1

MODULE - I

Introduction:

The acronym LASER, constructed from Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission

of Radiation, has become so common and popular in everyday life that it is now referred to as
laser. Fundamental theories of lasers, their historical development from milliwatts to petawatts
in terms of power, operation principles, beam characteristics, and applications of laser have
been the subject of several books.

Theodore Maiman was the first to demonstrate the earliest practical laser in 1960 after
the reports by several scientists, including the first theoretical description of R.W. Ladenburg
on stimulated emission and negative absorption in 1928 and its experimental demonstration by
W.C. Lamb and R.C. Rutherford in 1947 and the proposal of Alfred Kastler on optical pumping
in 1950 and its demonstration by Brossel, Kastler, and Winter two years later. Maiman’s first
laser was based on optical pumping of synthetic ruby crystal using a flash lamp that generated
pulsed red laser radiation at 694 nm.

Basic Principles

In order to understand the basic principles involved in laser, the idea of interaction with
matter is very important. Whenever a radiation interacts with matter indicates that; the
interaction is between photons of radiation with atoms of matter. There are three different ways
by which a radiation can interact with matter. Therefore, the basic principles involved in laser
are as follows

1. Induced absorption
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission

1. Induced absorption: The process in which incident photon is absorbed by the atom
thereby atoms move from lower to higher energy level provided the incident photon energy
is equal to the difference in the energy level.

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Figure 1: Induced absorption process

Consider a matter with identical atoms, let E1 be the ground state and E2 be the excited
state. Initially all the atoms be stable in the matter, as shown in figure 1(a). The photons
with energy hυ = E2 – E1 be incident, the atom absorbs that and moves from lower to
higher energy as shown in figure 1(b). The induced absorption process can be represented
as

Photon + atom atom*

2. Spontaneous emission: The process in which photon is emitted by the atom thereby
atoms moves from higher to lower energy level without the help of external energy is
called spontaneous emission.

Figure 2. Spontaneous emission process

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Consider a matter with identical atoms, let E1 be the ground state and E2 be the
excited state. Initially the atoms be in unstable state in the matter, as shown in figure
2(a). In order to get the stable state, the atoms try to losses its extra energy. Thus, when
atom moves from higher to lower energy emits photon (hυ = E2 – E1) as shown in figure
2(b). The spontaneous emission process can be represented as

Atom* Atom + Photon

3. Stimulated emission: The process in which photon is emitted by the atom thereby
atoms moves from higher to lower energy level with the help of external energy is called
spontaneous emission.

Figure 3: Stimulated emission process

Consider a matter with identical atoms, let E1 be the ground state and E2 be the excited
state. Initially the atoms be in unstable state in the matter, as shown in figure 3(a). In order to
get the stable state, the atoms try to losses its extra energy. Thus, when photon (hυ = E2 – E1)
incident on the excited atom thereby the atoms moves from higher to lower energy by emitting
two photons (hυ = E2 – E1) as shown in figure 3(b). The stimulated emission process can be
represented as

Atom*+ Photon Atom + Photon + Photon

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Einstein’s Coefficients

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms (E2 > E1). Let there be N1
number density of atoms with energy E1 and N2 number density of atoms with energy E2. Let
radiations with continuous spectrum of frequencies be incident upon the system. Let there be
radiation of frequency γ such that γ = (E2 – E1)/h, and let Uγ be the energy density of radiation
of frequency γ.

Let us consider the absorption and two emissions processes case by case.

(i) Case of Induced Absorption:

In the case of induced absorption, an atom in the level E1 can go to the level E2 when it absorbs
a radiation of frequency γ such that γ = (E2 – E1)/h (as shown in fig 4).

Figure 4
The number of such absorptions per unit time per unit volume, is called rate of absorption.
The rate of absorption depends upon,
a) The number density of lower energy state i.e., N1 and
b) The energy density i.e., Uγ.
Rate of absorption ∝ N1 Uγ
Or, Rate of absorption = B12 N1 Uγ  (1)
Where, B12 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient of induced
absorption.
(ii) Case of Spontaneous Emission:
In the case of spontaneous emission, an atom in the higher energy level E2 undergoes transition
to the lower energy level E1 voluntarily by emitting a photon (as shown in fig. 5). Since it is a
voluntary transition, independent of the energy density. The number of such spontaneous
emissions per unit time per unit volume is called rate of spontaneous emission which is
proportional to only the number density in the higher energy state i.e., N2.

