers are the wires and strands made of trans Consider a ray of light moving from a denser medium to
parent dielectrics which guide light over longer distances rarer medium. As a result the incident ray of light bends
using the phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection. Many away from the normal. Hence the angle of refraction is
optical fibers are bundled together and are given a protec greater than the angle of incidence. As the angle of inci
tive layer of covering using an insulating material. This dence increases the angle of refraction also increases. For
bundle is called Optical Fiber Cable or Fiber Bundle (Bun a particular angle of incidence e the refracted ray grazes
dle Fiber). the interface separating the two media. The corresponding
angle of incidence e, is called Critical Angle. If the an
gle of incidence is greater than the critical angle then all
Construction: The sectional view of a typical optical the light is turned back into the same medium and is called
fiber is as shown in the figure. It has three regions named Total Internal Reflection.
Core, Cladding and Sheath. n

Rarer

1. The innermost light guiding region is called Core.

Denser

2. The layer covering core and helps in total internal re

flection of light is called Cladding or Clad.

3. The outermost protective layer is called Sheath (Coat

Figure 2.2: Total Internal Reflection
ing). The sheath protects the fiber from mechanical
stress and chemical reactions.

The optical fiber is designed to support total internal re According to Snell's law
flection and hence the RI of coren is made greater than
the RI of cladding n2. A typical fiber will be of the order n sinb =n sinb2
of few microns.
when 1 =0e then, e2 =90
OPTICAL FIBER nË sinb, = ) sin900
COATING n2
sinb, =
n
CORE

, = sin (2.1)

CLADDING 2.3 Angle of acceptance and Numer

Figure 2. 1: Optical fiber construction
ical aperture
Acceptance angle (@o) is the maximum angle of incidence
with which the ray is sent into the fiber core which allows

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the incident light to be guided by the core. It is also called sinb = (2.4)
as waveguide acceptance angle or acceptance cone half an
gle. use equation (1.26) in equation (1.24) we have,

In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fiber nË 1

sinbo =
is a dimensionless number that characterizes the range of no n1
angles over which the fiber can accept light. Numerical
aperture represents the light gathering capability of optical sinbo
1
Vn?-n?
fiber and it is given by NA = sinbo. (2.5)

Numerical aperture N.A = sinbo

2.3.1 Condition for propagation
N.A = yng'-n2 (2.6)
no

n, Clad If the fiber is in air nÍ = 1 then,

no air 90 ,
N.A= sinbo = Vnj?- n,2 (2.7)
nË Core
Light is transmitted through the fiber only when

(2.8)

Figure 2.3: Ray propagation in the fiber

sin.; < sinbo (2.9)
Consider an optical fiber with core made of refractive
index nË & cladding made of material refractive index n2. sine, s Vn-ng2 (2.10)
Let no be the refractive index of the surrounding medium.
Let a ray of light AO entering into core at an angle of in
cidence 6, W.r.t fiber axis. Then it is refracted along OB at sinb, < N.A (2.11)
an angle , & meet core-cladding interface at critical angle
of incidence (, = 90 1). Then the refracted ray grazes This is the condition for propagation. Light will be trans
along BC. On applying Snell's law at O, we get mitted through the optical fiber with multiple total internal
reflections when the above condition is satisfied.
no sinbo = n sin

.. sinbo (2.2)
nÍ 2.4 Modes of propagation
On applying Snell's law at point B, we get
Though optical fiber should support any numbers of rays
nËsin(90- 0;) = n2 sin90 for propagation practically. But it is found that the opti
cal fiber allows only a certain restricted number of rays for
nË cosb= n2
propagation. The maximum number of rays or paths sup
.:. cos , =
n
(2.3) ported by the fiber for the propagation of light is called
Modes of propugution. Based on the modes of propaga
From trigonometric identity tion fibers are classified into Single mode and Multi-mode
fibers.
sin'e, + coste, = 1
sin®, = V1- cos20,
using equation 1.25 2.5 RI Profile

The RI profile is a plot of variation of RI of the fiber with

sin = respect to radial distance from the axis of an optical fiber.
Based on the RI profile fibers are classified into Step index
and Graded index fibers. In case of Step index fibers RI of
sino = n-n? the core is constant. In case of Graded index fibers the RI
decreses radialy outwards.

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n
is very large as compared to single mode optical fiber. A
typical multi-mode step index fiber is as shown in figure.
core
The numerical aperture is large because of large core size
|lad
and thus support multi-modes. They accept light from both
LASER as well as from LED. They are used in data links.

100-250 um

O
Figure 2.4: RI profile of step index fiber

2.5.1 Types of optical fibers 50- 200 um RIProfiie Ray propagation

In any optical fiber, the whole material of the cladding has

a uniform refractive index value. But the refractive index Figure 2.6: Step index multi-mode fiber
of the core material may either remain constant or sub
jected to variation a particular pattern. The curve which
represents the variation of refractive index with respect the
radial distance from the axis of the fiber is called the refrac Graded index multi-mode fiber
tive index profile. The optical fibers are classified under 3
categories, A multi-mode fiber has concentric layers of RI is called
GRIN fiber. It means the RI of the Core varies with
1. Step index single mode fiber distance from the fiber axis. The RI is maximum at the
center and decreases with radial distance towards to core
2. Step index multi-mode fiber cladding interface. The R I profile is as shown in fig. In
3. Graded index multi-mode fiber GRIN fibers the acceptance angle and numerical aperture
diminish with radial distance. The light transmission is as
This classification is done depending on the refractive shown above. They accept light from both LASER as well
index profile, and the number of modes that the fiber can as from LED. They are used for medium distance com
guide. munication for example telephone link between central of
fices.
Step index single mode fiber 100- 250 m
A single mode step index fiber consists of a very fine thin
core of uniform RI surrounded by Cladding of RI lower
than that of Core. Since there is abrupt change in the RI
of Core and Cladding at the interface it is called step index
fiber. Since the Core size is small the Numerical aperture 50- 200 um RIProfle Ray propagation

is also small and hence support single mode. They accept

light from LASER source. Splicing is difficult. They are Figure 2.7: Graded index multimode fiber
used in submarine cables.

60-70 um

2.6 Attenuation
The optical energy (signal) passing through the optical
8-10 um RIProfile Ray propagation fiber gets reduced progressively. This is due to attenuation.
It is also called the fiber loss or significant loss. The atten
Figure 2.5: Step index single mode fiber uation is measured in terms of attenuation co-eficient. The
attenuation co-efficient a is defined as the ratio of optical
power output to the optical power input for a fiber of length
L and for a given wavelength of propagating light. It is ex
Step index multi-mode fiber pressed in dB/km. Attenuation co-efficient is given by

This is similar to single mode step index fiber with the ex -10 Pouu (2.12)
dB/km
L log1o Pin
(?=
ception that it has a larger core diameter. The core diameter

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Here L is the length of the cable in km, Pin is Power driven devices in a particular physical location. Tradition
of optical signal at launching end (input power) & Pou is ally copper coaxial cables are used for for LAN.
Power of optical signal at receiving end (output power)
Passtve Optical Network

The attenuation in fibers gives is due the following

three losses
ternet

1. Absorption losses Optical Fiber ONU

PSTN
asst
2. Scattering loss (due to Rayleigh Scattering) CATV
Central

3. Geometric Effects (Radiation losses) o

ice

ODN ONU

2.6.1 Absorption loss

In this type of loss, the loss of signal power occurs due Figure 2.8: Fiber Optic LAN
to absorption of photons associated with the signal. Pho
tons are absorbed either by impurities in the glass fiber
or by pure glass material itself. Absorption loss is wave
length dependent. Thus absorption loss is classified in to Abbreviations
two types.
1. PON - Passive Optical Network
Extrinsic absorption : Extrinsic loss in an optical fiber
is due to the absorption of light by the impurities such 2. ONT - Optical Network Terminal
as hydroxide ions and transition metal ions such as iron, 3. ODN -Optical Distribution Network
chromium, cobalt and copper.
4. OLT - Optical Line Terminal
Intrinsic absorption Intrinsic loss in fiber is due to the
absorption of light by the material of the fiber glass itself. 5. ONU - Optical Network Unit
The intrinsic losses are insignificant.
Passive Optical LAN
2.6.2 Scattering loss A passive optical network refers to a fiber-optic network
Light traveling through the core can get scattered by im utilizing a point-to-multipoint topology and optical split
ters to deliver data from a single transmission point to mul
purities or small regions with sudden change in refractive tiple user endpoints.Passive here refers to the unpowered
index. Rayleigh scattering varies as a and leads to
condition of the fiber and splitting/combining components.
significant power loss at smaller wavelengths. The scat Passive optical LANs are built entirely using Optical fiber
tering results in loss of photons. Rayleigh scattering is re cables. The passive optical LAN works on the concept of
sponsible for maximum losses in optical fibers.
optical network terminals (ONT) and passive optical split
ters. Network switches act as passive splitters and the com
2.6.3 Geometric effects mercial media converters act as optical network terminals
These may occur due to manufacturing defects like iregu in a real-time application of passive optical LAN.
larities in fiber dimensions during drawing process or dur
ing coating, cabling or insulation processes. The micro Advantages
scopic bends are the bends with radii greater than fiber di 1. High speeds and bandwidth
ameter. The microscopic bends couple light between the
various guided modes of the fiber and some of them then 2. Longer distances are possible
leak through the fiber.
3. Less chance of errors

2.7 Applications of Optical Fibers 2.7.2 Point to point communication using

Optical Fibers
2.7.1 Fiber Optic Networking
Local Area Network In an optical fiber communication system, the input sig
nals (audio, video or other digital data) are used to mod
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of computer net ulate light from a source like a LED or a semiconductor
work that interconnects multiple computers and computer LASER and is transmitted through optical fiber. At the

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receiving end the signal is demodulated to reproduce the 2.8 Model Questions
input signal. If data transfer takes place between only two
devices then, it is called point to point communication. 1. Define the terms: (i) angle of acceptance, (ii) numeri
cal aperture, (iii) modes of propagation &(iv) refrac
Elstrical Optical
tive index profile.
maaloe Trasmiter
Meruphon
2. Obtain an expression for numerical aperture and ar
Optical Fbee rive at the condition for propagation.

| Electrical analog Decoder

Photo
Dtector 3. Explain modes of propagation and RI profile.
4. What is attenuation? Explain the factors contributing
Lapeaker
to the fiber loss.

Figure 2.9: Point to point fiber optic communication sys 5. Discuss the types of optical fibers based on modes of
tem propagation and RI profile.
6. Explain attenuation along with the expression for at
tenuation co-efficient and also discuss the types of
fiber losses.
Optical fiber communication process: The communi
cation using Optical fiber is as follows. irst voice is con 7. Explain the Fiber Optic Networking and mention its
verted into electrical signal using a transducer. It is digi
tized using a Coder. The digitized signal, which carries the advantages.
voice information, is fed to an optical transmitter. The light 8. Discuss point to point optical fiber communication
source in optical transmitter (LED or LASER Diode) emits system and mention its advantages over the conven
modulated light, which is transmitted through the optical tional communication system.
fiber. At the other end the modulated light signal is de
tected by a photo detector and is decoded using a decoder. 9. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an opti
Finally the information is converted into analog electrical cal communication.
signal and is fed to a loud speaker, which converts the sig
nal to voice (sound).
2.9 Numerical Problems
Advantages
1. Calculate the numerical aperture and angle of accep
1. Optical fibers can carry very large amounts of infor tance for an optical fiber having refractive indices
mation in either digital or analog form. 1.563 and 1.498 for core and cladding respectively.
2. The raw material for optical fiber is of low cost and
2. The refractive indices of the core and cladding of a
abundant.
step index optical fiber are 1.45 and 1.4 respectively
3. It has low cost /meter/ channel and its core diameter is 45um. Calculate its fractional
refractive index change and numerical aperture.
4. Cables are very compact
3. Calculate numerical aperture, acceptance angle and
5. Signals are protected from radiation from lightning or critical angle of a fiber having a core RI 1.50 and
sparking cladding RI 1.45.
6. There is no energy radiation from fiber 4. An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.32. The
refractive index of cladding is 1.48. Calculate the re
7. No sparks are generated fractive index of the core, the acceptance angle of the
fiber and the fractional index change.
Disadvantages
S. An optical signal propagating in a fiber retains 85%
1. The optical connectors are very costly of input power after traveling a distance of 500 m in
the fiber. Calculate the attenuation coeficient.
2. Maintenance cost is high
3. They cannot be bent too sharply 6. An optical fiber has core RI 1.5 and RI of cladding is
3% less than the core index. Calculate the numerical
4. They under go structural changes with temperature aperture, angle of acceptance critical angle.

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7. The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.2 when

surround by air. Determine the RI of its core, given
the RI of the cladding is 1.59. Also find the accep
tance angle when the fiber is in water of RI 1.33.
8. The angle of acceptance an optical fiber is 300
when kept in air. Find the angle of acceptance when
it is in medium of refractive index 1.33.

9. An optical fiber of 600 mlong has input power of 120

mW which emerges out with power of 90 mW. Find
attenuation in fiber.

10. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 3.6

dB/km. What fraction of its initial intensity is remains
after i) 1 km and ii) 3 km ?
11. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 2.2
dB/km. What fraction of its initial intensity is remains
after i) 2 km and ii) 6 km ?

Department of Physics 16
Chapter 3
Quantum Mechanics

3.1 Wave-Particle dualism and e, the de Broglie wavelegth is given by the ex

pression = 2¢
The phenomena like Interference, Diffraction and Po
larization are attributed to the wave properties of radia
tion. The Quantum theory of radiation and experiments 3.3 Matter waves and its properties
like Photoelectric effect and Compton Effect describe the
particle nature of radiation. Thus radiation behaves like 3.3.1 Phase velocity
waves and like particles under different suitable circum The velocity with which a wave travels is called phase
stances. Hence radiation exhibits dual nature.
velocity (Vp) and is also called wave velocity. If a point is
marked on the wave representing the phase of the particle
3.2 de Broglie hypothesis then the velocity with which the phase propagates from one
point to another is called phase velocity.
In the year 1924 French physicist Louis de Broglie ex
tended wave-particle dualism through a hypothesis stating Vp = = p (3.1)
If radiant energy could behave like waves in some exper
iments and particles or photons in others and since na Here c is the velocity of light in vacuum andv is the ve
ture loves symmetry, then one can expect the particles like locity of the matter wave. It is also evident, from the above
protons and electrons to exhibit wave nature under suit equation 3.1, that the phase velocity is not only greater than
able circumstances. This is well known as de Broglie's the particle velocity it is also greater than the velocity of
hypothesis. light. Hence there is no physical meaning for phase veloc
ity of matter waves.
Therefore some sort of waves can be even associated
with moving material particles called Matter waves or de 3.3.2 Wave packet and Group velocity
Broglie wvaves and the wavelength associated with matter
waves is called de Broglie wavelength.The wavelength of Since the velocity of matter waves must be equal to that
a photon in-terms of its momentum is given byl = , of the particle velocity and since no physical meaning can
Hence by analogy the de Broglie wavelength of matter be associated with phase velocity, the concept of group ve
waves is given by = = .Here m is the mass of locity is introduced.
the moving particle and v is its velocity.
Note
Partice
" For a particle, charged or uncharged, moving with ki
netic energy E the de Broglie wavelength is given by
V2mE

" For a charged particle accelerated with a potential

V volt, the de Broglie wavelength is given by l =

" For an electron accelerated through a potential differ Figure 3.1: Wave group or wave packet
ence of V volt, the de Broglie wavelength is given by
1= h Further substituting the values of h, m
V2mey
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Matter wave can be considered as a resultant wave due Physical significance : According to Newtonian
to the superposition of many component waves whose ve physics the simultaneous measurement of position and mo
locities differ slightly. Thus a wave group or wave packet mentum are exact. But the existence of matter waves in
is formed. The velocity with which the wave group travels duces serious problems due to the limit to accuracy asso
is called group velocity which is same as particle velocity. ciated with the simultaneous measurement. Hence the ex
It is denoted by vg and is as given in the equation 3.2. actness in Newtonian physics is replaced by probability in
quantum mechanics.
dw
Vg = dk (3.2)
3.4.1 Application of uncertainty principle
3.3.3 Properties of matter waves
Non-existence electrons inside the nucleus : Beta rays
The following are the properties associated with the matter are emitted by the nucleus. When it was first observed it
waves was believed that electrons exist inside the nucleus and are
emitted at certain instant. If the electron can exist inside
1. Matter waves are associated only with particles in mo
tion the atomic nucleus then uncertainty in its position must
not exceed the diameter of the nucleus. The diameter of
2. They are not electromagnetic in nature the nucleus is of the order of Avmax is 10-m. Applying
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle for an electron expected
3. Group velocity is associated with matter waves to be inside the nucleus we get
4. As a result of superposition of large number of com h
ponent waves which slightly differ in frequency, mat AxmaxApmin 2
4T
(3.6)
ter waves are localized.

5. The phase velocity has no physical meaning for mat

Apmin 2 (3.7)
ter waves
4nAXmax
6. The amplitude of the matter wave at a given point is 6.625 x 10-34
associated with the probability density of finding the Apmin 2 = 5.276 x 10-2 kgms
4x3.142x 10-14
particle at that point. (3.8)
h
7. The wave length of matter waves is given by d =
Therefore, the electron should possess momentum
3.4 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Princi Pmin Apmin = 5.276 x10-2kgms-! (3.9)
ple
Statement: The simultaneous determination of the exact Non-relativistic equation of energy of the electron is
position and momentum of a moving particle is impossible. given by
E=
(Pmin)? = 1.53 x 10-!"J (3.10)
Explanation: According to this principle if Aristhe er 2m
ror involved in the measurement of position and Ap,, is the here m is the rest mass of the electron
error involved in the measurement of momentum during
their simultaneous measurement, then the product of the 1.53 x 10-11
corresponding uncertainties is given by Emin = 9SMe V (3.11)
1.6x 10-19
h
(3.3)
47
Conclusion : According to experiments, the energy as
sociated with the beta ray (electron) emission is around3
AEAt> (3.4)
4 MeV which is much lesser than the energy of the electron
expected to be inside the nucleus 9S MeV. Hence electrons
h do not exist inside the nucleus.
4
(3.5)

The product of the errors is of the order of Planck's con Note : Equations 3.4 and 3.5 represent the uncertainty
stant. If one quantity is measured with high accuracy then relationship between the conjugate physical quantities (En
the simultaneous measurement of the other quantity be ergy,time) and (Angular displacement, Angular momen
comes less accurate. tum).

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3.5 Principle of Complementarity 2. It is large in magnitude where is particle or photon is

likely to be found and small else where.
Statement Bohr stated as "Ina situation where the wave
aspect of a system is revealed, its particle aspect is con 3. It will be regarded as describing the behavior of single
cealed; and, in a situation where the paticle aspect is re particle or photon and not statistical distribution of
vealed, its wave aspect is concealed. Revealing both si number of quanta.
multaneously is impossible; the wave and particle aspects
are complementary"
3.7 Time Independent Schrödinger
Explanation We know that the consequence of the un Wave Equation
certainty principle is both the Wave and particle nature of The wave equation which has variations only with respect
the matter can not be measured simultaneously. In other to position and describes the steady state is called Time In
words, we can not precisely describe the dual nature of
dependent Schrodinger wave equation. Consider a particle
Light. of mass m moving with velocity v along +ve x-axis. The
" If an experiment is designed to measure the particle de Broglie wave length d is given by
nature of the matter,during this experiment, errors of h
measurement of both position and the time coordi (3.13)
nates must be zero and hence the momentum, energy
and the wave nature of the matter are completely un The wave equation for one dimensional propagation of
known. waves is given by

" Similarly, if an experiment is designed for measuring (3.14)

the wave nature of the particle, then the errors in the
measurement of the energy and the momentum will The wave function is given by
be zero, whereas the position and the time coordinates
of the matter will be completely unknown. unknown. y=o e(kx-wr) (3.15)

From the above explanation, we can conclude that, when here Wo is the amplitude at the point of consideration, w is
the particle nature of the matter is measured or displayed, angular frequency and k is the wave number. Differentiat
the wave nature of the matter is necessarily suppressed and ing twice with respect to t, we get
vice versa.
=-w'vo e(kx-wr) (3.16)

3.6 Wave Function

(3.17)
According to the de Broglie's hypothesis the relation be
tween momentum and wavelength is found to be experi substituting equation 3.17 in equation 3.14
mentally valid for both photons and particles. The quanta
of matter or radiation can be represented in agreement with (3.18)
uncertainty principle by wave packets. Thus suggests
that concentrated bunches of waves might be used to de substituting for w and v we get
scribe localized particles and quanta of radiation. The vari
ations of which make up the matter wave is called wave (3.19)
function. Hence we shall consider a wave function that
depends on space (x, y and z) and time(t) and is denoted 4x
2 (3.20)
by u(r.). The wave function for a wave packet moving
along +ve x axis is given by substituting for Afrom equation 3.13
y=Uo e(kx-wr) (3.12) 41
=
(3.21)
()?
my

The quantity y is assumed to have the following three

basic properties = 4r'(mv)? (3.22)
1. It can interfere with itself so that it can account for
&r²m(}mv²) (3.23)
diffraction experiments. ax2

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8r²m(E-U),,
h2
(3.24) 3.9 Expectation Value
here In quantum mechanics The expectation value is the
probabilistic expected value of the result (measurement)
Smv' =E -U (3.25) of an experiment. It can be thought of as an average of
here E is the total and U is potential energy of the particle. all the possible outcomes of a measurement as weighted
by their likelihood. Expectation value as such it is not the
au 8r²m(E -D, =0 (3.26)
most probable value of a measurement. In the real sense
h2 the expectation value may have zero probability of occur
ring. Let us consider a particle moving along the x axis.
This can be extended to three dimension
The result of a measurement of the position x is a con
+ -y =0 (3.27) tinuous random variable. Consider a wave function (x, t).
h
The lu(x, )l² value is a probability density for the position
observable and J (x, t)|°dx is the probability of finding the
8rm(E- y=0
h
(3.28) particle between x and x + dx at time t. Thus, if a measure
ment of position is repeated many times in an identical way
here the operator Vis given by on an identical particle in identical circumstances, many
possible outcomes are possible and the expectation value
=
(3.29) of these outcomes is, according to the following equation
+00

Hence the Time Independent Schrodinger equation. (3.33)