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Figure 5
∴ Rate of spontaneous emission = A21 N2  (2)
Where, A21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous
emission.
(iii) Case of Stimulated Emission:
In the case of stimulated emission, an atom in the higher energy level E2 undergoes transition
to the lower energy level E1 with the help of a photon of frequency γ = (E2 – E1)/h and thereby
emitting two photons (as shown in fig. 6).

Figure 6
The number of stimulated emissions per unit time per unit volume is called rate of stimulated
emission, is proportional to
a) The number density of the higher energy state, i.e., N2 and
b) The energy density i.e., Uγ
Rate of stimulated emission ∝ N2 Uγ
Or, Rate of stimulated emission = B21 N2 Uγ  (3)
Where, B21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated
emission.
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission
B12 N1 Uγ = A21 N2 + B21 N2 Uγ

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Uγ (B12 N1 – B21 N2) = A21 N2

𝐴𝐴21 𝑁𝑁2
𝑈𝑈𝛾𝛾 =
𝐵𝐵12 𝑁𝑁1 − 𝐵𝐵21 𝑁𝑁2
By rearranging the above equation, we get

𝐴𝐴21 1
𝑈𝑈𝛾𝛾 = �𝐵𝐵12𝑁𝑁1 �  (4)
𝐵𝐵21 −1
𝐵𝐵21 𝑁𝑁2

But from Boltzmann’s relation we have,

𝑁𝑁2 (𝐸𝐸2 − 𝐸𝐸1 ) ℎ𝛾𝛾
= 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑁𝑁1
𝑁𝑁1 ℎ𝛾𝛾
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑁𝑁2
Now equation (4) becomes,

𝐴𝐴21 1
𝑈𝑈𝛾𝛾 = �𝐵𝐵 ℎ𝛾𝛾 �  (5)
𝐵𝐵21 12 𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 −1
𝐵𝐵21

According to Planck’s law, equation for Uγ is

8𝜋𝜋ℎ𝛾𝛾3 1
𝑈𝑈𝛾𝛾 = � ℎ𝛾𝛾 �  (6)
𝑐𝑐 3
𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 −1
Now, comparing the equations (5) and (6), term by term on the basis of positional
identity, we have
𝐴𝐴21 8𝜋𝜋ℎ𝛾𝛾 3
=
𝐵𝐵21 𝑐𝑐 3
𝐵𝐵12
=1
𝐵𝐵21
B12 = B21
Equation 5 can be rewritten, at thermal equilibrium the equation for energy density is
𝐴𝐴
𝑈𝑈𝛾𝛾 = ℎ𝛾𝛾
𝐵𝐵 �𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1�

Conditions for laser action

The conditions for laser action are
1. Population inversion
2. Metastable state

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1. Population inversion: The state in which a greater number of atoms will be in higher
energy levels compared to its lower energy level.

2. Metastable State: It is an excited state with time period 10-3 to 10-2 S.

Figure 7: Population Inversion

Consider a matter with identical atoms with E1 is the ground state and E2 is first excited
state which is metastable state and E3 is second excited state with populations N1, N2 and N3
respectively. Initially photons are incident (E3 – E2) thereby atoms are moved from E1 to E3
level. Within a short interval of time (10-8S) the excited atoms are moved to E2 and E1 levels
as shown in figure 7. This process is continuous, as E2 is metastable state its population
increases. Hence there is every possibility of having population inversion between E2 and E1.
Therefore, the conditions for laser action are population inversion and metastable state.

Requisites for laser system

1. Pumping Unit/ Excitation Source

The role of pumping unit in any laser system is to pump the atoms from lower energy
to higher energy level with the help of external energy. If the external energy is in the
optical form than the resulting pumping unit is called optical pumping. Similarly, we have
electrical pumping, Sound pumping, Solar pumping etc.

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2. Active medium
The active medium in a laser system may be in solid, liquid or gaseous form. The role
of active medium in a laser system is to achieve the condition for laser action i.e.,
population inversion. Depending the type of the active medium laser are classified into
solid state laser, dye laser and gas laser.
3. Laser cavity / Resonance cavity
It is constructed by placing two reflecting mirrors across the active medium as shown
in figure 8.

Figure 8: Laser Cavity

The role of laser cavity in a laser system is to increase the number of photons by stimulated
emission process.