3.8 Physical significance of Wave 3.10 Eigen values and eigen func
Function : Physical Interpreta tions
tion
The Schrodinger wave equation is a second order differ
The wave function just as itself has no direct physical ential equation. Thus solving the Schrodinger wave equa
meaning. It is more difficult to give a physical interpreta tion to a particular system we get many expressions for
wave function (/). However,all wave functions are not ac
tion to the amplitude of the wave. The amplitude of the ceptable. Only those wave functions which satisfy certain
wave function y is certainly not like displacement in wa
ter wave or the pressure wave nor the waves in stretched conditions are acceptable. Such wave functions are called
string. It is a very different kind of wave. The quantity
Eigen functions for the system. The energy values corre
squared absolute value of the amplitude gives the proba sponding to the Eigen functions are called Eigen values.
bility of finding the particle per unit volume at the given
The wave functions are acceptable if they satisfy the fol
lowing conditions.
location in space and is referred to as probability density.
This is also referred to as Born interpretation. It is given 1. y must be finite everywhere (Cannot be infinite)
by
2. U must be single valued which implies that solution
P(r) =lu (3.30) is unique for a given position in space.
Thus, in one dimension the probability of finding a particle 3. y and its first derivatives with respect to its variables
in the width dx of length x must be continuous everywhere.
P(r)dr = lldx (3.31)
3.11 Applications of schrödinger
Similarly, in three dimension, the probability of finding
a particle in a given small volume dV of volume V is given wave equation
by
P dv = |udv (3.32) 3.11.1 Particle in one-dimensional potential
here dv = dx dy dz and P is the probability of finding wellof infinite height
the particle at given location per unit volume and is called Consider a particle of mass mbouncing back and forth be
Probubility Density.Since y is a complex quantity lu| = tween the walls of one dimensional potential well as shown
and the product is a real number. y is the complex in figure 3.2. The particle is said to be under bound state.
conjugate of u. Let the motion of the particle be confined along the x-axis

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in between two infinitely hard walls at x = 0 and x = a. here k is a constant for a given value of energy E. The
Since the walls are infinitely hard, no energy is lost by the general solution for equation 3.37 is given by
particle during the collision with walls and the total energy
remains constant. U(x) = A sin kx + B cos kx (3.39)

Here in the above equation A and B are arbitrary constants

which can be evaluated by applying boundary conditions.

Applying Boundary Conditions

1. The first boundary condition is, at x = 0, U(x) = 0.
V=oo V=0 V=o0 Applying this to equation 3.39, we get 0 = Asin 0 +
Bcos 0 B=0hence equation 3.39 reduces to
U(x) = A sin kx (3.40)

2. The second boundary condition is,at x = 4, u () = 0.

Applying this to equation 3.40, we get 0 = Asin ka.
Since A # 0 then sin ka = 0. This results in ka = nI
x=0 X=a
which further could be written as k = , n can take
integer values. Hence equation 3.40 could be written
Figure 3.2: One dimensional potential well of infinite Wx) = As i n . (3.41)
height a

also from equation 3.38

k²7_ 8r²mE, (3.42)
The description of the potential well is as follows. In q2
between walls i.e. 0 <x<a, the potential V =0. Beyond
the walls i.e. x < Oand x > a, the potential V = 0o. En = (3.43)
8ma²

Beyond the walls or outside the potential well

Quantization of Energy States
Since the particle is unable to penetrate the hard walls
it exists only inside the potential well. Hence = 0 and Substituting for n = 1,2,3,4,.. in the above equa
the probability of finding the particle outside the potential tion Energy Eigen Values are obtained. The lowest
well is also zero. energy state corresponds to lowest integral value of
n = lwhich is also called as Zero Point Energy is
In between the walls or inside the potential well given by Ej = . The energy values of abound
particle in one dimensional potential well are quan
The Schrodinger wave equation is given by tized (discrete) and are represented by the equation
E, =n'E,.
8r²m(Eh2 -U)=0 (3.34)
Normalization of wave function
Since the potential inside the well V = 0, hence potential
energy U= 0, the Schrodinger wave equation becomes
The wave function for a particle in one dimensional po
tential well of infinite height is given by the equation 3.41
aPu &rm(E-0),l =0 u(x) = Asin (*). In this equation Ais an arbitrary con
+ (3.35) stant and it can take any value. The process of determi
ax2 h
nation of value of the arbitrary constant is called Normal
ization of wave function. The particle has to exist some
au8rmE,
+y =0 (3.36) where inside the potential the probability of the finding the
h2
particle inside the potential well is given by
(3.37)
Pdx = 1 (3.44)
8r²mE
k= (3.38) Substituting for the wave function in the integral
h

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phenomenon. Wein and Rayleigh-Jeans were able to ex

| A' sin(d=1 (3.45) plain the black-body radiation spectrum in the lower and
higher wavelength region respectively. Planck's radiation
from trigonometry sin² 0 = 1- cos 20). There fore law, based on discrete energy packet 'Quanta' or 'Photon',
the above equation could be written as is able to explain the energy distribution in the black body
radiation spectrum completely. Several experiments and
theories were put forward to understand the particle and
(3.46) wave nature of radiations. This proved dual nature of ra
integrating the above equation we get
diation. Further, based on analogy, Louis de Broglie ex
tended the same concept to moving particles and proposed
a a hypothesis which indicates the wave nature of moving
sin (3.47) particles. Diffraction experiments prove the wave nature
2nn
of moving particles. Attempts were successful in knowing
the different quantities related to the wave associated with
(3.48) particles called matter waves. Irwin Schrodinger set up
Substituting this in equation 3.41 the normalized wave
a differential equation for the moving particle implement
ing de Broglie hypothesis. The Schrodinger wave equation
function or eigen function for a particle in one dimensional is set up for a bound particle and free particles. Subse
potential well of infinite height is given by quent solutions prove that the energies of bound particles
are quantized and that of free particles is continuous.
2 sin (). (3.49)

The wave functions and the probability densities for the 3.12 Model Questions
first three values ofn are as shown in fig 3.3
1. State and Explain de Broglie hypothesis.

2. What are matter waves and mention the properties.

Lines indicate 3. Derive the relation between Phase velocity and Group
velocity.

4. Derive the relation between Group velocity and Parti

cle velocity.

5. State and Explain Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.

Mention its physical significance.
6. Explain why electron cannot exist inside the nucleus?
x=0 X=a
7. State and Explain the Principle of Complementarity.

Figure 3.3: Wave function and Probability density for n = 8. Define wave function? Mention its basic properties.
1,2,3
9. Derive Time independent Schrodinger wave equation
for a particle moving in three dimension.

Thus for ground state (n = 1). The probability of find 10. Discuss the physical interpretation of wave function?
ing the particle at the walls is zero and at the center is
maximum. The first excited state has three nodes and the 11. Elucidate expectation value.
second excited state has four nodes.
12. Describe Eigen functions and Eigen values.

Summary 13. Discuss the motion of a particle in one dimensional

potential well of infinite height.
Black Body radiation spectrum posed challenges during
the early 19th century. Many experiments were con 14. Discuss the energies of a free particle using time in
ducted and theories were put forward to understand the dependent schrodinger equation.

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3.13 Numerical Problems 17. The position and momentum of i keV electron are
simultaneously determined. If it position is located
1. Calculate the momentum of the particle and the de within l, find the uncertainty in the determination
Broglie wavelength associated with an electron with of its momentum.
a kinetic energy of 1.5keV.
18. A spectral line of wavelength 4000 ¢has a width of
2. Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron 8x 10*. Evaluate the minimum time spent by the
having kinetic energy 100eV. electrons in the upper energy state between the exci
tation and de-excitation processes.
3. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with elec
tron carrying energy 2000eV. 19. The inherent uncertainty in the measurement of time
spent by Iridium 191 nuclei in the excited state is
4. Find the energy of the neutron in eV whose de Brogle found to be 1.4 x 10-°s. Estimate the uncertainty
wavelength is 1. that results in its energy in eV in the excited state.
5. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with neu 20. An electron is bound in one dimensional potential
tron of mass 1.674 x 10-27kg with 10 n part of speed well of width 0.18nm. Find the energy value in eV
of light. of the second excited state.

6. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with elec 21. The first excited state energy of an electron in an in
trons whose speed is 0.01 part of the speed of light. finite well is 240eV. What will be its ground state
energy when the width of the potential well is dou
7. What is the de Broglie wavelength of a proton whose bled?
energy is 3eV given mass of protonis 1.67x 10kg.
22. A quantum particle confined to one-dimensional box
8. Find the kinetic energy and group velocity of an elec of width a is in its first excited state. What is the
tron with de Broglie wavelength of 0.2nm. probability of finding the particle over an interval of
marked symmetrically at the center of the box.
9. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of particle of
mass 0.65Me has a kinetic energy 80eV.
10. Find de Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass
0.58 MeY has akinetic energy 90eV, Where cis speed
of light.
11. A particle of mass 940Me has kinetic energy
0.5keV. Find it de Broglie wavelength, where c is
speed of light.
12. Find the de Broglie wavelength of an electron acceler
ated through a potential difference of 182V and object
of mass 1kg moving with a speed of Ims-. Compare
the results and comment.

13. The position and momentum of an electron with en

ergy 0.5keV are determined. What is the minimum
percentage uncertainty in its momentum if the uncer
tainty in the measurement of position is 0.5¢.
14. The speed of electron measured to with in an un
certainty of 2.2 × 10*ms- in one dimension. What
is the minimum width required by the electron to be
confined in an atom?

15. Estimate the time spent by an atom in the excited state

during the excitation and de-excitation processes,
when a spectral line of wavelength 546nm and width
10-1m is emitted.

16. An electron is confined to a box of length 10-m, cal

culate the minimum uncertainty in its velocity.

Department of Physics
Chapter4

Principles of Quantum Information &

Quantum Computing
4.1 Introduction to Quantum Com Moore's L s Intel Mcroprocessor Density
OMoore's Law (1975 version) "Density

puting 10.000.000

1.000,000

100,000
Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on 10.000
developing computing methods based on the principle of l000

quantum theory. Quantum computing is based on the prin

ciple of quantum superposition. In Quantum computing,
the information is encoded in quantum system such as 1980 1990 2000 2010
atoms, ions or quantum dots. One quantum rule in par
ticular creates an enormous incentives to apply quantum
mechanics to computing.

The algorithms are also written based on quantum prin the micro scale realm causing problems for current micro
ciples in which, Shor's algorithm for factorization and electronics. The most typical effects are electron tunneling
Grover's search algorithm are basic. (Grover is an Indian among the circuit lines. Thus Quantum Computation is the
born Physicist working in Bell Labs). The process of com option for the further generation.
putation is incredibly fast but it has to be done by the help
of quantum computers which are yet to be realized in prac Table 2-3. Semiconductor Size Data for Figure 2-2
tice. It is expected that 140 digit log number could be fac Year Size in nanometers
tored a billion (10) times faster that is possible with clas 1995 600
sical computation. It is so powerful that a search engine 2001 130
can search every part of internet in half an hour. 2010 32

2014 14

4.2 Moore's law & its end 2019 7

2021

In the year 1965, Gordon Moore observed increasing per

formance in the first few generations of the integrated
circuit (1C) technology. Moore predicted that it would
continue to improve at an exponential rate with the per
formance per unit cost increasing by a factor or two every 4.3 Differences Between Classical
18 months are so. The computer industry has followed this
prediction since then. But actually the doubling was oc and Quantum Computing
curring im every 24 months or 2 years. The following plot
shows the 50 years of Moore's law. 4.3.1 Classical Computing
The question that arises is how long can Moore's law
continues to hold and what are the ultimate limitations?. 1. Used by large scale,multipurpose and devices.
According to the semiconductor size data the size has 2. Information is stored in bits.
reached5 nanometer in 2021. The Demise of the Transis
tor in the quantum scale could be expected as the dimen 3. There is a discrete number of possible states. Either 0
sions decrease further. Quantum effects can cascade into or 1.
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22

4. Calculations are deterministic. This means repeating 4.5 Representation of Qubits by

the same inputs results in the same output.
Bloch Sphere
5. Data processing is carried out by logic and in sequen
tial order. The pure state space qubits (Two Level Quantum Me
chanical Systems) can be visualized using an imaginary
6. Operations are governed by Boolean Algebra. sphere called Bloch Sphere. It has a unit radius.
7. Circuit behavior is defined by Classical Physics.

4.3.2 Quantum Computing ||0)

1. Used by high speed, quantum mechanics-based com
puters.
2. Information is based on Quantum Bits.
3. The is an infinite, continuous number of possible
states. They are the result of quantum superposition.
4. The calculations are probabilistic, meaning there are
multiple possible outputs to the same inputs.
5. Data processing is carried out by quantum logic at ||)
parallel instances.
6. Operations are defined by linear algebra by Hilbert
Space.
The Arrow on the sphere represents the state of the
7. Circuit behavior is defined by Quantum Mechanics. Qubit. The north an south poles are used to represent the
basis states (0) and |1) respectively. The other locations
are the superpositions of |0) and |1) states and represented
4.4 Concept of Qubit and its proper by a l0) +B|1) with a²+B = 1. Thus a Qubit can be any
ties point on the Bloch Sphere.
4.4.1 Concept of Qubit
The Bloch sphere allows the state of the qubit to be rep
The counterpart of a classical bit in quantum computing is resented unit spherical co-ordinates. Theyare the polar an
Oubit. It's the basic unit in which of information in a quan
gle and the azimuth angle ¢. The block sphere is repre
tum computer. Superposition, Entanglement, and Tunnel sented by the equation
ing are all special properties that define a qubit.

4.4.2 Properties of Qubits w)= cos 10) +e"sin~ |1) (4.1)

1. A qubit can be in a superposed state of the two states here 0 <0< I and 0 < < 2r. The normalization
0 and 1.
constraint is given by
2. If measurements are carried out with a qubit in super |2 2
posed state then the results that we get will be prob (4.2)
abilistic unlike how it's deterministic in a classical
computer.

3. Owing to the quantum nature, the qubit changes its

state at once when subjected to measurement. This
4.6 Single and Two qubits and Ex
means, one cannot copy information from qubits the tension to Nqubits
way we do in the present computers and is known as
"no cloning principle". 4.6.1 Single qubit
AQubit can be physically implemented by the two states A Single Qubit has two computational basis states |0) and
of an electron or horizontal and vertical polarizations of |1). the pictorial representation of the single qubit is as
photons as ||) and |‘) follows. a (0) +B|1)

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One qubit

4.6.2 Two qubit

A two-qubit system has 4 computational basis states de
noted as |00). |01). |10). |11). The pictorial representation
oftwoqubit is as follows. a |00) +B |01) +y |10) + |11)
Two gubits

4.6.3 Extension to N qubits

A multi-qubit system of N qubits has 2^ computational
basis states. For example a state with 3 qubits has 2 com
putational basis states. Thus for N qubits the computa
tional basis states are denoted as |00-. .00), |00- 01).
|00-10). |00. 11) .. |11·11). The block diagram
of representation ofN qubits is as follows.

Department of Physics
Chapter 8

Superconductivity
8.1 Introduction to Superconductiv exhibit superconducting property, are called superconduc
tors.
ity
Discovery : Lord Kamerlingh Onnes discovered the Above critical temperature material is said to be in nor
phenomenon of superconductivityin the year 1911. When mal state and offers resistance for the flow of electric cur
he was studying the temperature dependence of resistance rent. Below critical temperature material is said to be in
of Mercury at very low temperature he found that resis superconducting state. Thus T, is also called as transition
tance of Mercury decreases with temperature with the de temperature.
crease in temperature up to a particular temperature T =
4.15K . Below this temperature the resistance of mercury 8.2 Meissner's Effect
abruptly drops to zero. Between 4.15K and 0K Mercury
offered no resistance for the flow of electric current. This
In 1933, Meissner and Ochsenfeld showed that when a su
phenomenon is reversible and material becomes normal
once again when temperature was increased above 4.1SK. perconducting material is placed in a magnetic field it al
This phenomenon is called superconductivity and material
lows magnetic lines of force to pass through, if it's tem
perature is above Tc. If the temperature is reduced below
which exhibits the property is named superconductor.
the critical temperature Te then it expels all the flux lines
Definition : Thus the Superconductivity is defined as
completely out of the specimen and exhibits perfect dia
magnetism. This is known as Meissner's effect. Since
"The phenomenon in which resistance of certain metals, superconductor exhibits perfect diamagnetism below the
alloys and compounds drops to zero abruptly, below cer critical temperature Tc, magnetic flux density inside the
tain temperature is called superconductivity material is zero.

Variation of Resistivity with Temperature The varia T>T T<T,

tion of the resistivity of a superconductor,pure and impure
metals with temperature is as shown below.
Superconductor Im pure metal

'Petectly
metal

T(in K)

The expression for magnetic flux density is given by

Critical Temperature : The temperature, below which B= po(M + H) (8.1)
materials exhibit superconducting property is called crit
ical temperature, denoted by Tç. Critical temperature Te Here B is Magnetic Flux Density, M is Magnetization and
is different for different substances. The materials, which H is the applied magnetic field strength. For a supercon
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22 PHYS 12/22

ductor, B = 0at T <Te. Thus we get Type I Superconductors

M=-H (8.2) paragraph Type I superconductors exhibit complete Meis
sener's Effect and posses a single value of critical field
Thus Meissner's Effect signifies the negative magnetic mo The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as
ment associated with superconductors. shown in the Fig.8.1. As the field strength increases the
material becomes more and more diamagnetic until H be
8.3 Critical Field and its Tempera comes equal to He. Above H the material allows the flux
lines to pass through and exhibits normal conductivity. The
ture Dependence value of H, is very small for soft superconductors. There
fore soft superconductors cannot withstand high magnetic
Critical field We know that when superconductor is placed fields. Therefore they cannot be used for making super
in a magnetic field it expels magnetic flux lines completely conducting magnets. Ex. Hg, Pb and Zn.
out of the body and exhibits a perfect diamagnetism. But
if the strength of the magnetic field is further increased, it
is found that for a particular value of the magnetic field,
material looses its superconducting property and becomes Type I
a normal conductor. The value of the magnetic field at
which the transition occurs from the Superconducting state
to Normal Conducting state is called Critical Field or
Critical Magnetic Field and is denoted by H,. It is found
that by reducing the temperature of the material further su
perconducting property of the material could be restored.
Thus, critical field does not destroy the superconducting Appied magnetic feld B
property of the material completely but only reduces the
critical temperature of the material.

The variation of Critical field with temperature below Figure 8.1: Typel Superconductor
the critical temperature is given by

(8.3) Type II Superconductors

Here He is the Critical field at any temperature T less than

paragraph Superconducting materials, which can with
stand high value of critical magnetic fields, are called Hard
Tc, HÍis the Critical field at T= 0K. Superconductors.

|HO)
Type II
(-)
field
Critical M

Normal state Superconducting Vortex

/state state
Superconducting
state
Norma
state
Ha
Applied magnetic ield B,

T=0 TemperatureT
()
Figure 8.2: Type2 Superconductor

The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as

8.4 Types of Superconductors shown in the Fig.8.2. Hard superconductors are character
ized by two critical fields Hel and He2. When applied
Superconductors are classified into two types magnetic field is less than H-l material exhibits perfect
1. Type I Superconductor or Soft Superconductor diamagnetism. Beyond Hel partial flux penetrates and the
material is said to be Vortex State. Thus flux penetra
2. Type II Superconductor or Hard Superconductor tion occurs through small-channelized regions called fila
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ments. As the strength of the field increases further, more Below the critical temperature the dense cloud of
and more flux fills the body and thereby decreasing the Cooper pairs formn a collective state and the motion all
diamagnetic property of the material. At He2 flux fills the Cooper pairs is corelated resulting in zero resistance of
body completely and material losses its diamagnetic prop the material.
erty as well as superconducting property completely.
8.6 High Temperature Supercon
ductivity
Superconducting materials which exhibit superconduc
tivity at relatively higher temperatures are called high
temperature superconductors. Thus high temperature su
perconductors posses higher value of critical temperature
compared to conventional superconductors. Most of the
high temperature superconductors are found to fall into the
category of ceramics. In 1986 George Bednorz and Alex
Muller discovered a compound containing Lanthanum,
The value of Hez is hundreds of times greater than Hc Barium, Copper and Oxygen having T, =30K was devel
of soft superconductors. Therefore they are used for mak oped. In 1987 scientists developed a compound which is
ing powerful superconducting magnets. Examples:NbTi, an oxide of the form YBa, Cu30, which is refered to as
Nb¬Sn 1-2-3 compound with T, > 90K was discovered.

All high temperature superconductors are oxides of cop

8.5 BCS Theory of Superconductiv per and bear Perovskite crystal structure characterized by
large number of copper-oxygen layers. It was found that
ity addition of extra copper-oxygen layer pushes the critical
temperature T, to higher values. The super currents are
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer explained the phe strong in the copper-oxygen layer and weak in the direc
nomenon of superconductivity in the year 1957. The tion perpendicular to the planes. Following is the list of
essence of the BCS theory is as follows. High Temperature Superconductors.

Consider an electron approaching a positive ion core and Superconductor Year T (K)
suffers attractive coulomb interaction. Due to this attrac 1967 6.0
tion ion core is set in motion and thus distorts that lattice. K,Wo,
Let a second electron come in the way of distorted lattice
and interaction between the two occurs which lowers the
LITI,.0, 1973 1.2

energy of the second electron. The two electrons there

BaPb,.Bi 0, 1975 13

fore interact indirectly through the lattice distortion or the La,. Ba,CuO, 1986 30
phonon field which lowers the energy of the electrons. The YBa,Cu,0,.y 1987 90
above interaction is interpreted as electron - Lattice- elec
tron interaction through phonon field. Ba,.,K,Bi0, 1988 20
It was shown by Cooper that, this attractive force be
comes maximum if two electrons have opposite spins and BiSrCaCu,0y 1988 105

momentum. The attractive force may exceed coulombs re

pulsive force between the two electrons below the critical
TIBa,Ca,Cu,O,.y 1989 110

temperature, which results in the formation of bound pair

HgBa,CaCu,O.y 1993 120

of electrons called cooper pairs. GdFeAsO,.y. 2008 53.5

Aree of hget postve darge

Second electran chae

positrve cherge

8.7 Quantum Tunneling

In classical mechanics, when a particle has insufficient
energy, it would not be able to overcome a potential bar
rier. In the quantum world the particles can often behave

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Insulator
like waves. On encountering a barrier, a quantum wave Superconductor
Superconductor
will not end abruptly. Rather its amplitude decrease exX
ponentially. This drop in amplitude corresponds to a drop
in the probability of finding a particle further into the bar
rier. If the barrier is thin enough, then the amplitude may Cooper pair

be non-zero on the other side. This would imply that there

is a finite probability that some of the particles will tunnel
through the barrier.
8.8.3 AC Josephson Effect
If we apply a de voltage across the Josephson junction,
it introduces an additional phase on Cooper pairs during
tunneling. As a result a strikingly new phenomenon will be
observed. The de voltage generates an alternating current
Igiven by
I_ = lcsin(do + A) (8.5)
Because of the de voltage V applied across the barrier, the
energies of Cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier differ
In regions where the potential energy is higher than the in energy by 2eV.
wave's energy, the amplitude of the wave decays exponen
tially. If the region is narrow enough, the wave can have a
non-zero amplitude on the other side. Superconductor Superconductor
S. S

8.8 AC and DC Josephson Junctions K

8.8.1 Josephson Junction

In 1962. Brian Josephson predicted that Cooper pairs
could tunnel through a very thin insulating layer separat 8.9
ing two super conductors. The superconductor-insulator DC and RF Squids
superconductor layer constitutes the Josephson junction.
8.9,1 SQUID
8.8.2 DCJosephson Effects A superconducting quantum interference device
(SQUID) is a device used to measure extremely weak
Consider a Josephson junction consisting of two supercon magnetic flux. Thus, it is basically a sensitive magne
ducting metal films separated by a thin oxide barrier of 10 tometer made of a superconducting ring. flux penetrating
to 20 À thick. Let it be connected in a circuit as shown
a superconducting loop is quantized in steps of do =.
in the Fig. The Cooper pairs in a superconductor can be The heart of a SQUID is a superconducting ring. which
represented by a wave function and is the same for all contains one or more Josephson junctions. are two main
pairs. The Cooper pairs tunnel from one side of the junc types of SQUID: DC SQUID and RF (or AC) SQUID.
tion to the other side easily. The effect of the insulating
layer is that it introduces a phase difference between the
wave function of Cooper pairs on one side of the insulat 8.9.2 DC Squid
ing layer and the wave function of the pairs on the other The DC SQUID was invented in 1964 by Robert Jakle
side. Because of this phase difference, a super current ap vic, John Lambe, Arnold Silver, and James Mercereau. It
pears across the junction even though the applied voltage
is zero. This is known as the dc Josephson effect. Joseph has two Josephson junctions in parallel in asuperconduct
ing loop. It is based on the DC Josephson effect. It relies
son showed that the super current through the junction is on the interference of currents form each junction.
given by

l_ = lcsindo (8.4) The dc SQUID is biased with a dc current equal to about

twice the superconducting current 1ç. Dc voltage across
where do is the phase difference between the wave func the junctions is created. Change in the fux penetrating
tions describing Cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier, the loop enhances the current through one JJ and reduces
and lc is the critical current at zero voltage condition. lc the current through the other. This leads to JJs working
depends on the thickness and width of the insulating layer asymmetrically, one JJ is driven normally and one is super
and the temperature. conducting. This asymmetry provides a feedback current

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input coil curent is done by counting the number of peri

ods the coil produces in the detected RF output, because
the detected RF output is a periodic function.
2
Note : The DC SQUIDs offer higher sensitivity, but RF
SQUIDs have lower sensitivity. RF SQUIDs are com
monly used form of the sensor, because of their ease and
low price of manufacturing in small batches.

8.10 Applications of Superconduc

that nulls the flux penetrating the SQUID loop. Total fiux
within the loop is multiples of do. The feedback current is
tivity in Quantum Computing
a direct measure of changes in flux applied to the SQUID. Squids find application of magnetometers to measure very
small fields like human brain magnetic fields. But the ap
8.9.3 RF (AC) Squid plications of SQUIDs in Quantum computing are as fol
lows.
The RF SQUID was invented in 1965 by Robert Jak
levic, John J. Lambe, Arnold Silver, and James Edward
Zimmerman at Ford. It is based on the AC Josephson ef 8.10.1 Charge Qubit
fect and uses only one Josephson junction. It is less sensi
In quantum computing, a charge qubit is also known as
tive compared to DC SQUID but is cheaper and easier to Cooper-pair box. it is a qubit whose basis states are charge
manufacture in smaller quantities. states. T'he states represent the presence or absence of ex
cess Cooper pairs in the island (dotted region in the fig
RF ure). In superconducting quantum computing, a charge
curment qubit is formed by a tiny superconducting island coupled
sOurce
by Josephson Junction to a superconducting reservoir.

+To RF amplifier
RF
Squid

8.10.2 Flux Qubit

Flux qubits (also known as persistent current qubits) are
micrometer sized loops of superconducting metal that is
interrupted by a number of Josephson junctions. These de
TLoop
vices function as quantum bits. The Josephson junctions
are designed so that a persistent current will flow continu
ously when an extemal magnetic flux is applied. Only an
integer number of flux quanta are allowed to penetrate the
In RF SQUID the flux is coupled into a loop contain superconducting ring.
ing a single JJ through an input coil and an RF coil. RF
coil is part of a high-Q resonant circuit to read out cur 8.10.3 Phase Qubit
rent changes due to induced flux in the SQUID loop. The
tuned circuit is driven by a constant RF oscillator which is Aphase qubit is a current-biased Josephson junction, oper
weakly coupled to the loop. Measuring the change in the ated in the zero voltage state with a non-zero current bias.

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(b) 11. Elucidate the BCS Theory of Superconductivity.

12. Explain the phenomenon of quantum tunneling.
13. Define a Josephson Junction and hence explain the
DC and AC Josephson effects.
14. Define Squid and describe DC and RF Squids.

15. Brief the applications of superconductivity in quan

tum computing.

This employs asingle Josephson junction and the two lev 8.12 Numerical Problems
els are defined by quantum oscillations of the phase differ
ence between the electrodes of the junction. DC Squid is a
type of phase qubit. 1. Lead has superconducting transition temperature of
7.26K. If the initial field at 0K is 50 x 10 Am-l Cal
culate the critical field at 6K.

A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of

3.7K at zero magnetic field and a critical field of
0.0306 tesla at OK. Find the critical field at 2K.

3. The superconducting transition temperature of Lead

is 7.26K. Calculate the initial field at 0K given the
critical field at 5 K as 33.644 x 10° Am-1
4. Calculate the ratio of critical fields for a superconduc
tor at 7K and SK give the critical temperature 8K.
5. The critical field for niobium is 1x 10° Am-l at 8K
and 2 x 10 Am-at OK. Calculate the transition tem
perature of the element.
8.11 Model Questions
1. Define Phonon. Describe Mathiessen's rule.

2. Explain the failures of Classical Free Electron Theory

of Metals.

3. Mention the Assumptions of Classical Free electron

theory of metals.
4. Explain the concept of Fermi Level, Fermi Energy.
Density of States.
5. Define Fermi Factor. Discuss the variation of Fermi
Factor with Energy and Temperature and represent
graphically.
6. Discuss the discovery of Superconductivity and hence
discuss the variation of resistivity with temperature in
superconductor with critical temperature as reference.
7. State and explain Meissner's Effect.
8. Define Critical field and hence explain its variation
with temperature below critical temperature.
9. Distinguish between/Explain Type-1 and Type-2 su
perconductors.
10. Describe the evolution of high temperature of super
conductivity.
Department of Physics
Chapter 7

Classical and Quantum Free Electron Theory

of Metals

7.1 Electrical Conductivity and Re part of solid state physics. The phonon plays an important
sistivity role in many of the physical properties of solids such as the
thermal conductivity and the electrical conductivity. The
Consider a conductor carrying electric current I with the conduction electrons in a metal collide against lattice
area of cross section A perpendicular to the current. The ions during the motion. The interaction is considered to be
curent density J is defined as the ration of current I to the of type phonon exchange.This results in non-radioactive
area of cross section A. Hence transitions.

J= (7.1) 7.4 Mathiesens Rule

A
It is observed that the current density is proportional to A Metal consists of lattice ions and impurity atoms that
the applied electric field in a conductor. And hence are held together by free electrons. Free electrons wander
inside the crystal. During the motion electrons undergo
Jx E (7.2) scattering by lattice ions and impurity atoms. The resistiv
J=rE
ity p of a conductor is mainly attributed to two reasons
(7.3)
1. Scattering of electrons with the vibrating lattice ions.
The constant of proportionality o is called Electrical Con The resistivity of the metal due to electron lattice ion
ductivity of the conductor. The Electrical Resistivity p = scattering is given by
of the material is the reciprocal of the Electrical Con
ductivity of the material and is the property of the mate Pph = (7.5)
rial by the virtue of which it opposes the flow of current neTph
through it.
2. Scattering of electrons by the presence of impurities
present in the metal. The scattering also occurs from
7.2 Mobility of conduction electrons the lattice dislocations and grain boundaries. The re
sistivity of the metal due to such scattering is given
It is found that the drift velocity depends on the applied by
field strength and is mathematically given by va = uE. Pi = (7.6)
Here u is called the mobility of the free electrons. It is de ne'ti
fined as the drift velocity acquired by the conduction elec Thus net resistivity of the conductor is given by
trons per unit field strength.
m m
Vd e p=Pph tpi= (7.7)
m²y-'s-!
ne pne
(7.4) ne'Tph neT;

The above equation is called Matthiessen's Rule, Which

7.3 Concept of Phonon states that the net resistivity of conductor is equal to the
sum of the resistivity due to the phonon scattering which is
A Phonon is a quantum of lattice vibration, the collective temperature dependent and resistivity due to the presence
motion of atoms constituting a crystal. The Energies and of impurity which is temperature independent. Graphically
Momenta of Phonons are quantized. It is often character the variation of resistance with temperature and impurity is
ized as Heat Energy. The study of phonon is an important as follows.
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22

7.6 Quantum free electron theory of

impure Metals
metals
The failures of classical free electron theory led to the
Pure Metals
rise of Quantum Free electron theory and was proposed by
Sommerfield in the year 1928. The quantum free electron
Temperature (T)
theory is based on the following assumptions.
7.6.1 Assumptions
7.5 Failures of classical free electron 1. Unlike classical free electron theory, in quantum free
theory of metals electron theory, energy values of free electrons are
quantized. The energy values of free electrons are dis
Classical free electron theory of metal is successful in crete since their motion is confined within the bound
explaining the certain experimentally observed facts of aries of the metal.
electronic conduction in solids and thermal conductivity. 2. Thus a metal there exists large number of closely
This theory fails to explain certain other experimental ob spaced energy levels for free electrons which form a
servations. The following are the failures of classical free band.
electron theory of metals.
3. The distribution of free electrons in the energy levels
7.5.1 Electronic specific heat of solids is as per the Pauli's exclusion principle. Only a max
imum of two electrons can occupy a given an energy
According to the Classical Free Electron Theory Metals level. This also suggests the availability of two energy
the electronic specific heat is given by states for free electrons in an energy level correspond
3 ing to spin up and spin down states.
Cy =R= 12.5Jmole-'K-! (7.8)
4. The potential setup by the lattice ions is assumed to
be constant throughout the metal.
The experimental value of electronic specific heat is
Cy = 10-4RT. It is very small and also temperature depen 5. The mutual repulsion between electrons and the at
dent Hence Classical theory fails to explain the electronic traction between electrons and lattice ions are ne
specific heat of solids. glected.

7.5.2 Dependence of o on temperature 7.6.2 Fermi energy

According to classical free electron theory of metals For a metal consisting of N atom there exists N num
the electrical conductivity o is inversely proportional to ber of energy levels in each band. These energy levels are
square root of temperature (VT). But experiments reveal very closely spaced. The energy levels in bands fillup as
that electrical conductivity (o) is inversely proportional to per Pauli's exclusion principle. Thus free electrons in a
temperature (T). Hence classical free electron theory fails metal start filling up the available energy levels from the
to explain dependence of electrical conductivity (¡) on the lower most level of the valence band. The highest filled
temperature (T). energy level in a metal at absolute zero by free electrons
is called Fermi Level and the corresponding energy is
7.5.3 Dependence of o on n, the number called Fermi Energy (EF). Thus, at absolute zero and
density with no electric field applied, all levels below Fermi level
are completely filled and above Fermi level are empty.
The theory predicts the direct dependence of electrical
conductivity (¡) on number of free electrons per unit vol
ume (n) called number density. But experiments have re 7.6.3 Density of States (DoS)
vealed different with cu > C I even though the the num According to band theory Energy bands are formed in
ber densities ncu < n I. . Hence it fails to explain the de solids and in a band the spacing between two successive
pendence of electrical conductivity ¡ on the number free energy levels decreases with increase in energy.
electrons per unit volume n. The experimental observa
tions are as in the table below.
The Density of States is defined as the number of en
Metal o(2'm) n(m-3) ergy states available per unit volume of the material in
Copper 5.88 × 10" 8.45 x 1028 the unit energy range in the valence band of the mate
Aluminium 3.65 x107 18.06 x 1028 rial. It is mathematically a continuous function denoted

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Probability of occupation of levels with energy E < EF

and at T= 0K

The Fermi factor or Fermi function is given by

1
f(E) = (7.11)
E.
E
Here E- Ef is negative. Substituting the value for T=0
Figure 7.1: Energy Band diagram and Fermi Energy 1
f(E) =
(1
by g(E). The number of energy levels in the energy range There fore f(E) = 1. Hence, at T = 0K, all energy levels
E and E + dE per unit volume of the material is given by below the Fermi level are completely filled.
g(E)dE.

g(E)dE =
8V2rmV2 EdE Probability of occupation of levels with energy E> Er
(7.9) and at T=0K
h3
The Fermi factor or fermi function is given by Here E -Ef
The variation of g (E) dE as a function ofE is given by is positive. Substituting the value for T = 0
g(E)
1
f(E) =
)41
There fore f(E) =0. Hence, at T = OK, all energy levels
above the Fermi level are empty.
dE
Probability of occupation of levels with energy E = Er
and at T> OK
Figure 7.2: Density of states function vs Energy
Here E - Ef = 0. Substituting the values

f(E) = (7.12)
7.6.4 Fermi-Dirac distribution and Fermi
factor
Thus for all temperatures above 0 K the probability of
The occupation of energy levels by free electrons in the occupation of Fermi level is ½. Thus the variation of Fermi
valence band of a metal is according to Pauli's exclusion factor with temperature is as shown in the graph 7.3
principle. This distribution of electrons is not random.
It follows a certain universal rule of distribution called
Fermi-Dirac Statistics. The probability of occupation of
an energy level of energy (E) at temperature (T) un fE
T, K< TzK< T,K
der thermal equilibrium is evaluated using an expression
1.0
called Fermi Factor. -T=0K
T,K
1
f(E) = (7.10) 0.5

T,K
00
-T,K
7.6.5 Dependence of Fermi factor on energy
and temperature EFo
As described, the Fermi factor is a function of energy and Figure 7.3: Variation of f(E) as a function of Temperature
temperature. This dependence could be explained for en and Energy
ergy levels below and above Fermi level at absolute zero
and higher temperatures.

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Numerical Problems
1. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an
energy level 0.02eV above the Fermi level at 200K
and 400K.

2. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an

energy level 0.02eV below the Fermi level at 400K.
3. The ermi level for silver is 5.5eV. What is the en
ergy for which probability of occupancy at 300K is
0.01

4. Find the temperature which there is 1% probability

that a state with an energy 0.5eV above Fermi energy
is occupied.
5. Find the probability that an energy level at 0.2eV be
low Fermi level being occupied at temperature 300K
and 100OK

6. Calculate the probability that an electron occupies an

energy level 0.02 eV above Fermi level at 300 K.

Department of Physics
Chapter5

Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations

5.1 Linear Algebra 5.2.2 Pauli Matrices

Linear Algebra is the study of vector spaces and operations Pauli Matrices and Their operation on (0) and |1)
States
on vector spaces. The Standard quantum mechanical no
tation fora quantum state in a vector space is l). The There are four extreamly useful matrices called Pauli Ma
notation |) indicates that the object is a vector rand is called trices. The Pauli matrices of the following form
a ket vector. The examples of ket vectors are lu), l0) and
|u) etc.
o = I= (5.3)

This is an identity matrix.

5.2 Matrix Representation of 0 and 1
States
(54)
The wave function could be expressed in ket notation as
lu) (ket Vector), is the wave function. The lu) = (5.5)

The matrix for of the states |0) and |1). j0) = and
(5.6)

Pauli Matrices operating on |0) and |1) States

5.2.1 Identity Operator

The operator of typeI =n is caled identity oper

1. o|
-6)-10).
ator. When an identity operator acts on a state vector its
keeps the state intact. By analogy we study identity opera
tor as an identity matrix.

Let us consider the operation of ldentity operator on |0) a |1) =

and |1) states. As per the principle of identity operation
I|0) = |0) and / |1) = |1)
3. o,10) =( ==i|)
19-(9)-6) (5.1)

|1 0
(5.2) 4. o =
--()=1
Thus the operation of identity matrix(operator) on |0) and
|1) leaves the states unchanged.
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS 12/22

5.3 Conjugate ofa Matrix

(5.13)
Conjugate of a Matrix It is possible to find the conjugate
for a given matrix by replacing each element of the matrix The conjugate of U is given by
with its complex conjugate.for example consider a matrix
A as given below. (5.14)

(5.7)
The transpose of U is given by
The conjugate of the matrix A is given by 3 3+1 (5.15)
3-i 2
(5.8)
Hence Af =A
Thus Ais the conjugate of A
5.7 Unitary Matrix
5.4 Transpose of a Matrix A matrix is said to be Unitary if the condition UtU= Iis
The transpose of a matrix is found by interchanging its satisfied. Thus an operator is said to be Unitary if cach of
rows into columns or columns into rows. The Transpose its matrix representations are unitary. Consider an operator
in matrix form U.
of a matrix A is denoted by using the superscript as A.
Consider a matrix A as given below.
(S.16)
(5.9)
Then
The Transpose of the matrixA is given by
(S.17)
(5.10)

Thus A" is the Transpose ofA

(S.18)

5.5 The Conjugate Transpose of a

Thus
Matrix
(5.19)
The complex conjugate transpose of a matrix interchanges
the row and column index for each element, reflecting the Hence U is unitary.
elements across the main diagonal. The operation also
negates the imaginary part of any complex numbers. It 5.8 Column and Row Matrices
is denoted by a t symbol as a super script.
The Column Vectors are called ket Vectors denoted by w)
(5.11) and are represented by Column Matrices. The Row Vec
tors are called Bra Vectors denoted by (Ø| and are rep
The Transpose of the matrix A is given by resented by Row Matrices. Let us considera ket vector
0 represented in the form of a column matrix.
A'= (a") =( 2+3i)
(5.12)
(5.20)
Thus A is the Conjugate-Transpose of A.
The Row Matrix is represented as
5.6 Hermitian (5.21)
The matrix that is equal to its conjugate-transpose is Here
called Hermitian. Thus If A = A then it is called Her
mitian or Self-Adjoint matrix. (5.22)

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Thus the Bra is the complex conjugate of ket and vice Using equation 5.31 the inner product (ulw) is given by,
versa. For example
(5.35)
(5.23)
Thus
Flipping between kets and bras is called "Taking the aa +B8* = la'+|BI (5.36)
Dual" This could also be written as

Thus for (o) state the corresponding (0| is given by l = (5.37)

Thus the above equation represents Probability Density.

(5.24) As per the principle of Normalization

(0| = [1 0] (5.25) l= = (wlw)= l =la +|B? (5.38)

and similarly for and |1) states we have (1| as follows. Thus it implies lu) is normalized.

(5.26) 5.11 Orthogonality

Two states l) and |l4) are said to be orthogonal if their
(1|= [0 1] (5.27)
inner product is Zero. Mathematically
5.9 (Øl) =0 (5.39)
Inner Product - Multiplication of
Row and Column Matrices The two states are orthogonal means they are mutually ex
clusive. Like Spin Up and Spin Down of an electron.
Let us consider two states |lu) and Jd) as follows
Consider (0]1)
(5.28)
(O|1) = (1 o =(0+0) =(0) (5.40)
(5.29)
here 5.12 Orthonormality
(5.30) The states lu) and l) are said to be orthonormal if
The multiplication of the lø) and |ø) is possible only by 1. Ju) and lø) are normalized.
taking the inner product and is given by (lø)
2. lw) and lø) are orthogonal to each other.
(5.31)

(ulo) = ajaz +B}B2 (5.32)

The inner product always results in a scalar product.

5.10 Probability
Let us consider a Quantum State

lu) = |0) +B|1) (5.33)

The above equation represents the Quantum Superposition

of states |0) and |1).

(5.34)

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Chapter 6
Quantum Gates

6.1 Introduction to Quantum Gates a<)+B|0)

alo)+ B|)
In quantum computing a quantum logic gate is a basic
Quantum NOT gate
quantum circuit operating on a small number of qubits.
A qubit is useless unless it is used to carry out a quan
tum calculation. The quantum calculations are achieved
by performing a series of fundamental operations, known Truth table of NOT gate
as quantum logic gates. They are the building blocks of Input Output
quantumn circuits similar to the classical logic gates in con 1)
ventional digital circuits. I1)
al0) + BI1) al1) + BI0)

6.2 Single Qubit Gates

6.2.1 Quantum Not Gate 6.2.2 Pauli-X,Y and Z Gates
In Quantum Computing the quantum N T gate for qubits X Gate
takes the state |0) to |1) and vice versa. It isanalogous to
the classical not gate. The Pauli-X Gate is nothing but Quantum Not Gate.

The Matrix representation of Quantum Not Gate is given 6.2.3 Y Gate

by
Y Gate is represented by Pauli matrix o, or Y. This gate
x-) (6.1) Maps |0) state to i |1) state and |1) state to -i |0) state. The
Y Gate and its operation is as given below

(6.2)

=0|0) +i|1) =i|1) (6.5)

(6.3)

A Quantum State is given by a |0) + B|1) and its ma

ri)=( 9-(5)--90|1)=--i |0) (6.6)
Thus the Y-Gate defines the transformation
trix representation is given by B Hence the operation of
Quantum Not Gate on quantum state is given by Y(a |0) +B|1)) = «Y |0) +BY |1) =-iß|0) +ia |1) (6.7)
Quantum Y-Gate is represented by
(6.4)

a0) + 3|1) -i3|0) + ia|1)

Thus the quantum state becomes a |1)+B |0). Similarly,
The input a |1) +B|0) to the quantum not gates changes
the state to c |0) +B|1). The quantum not gate circuit and
the truth table are as shown below.
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS 12/22

Truth Table of Y-Gate

Input Output 0) -0)+l1)
i|1)
|1) -i |0) 1)10)-1)
a |0) +B|1) -iB|0) +ia |1)
Action ofHadamard gate Output
Input

6.2.4 Z-Gate (10) +11)

The Z-gate is represented by Pauli Matrix ¡, or Z. Z

Gate maps input state |k) to (-1) |k). (10) -I1)
1. For input |0) the output remains unchanged.
2. For input |1) the output is -|1).
a0)" BIn) or
The Matrix representation and the operation of Z-Gate on
|0) and |1) are as follows
J2

(6.8)

6.2.6 Phase Gate or S Gate

zi)-(6 )9-9)--19 (6.9)
The phase gate turns a |0) into |0) and a |1) into i |1) The
Z(a |0) +B|1)) = aZ |0) +BZ|1) = |0)-B|1) (6.10) Matrix representation of the S gate is given by
The circuit symbol and the truth table of Z-Gate are as fol
lows. (6.13)

al0) + 3|1) al0) 3|1) The effect of S gate on input |0) is given by
(6.14)

Similarly the effect of S gate on input |1) is given by The

Truth table of Z gate effect of S gate on input |0) is given by
Input Output
(6.15))
1) H1)
al0)- B) The transformation of state |) is given by
al0) + BI1)
S l) = S (e (0) +B|1)) = aS |0) +BS |1)=c |0) + iß|1)
(6.16)
The S Gate and the Truth table are given by For S gate
6.2.5 Hadamard Gate
Input Output
The Hadamard Gate is a truly quantum gate and is one
of the most important in Quantum Computing. It is has alo) + pi)
similar characteristics of VNOT Gate. It is a self inverse
gate. It is used to create the superpositions of |0) and |1)
states. The Matrix representation of Hadamard Gate is as a0) +B1) s
follows

(6.11) sts = I and hence it is Unitary.

The Hadamard Gate and the output states for the |0) and
|1) input states are represented as follows. The Hadamard
6.2.7 T Gate or Gate
Gate satisfies Unitary Condition. The T Gate is represented by the matrix as follows
H'H =! (6.12) 1
(6.17)
The truth-table for the Hadamard Gate is as follows.

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It is also called gate as it could be represented in the Gate is given by

following form
|1 0 0 0]
T=exp in exp0
0 0 1 0 O
(6.18) UCN =
0 0 0 1 (6.22)
exp
Another Important Feature ofT gate is it could be related
0 0 1 o
to S gate as
The Transformation could be expressed as
T'= S (6.19)
The Operation of Tgate on |0) and |1) are given by |A, B) ’ |A, B A) (6.23)

Consider the operations of CNOT gate on the four inputs

T |0) = (6.20) |00),j01).|10) and |11).

(6.21)
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |00)
Here in the inputs to the CN T Gate the control qubit is
The T Gate and the Truth Table are as follows. |0). Hence no change in the state of Target qubit |0)

nput Output |00) ’ |00) (6.24)

IO)
exp(in/4)I1)
al0) +BI1) all) + Bexp(in/4)1) Operation of CNOT Gate for input |01)
Here in the inputs to the CN T Gate the control qubit is
|0). Hence no change in the state of Target qubit |1)
a0) +p|) T a<o) +Bexp(ir/4))1)
|01) ’ |01) (6.25)

Operation of CNOT Gate for input |10)

6.3 Multiple Qubit Gates Here in the inputs to the CNÚT Gate the control qubit is
|1). Hence the state of Target qubit flips from |0) to |1).
Multiple Qubit Gates operate on Two or More input
Qubits. Usually on of them is a control qubit. |10) ’ |11) (6.26)

6.3.1 Controlled Gates

Operation of CNOTGate for input |11)
A Gate with operation of kind "If 'A' is True then do 'B"
Here in the inputs to the CN T Gate the control qubit is
is called Controlled Gate. The '|A)' Qubit is called Con |1). Hence the state of Target qubit flips from |1) to |0).
trol qubit and '|B)" is the Target qubit. The target qubit
is altered only when the control qubit is |1). The control
qubit remains unaltered during the transformations.
|11) ’ |10) (6.27)

The Truth Table of operation of CNÚT gate is as fol

6.3.2 Controlled Not Gate or CNOT Gate lows.

The CNOT gate is a typical multi-qubit logic gate and the

circuit is as follows. The Matrix representation of CN T Input Output
|00) |00)
|01) |01)
|A) |A) |10) |11)
|B) |8A) |11) |10)
CNOT gate

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6.3.3 Swap Gate

The SWAP gate is two-qubit operation. Expressed in basis
states, the SWAP gate swaps the state of the two qubits
involved in the operation. The Matrix representation of the
Swap Gate is as follows
[1 0 0 0
|0 0 1 O
UsWAP = |0 1 0 o (6.28)
0 00 1| Input Output
The schematic symbol of swap gate circuit isas follows jo0) |00)
|o1) jo1)
l) |10) |10)
|11) -|11)

ly) I)

6.3.5 Toffoli Gate

which is equivalent to The swap gate is a combined cir
The Toffoli Gate is also known as CCNOT Gate
(Controlled-Controlled-Not). has three inputs out of
which two are Control Qubits and one is the Target Qubit.
The Target Qubit flips only when both the Control Qubits
are |1). The two Control Qubits are not altered during the
operation.
ly)
The matrix representation, Gate Circuit and the Truth
Table of Toffoli Gate are as follows.
cuit of 3 CNOT gates and the over all effect is that two
input qubits are swapped at the output. The Action and 1 0 0 0

truth table of the swap gate is as follows. 1 0 0

1 0 0 )
Gate Input to gale Output ofgae
la. b) la, a b) 0
2 la, a b) 16, a b) 1
3 lb, a b) l6, a)
0
Truth table of SWAP gate
0 1
Input Output
I00) 100 0
Io1) I10)
Ii0) I01)
I11) I11

Inputs Ouputs
6.3.4 Controlled Z Gate abo
00 0 0 0 0
In Controlled Z Gate, The operation of Z Gate is controlled 00 100 1 la) la)
by a Control Qubit. If the control Qubit is |A) = |1) then 0 1 010
only the Z gate transforms the Target Qubit |B) as per the 0 1 011 b)
Pauli-Z operation. The action of Controlled Z-Gate could 100 00
is specified by a matrix as follows. 10 1 01 le=leeab)
1 |0|
0
1 0 0 0
0
Uz = 0 0 1 0 (6.29)
0 0 0 -1| The Toffolli matrix is unitary. The Toffolli Gate is its
The controlled Z gate and the truth table are as follows. own inverse. It could be used for NAND Gate Simulation.

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6.4 Question Bank and Numerical 8. Distinguish between single qubit and multiple qubit
Problems gates.
9. Describe Quantum Gates with three examples.
6.4.1 Principles of Quantum Information
and Quantum Computing 10. Discuss the functioning of Hadamard gate with ma
trix representation and truth table.
1. Describe briefly the Quantum Computing and its im
portance. 11. Explain the working of T gate with its matrix and
truth table.
2. Elucidate the differences between classical and quan
tum computing.
6.5 Numerical Problems
3. Define a bit and qubit and explain the differences be
tween them. Mention the properties of Qubit. 6.5.1 Dirac Representation and Matrix Op
4. Discuss the representation of qubit by Bloch Sphere. erations

5. Explain single, two qubits and extension to N qubits. 1. A Linear Operator 'X' operates such that X |0) = |1)
and X |1) = |0). Find the matrix representation of
'X'.
6.4.2 DiracRepresentation and Matrix Op
erations 2. Given A = Prove that A= A.
1. Mention the matrix representation of (0) and |1) states
and apply the Identity operator to show there is no
change in states. 3. Show that the Matrix U= is Unitary.

2. State the Pauli matrices and apply Pauli matrices on

IV2) V2)
the states |0) and |1). 4. Find the inner product of states |1) and |0) and draw
conclusions on the result.
3. Explain conjugate and Transpose of a matrix.
4. Describe unitary matrix and along with an example. 5. Given ) = and lo) = Prove that

5. Describe row and column matrices and the inner

product.
6. Discuss probability and quantum superposition.
6.5.2 Quantum Gates
7. Explain the conditions for orthogonality and or 1. Using Matrix multiplication show that on applying
thonormality. Hadamard gate twice to a |0) results in its original
state.
6.4.3 Quantum Gates
1. Illustrate the principle and working of Quantum Not 2. Using two X-gates in series show that two not gates
Gate. in series are equivalent to a quantum wire.
2. Discuss the Pauli X,Y and Z gates and their opera
tions on quantum states. 3. Show the Hadamard Gate is Unitary.
3. Describe the Phase gate along with matrix represen 4. Two Qubits are passed through CNOT gate.If the first
tation and truth table. qubit is the control qubit then what is the output for
4. Discuss the CN T gate and its operation on four dif the following initial states 1. |00), 2. |01), and 3.|11).
ferent input states.
5. explain the matrix form and operation of Toffoli gate. 5. Show that S gate can be formed by connecting two T
gates in Series.
6. Describe the Swap gate with the matrix and truth ta
ble.

7. Elucidate the working of controlled-Z gate mention

ing its matrix representation and truth table.

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 MODULE-5
APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICS IN COMPUTING
PHYSICS OF ANIMATION
Animation
The word Animation has derived from the word Animate, which means to bring life. It is a method of
photographing successive drawings, models, or even puppets, to create an illusion of movement in a
sequence. The first animated film was made by Emile Chol in 1907; he is referred to as the father of
animation.

The Taxonomy of Physics-Based Animation Methods

The physics-based animation and simulation can roughly be subdivided into two
groups:

1. Kinematics is the study of motion without consideration of mass or forces.

2. Dynamics is the study of motion taking mass and forces into consideration.
Kinematics and dynamics come in two subgroups:
1. Inverse is the study of motion knowing the starting and ending points.
2. Forward is the study of motion solely given the starting point?

Frames
A frame is a single image in a sequence of pictures. A frame contains the image to be displayed at a
unique time in the animation. In general, one second of a video is comprised of 24 or 30 frames per
second abbreviate as FPS. The frame rate is the speed at which the images are shown in the animation.
The following are the most common types of frames used in animation:

Keyframe
Placeholder frames
Regular frames
Tweened frames

Frames per Second

There are two standard television images: 30 frames per second (National Television Standards
Committee) NTSC for the United States and 25 frames per second (Phase Alternate Line) PAL for
Europe. An animated film with 25 frames per second is played on television at 24 frames per
second would result in a black bar rolling up the screen. Then Digital Converts are to be used to
transfer one speed of the film to another speed of the video.
 1 Second of Animation

60 FPS

FPS

24 FPS

12 FPS

Size
Size is simply how small or big an element is in relation to other objects within a design. Generally,
we use size to make a particular element stand out or to give it importance. However, size becomes a
much more powerful design tool when it is considered alongside the scale.

Scaling Properties: Larger or heavier objects move slower while lighter or smaller objects move faster.

When designing characters, you can run into different situationshaving to do with size and scale, such
as:

1. Human or animal-based characters that are much larger than we see in our everyday
experience. Superheroes, Greek gods and monsters.
2. Human or animal-based characters that are much smaller than we are accustomed to, such as
fairies and elves.

3. Characters that need to be noticeably larger, smaller, older, heavier, lighter, or more energetic
than other characters.
4. Characters that are child versions of older characters

Proportion and Scale

Creating a larger or smaller character is not just a matter of scaling everything about the
character uniformly.
Example: When you scale a cube, its volume changes much more dramatically thanits surface
area. Let us say each edge of the cube is 1 unit in length. The area of one side of the cube is 1 square
unit, and the volume of the cube is 1cubed unit. If you double the size of the cube along each
dimension, its height increases by 2 times, the surface area increases by 4 times and its volume
increases by &times.
Weight: Two objects can appear to be different weights by manipulating their timing.
For example, if you were to hit a croquet ball anda balloon with a mallet, the result would be two
different actions. The croquet ball would require more force to place it into motion, would go farther,
and need more force to stop it. On the other hand, the balloon would require far less force to send it
flying, and because of its low mass and weight, it wouldn't travel as far, and would require less force
to stop it.

Strength
Strength is the maximum force a muscle or group of muscles can apply against a resistance in
a push, pull or lift motion. Body weight is proportional to volume. The abilities of your muscles and
bones, however, increase by area because their abilities depend more on the cross-sectional area than
volume. To increase a muscle or bone's strength, you need to increase its cross-sectional area.

Motion and Timing animation

Motion is an essential component in games and animations. The motion is governed by
newton's laws and kinematic equations. When animating a scene, there are several types of motion
to consider. These are the mostcommon types of motion:
1. Linear
2. Parabolic
3. Circular
4. Wave

Timing Animation
Timing refers to how long an action takes. If the timing is too fast, too slow, too linear, or too long, your
animation won't look realistic. Since the film is run at 24 frames per second (FPS), you use this as the
building block for your timing. So, if you have an object moving from point Ato point B in 24FPS, it
takes the object one second to get there.

The functions of timing are to:

1. Create a movement that obeys the laws of physics.

2. Add interest and appeal to your animations.

 Motion Lines and Paths

Motionhas a path of action, which indicates the path along which the object or character moves. The
path of action refers to theobject's motion in space.
Line of Action

Path of Action

Linear Motion Timing

The linear motion refers to motion in a straight line, always in the same direction. An object moving
with linear motion might speed up or slow down as it follows a linear path. A heavy ball rolling on a
table or incline is an example of linearmotion.

Unkorm moton

Uniform Motion Timing

Uniform motion is the easiest to animate because the distance the object travels between frames is
always the same. Uniform motion is a type of linear motion with constant speed and no acceleration
or deceleration. The object moves the same distance between consecutive frames. Longer the distance
between frames, the higher the speed.
Slow in and SloW out

The terms "slow in" and "slow out" are used to describe motion that is accelerating or decelerating.
This type of motion is sometimes called ease in or ease out.
1. Slow in/ ease in-The object is slowing down, frequently in anticipation of stopping.
2. Slow out/ ease outThe object is speeding up, often from a static position.

For example, a ball rolling down an incline or dropping straight down is slowing out, as it goes from
a still position orslow speed to a fast speed. A ball rolling up an incline is slowing in.

Slowing out peedng ve Slowng in slowng down

Constarnt Forces

A constant force is a force that doesn't vary over time.

Examples of constant forces include:
1. Gravity pulling an object to the ground
2. Friction bringing an object to a stop

Constant force and Acceleration

Constant forces result in constant acceleration. Because the acceleration is constant, we can
figure out thetiming for such sequences using a few principles of physics.
The resulting acceleration depends on the direction of the force and motion if there is any motion at all,
to begin with.
1. When the constant net force is applied to an unmoving object, the result is acceleration.
2 When the constant net force is applied to a moving object the same direction as the motion,
the result is acceleration.
3. When hen constant net force is applied in the direction opposite the existing motion, the result
is deceleration (acceleration in the opposite direction).
 Forces Exerted by Characters
However, one can divide the character's motion into brief time intervals and treat each of these
intervals as responding to a constant net force for the purposes of animation. This will make it simpler
to determine the timing for each separate segment.
A character walking and pushing a rock is not exerting a constant force throughout the entire sequence,
but during each short part of the walk cycle, the net force could be considered to bea different constant
value.

The Odd Rule

When acceleration is constant, one can use the Odd Rule to time the frames. With this method,
one calculates the distance the object moves between frames using a simple pattern of odd numbers.
Between consecutive frames, the distance the object moves is a multiple of an odd number. For
acceleration, the distance between frames increases by multiples of 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.
The Odd Rule is a multiplying system based on the smallest distance traveled between two
frames in the sequence. For a slow-out, this is the distance between the first two frames; fora slow
in, it's the distance between the last two frames. This distance, the base distance, is used in allOdd
Rule calculations.

1 3 5 7

Rocket speeding up using the Odd Rule.

For deceleration, the multiples start at a higher odd number and decrease, for example, 7, 5, 3, 1.

7 5
Sled coming to astop using the Odd Rule.

Odd Rule Multipliers

The Odd Rule in its simplest form, as described above, is just one way to use it. For example,
one can instead calculate the distance from the first frame to the current frame and use these distances
to place the object on specific frames.
 Multiply by base distance to get distance between:
Frame # Consecutive frames First frame and this frame

n/a
2 1

3 3 4

4 5 9

16

6 25

7 11 36

Odd Rule Scenarios

1. Base Distance Known Speeding up

If the object is speeding up, the first frame distance is the base distance. one knows the base

distance, figuring out the distance the object travels at each frame is pretty straightforward. Just
multiply the base distance by 3, 5, 7, etc. to get the distances between consecutive frames, or use
squares to multiply the base distance to get the total distance traveled on each frame.

2. Base Distance Known Slowing Down

Suppose one wants an object to slow down, and one knows the distance between the last two frames
before it stops. Forslow-ins, the base distance is the istance between the last two frames. The
solution is to work backward, as if theobject were speeding up in the opposite direction. Working
Backward, multiply the base distance by 3, 5, 7, etc. to get the distances between each previous frame in
the sequence.

3. Total Distance and Number of Frames Known, Speeding Up

If one wants to know the total distance and the total number of frames, one can find the base

distance with this formula:Base distance = Total distance/(Last frame number- 1) 2

Suppose there is ajump push (takeoff) with constant acceleration over 5 frames, and the total distance
traveled is 0.4m.Using the formula above, we find the base distance.
Base distance = 0.4m/(5 - 1) 2 = 0.4m/16 = 0.025m

0.4m
First Key Distance Known as Slowing Down
Suppose one has a moving object that one wants to slow down, and one has set the first frame of the
slow-in to give an idea of the pacing for the sequence.

0.5m 0.35m

One feature of the Odd Rule is that the base distance is always half the difference between any two
adjacent distances. To find the base distance, one can simply calculate:
(0.5m 0.35m)/2 = 0.07m

To figure out how many frames are in the slow-in, divide the first distance by the base distance to
find out which oddnumber it corresponds to.0.5/0.07 = 7.
This means the first distance corresponds to 7 in the 7, 5, 3, 1sequence, making the sequence four frames
long.

Motion Graphs
A motion graph plots an object's position against time. If one is using animation software,
understanding and using motion graphs is a key skill in animating anything beyond the simplest of
motions. On a motion graph, the time goes from left to right across the bottom of the graph, while the
object's position is plotted vertically against the time. Each axis in 3D space (X, Y, Z) has its own
line showing the object's position along that axis.
Examples of character animation

Jumping
Ajump is an action where the character's entire body is in the air, and both the character's feet
leave the ground atroughly the same time. Ajump action includes a takeoff, free movement through
the air, and a landing.

Parts of Jump
Ajump can be divided into several distinct parts:
Crouch: Asquatting pose is taken as preparation for jumping.
Takeoff: The character pushes up fast and straightens their legs with their feet still on the
ground. The distance from the character's center of gravity (CG) in the crouch to the CG when
the character's feet are just about to leave the ground is called the push height. The amount of
time (or the number of frames) needed for the push is called the push time.
In the air: The amount of time the character is in the air from takeoff to the apex is called the jump
time. If the takeoff pose and the landing pose are similar, then the jump height and jump time are
about the same going up as they are going down.
Landing: The distance from the character"'s CG when her feet hit the ground to the point where
the character stops crouching is called the stop height. The stop height is not always exactly the
same as the push height.

Calculating Jump Actions

When working out the timing for ajump, one will need to first decide on:
1. Jump height or jump time
2. Push height
3. Stop height
4. Horizontal distance the character will travel during Jump
Example:
Jump height = 1.2m
Jump time for 1.2m =0.5 seconds
Jump time at 30fps = 0. 5 * 30 = 15 frames

Jump Magnification
The JM is the ratio of the jump height to the push height.

Jump Height
JMPush Height
Since you already know the jump height and push height, you can calculate the JM. Then you can
use the JM tocalculate other aspects of the jump.
Example:
Jump Height = 1m
Push Height =
0.33m

JM = Jump Height/Push Height = 3

Jump Magnification and Acceleration

Jump Magnification is in fact an exact ratio that tells one how much the character has to accelerate
against gravity to getinto the air. The JM, besides being the ratio of jump-to-pushvertical height and
time, is also the ratio of push-to-jump vertical acceleration. Opposite the other ratios: while a longer
jump time means a shorter push time, a higher jump acceleration means a much, much higher push
acceleration. Knowing about this can help you make more informed decisions about your push timing.

To see how this works, let's look at the formula for JM and relate it to
acceleration: Jump Time Jump Height
JM= Jump Time_ Jump Height_ Push Acceleration
PushTime Push Height Jump Acceleration

The magnitude of jump acceleration is always equal to gravitational acceleration, with

deceleration as the characterrises and acceleration as it falls.

JH= Sh Acceleration Push Acceleration

Jump Acceleration GravitationalAcceleration
 Push Time
The JM also gives you the ratio of the jump time to the
push time.JM = Jump Time/Push Time
Working a little algebra, we can express the equation in a way that directly calculates
the push time:Push Time = Jump Time/JM
Example:
JM = 3
Jump Time: 15 frames
Push Time = 15/3 =5 frames

Walking
Walks feature all the basics of mechanics while including personality. The ability to animate walk
cycles is one of the most inmportant skills a character animator needs to master.

Strides and Steps

A step is one step with one foot. A stride is two steps, one with each foot. Stride length is the distance
the character travels in a stride, nmeasured from the same part of the foot. Step and stride length indicate
lengthwise spacing for the feet during a walk.
Gait is the timing of the motion for each foot, including how long each foot is on the ground or in the
air. During a walk, the number of feet the character has on the ground changes from one foot (single
support) to two feet (double support) and then back to one foot. You can plot the time each foot is on
the ground to see the single and double support times over time. A normal walking gait ranges from 1/3
to 2/3 of a second per step, with 1/2 second being average.

Double Sinek
Suppon suport Gat yde

Leh foot

Stride Step
10
Length Length