GaAs semiconductor laser

Construction:
It consists of single crystal of Gallium Arsenide (GaAs). By doping tellurium (Te6+)
into GaAs acts as N-type semiconductor. Similarly, by doping zinc (Zn2+) into GaAs acts as
P-type semiconductor. The doping concentration is very high of the order 1016 – 1018
dopants/cm3. The P - N junction thus formed acts as the active medium, which is of the order
1 to 100µm. An external battery is connected such that the P – N junction thus formed is always
maintained in forward bias as shown in figure 9. Finally, to have the laser cavity two
perpendicular surfaces to the P – N junction of the semiconductor is polished. Such that, one
surface acts as fully reflecting with reflectivity 99.999% and the other surface acts as partially
reflecting with reflectivity 99.9%.

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F-B

Fully Reflecting Surface Partially Reflecting Surface

99.999% 99.9%

Figure 9: Construction of GaAs semiconductor laser.

Working:
When a semiconductor is placed at absolute zero K, acts as perfect insulator as
represented in the energy band diagram 10 (a). Now the temperature of the semiconductor is
increased and maintained in forward bias. As the forward voltage increases the current across
the P – N junction increases, indicating that electrons of valence band (VB) are moving into
conduction band (CB). With further increase in forward voltage, indicating that more and more
electrons are moving from VB into the CB.

Within a short interval of time electrons moved into the CB are collected at the lower
energy levels of CB. Meanwhile the holes which are formed due to the jumping of electrons,
appears to move to the top energy levels of the VB as shown in figure 10 (b). So, when the
current across the junction reaches to threshold value, the condition for laser action i.e.,
population inversion is achieved between lower energy level of CB with respect to top energy
level of VB.

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CB

Eg
Eg
Eg
VB

b. Population
a. Before PI
Inversion

Fully Reflecting Partially Reflecting

Surface Surface

Figure 10: Working of GaAs semiconductor laser

When an electron of the CB recombines with hole of the VB releases photon as

represented in figure 10. This photon now initiates the stimulated emission process. The
photons thus formed by stimulated emission are moved back and forth between the two
reflecting surfaces till they built up the laser light. Finally, the laser light comes out of partially
reflecting surface. The wavelength of the laser light in semiconductor laser is given by

ℎ𝑐𝑐
λ =
Eg
For GaAs: Eg = 1.8 eV implies that λ = 8400 Å.

Applications of laser
1. Laser can be used to determine the life time of some radioactive elements.
2. To initiates some chemical reaction Laser can be used.
3. To increase the yield of the seeds.
4. To detect the defects in the materials.
5. To read and write on CD/DVD.
6. To guide the missile towards enemy vehicle.
7. To measure the harmful pollutants, present in the atmosphere.

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8. To construct holograms.
9. To have the blood less surgeries.
10. In fiber optic communication.

BAR CODE SCANNER

The technology associated with identification of all types of products using bar codes is
one of the very important developments of the past century. This technology was introduced in
the USA in 1973 and later in European countries in the year 1978.

A bar code consists of a series of strips of white and dark line/bands. Each strip has a
width of about 0.3 mm and the total width of the bar code is about 3 cm. Bar code consists
of information such as country of origin, product manufacturer, price, weight of the product,
and expiry date etc..

Figure 11: Working principle of bar code scanner

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Working: The primary purpose of the laser in this application is the optical reading of the bar
code. In the bar code scanner, a low-power (∼ 0.5mW) laser beam is deflected by a rotating
mirror to scan along the bar code as shown in figure 11.

When the laser beam hits the bar code, the amount of scattered light depends on whether
the strip is white or dark. The variation of scattered light from the bar code with time contains
the information. The scattered light is focussed on a photodetector which converts the optical
signal to an electrical signal for further processing.

Advantages of bar code scanner

 Laser scanner can effectively read bar code even when the scanner or bar code is in
motion.
 The combination of low price and high productivity often makes laser scanner the better
option.

LASER PRINTER
Laser printers are a lot like photocopiers and use the same basic technology. A laser printer
works in almost exactly the same way, with one important difference: because there is no
original page to copy, the laser has to write it out from scratch.

Imagine your computer packed full of data which is stored in electronic format. The printer's
job is to convert this electronic data back into words and pictures: in effect, to turn electricity
into ink. The electronic data from your computer is used to control a laser beam—and it's the
laser that gets the ink on the page, using static electricity in a similar way to a photocopier.

How a laser printer works

The following are the steps involved in laser printing:

1. Millions of bytes (characters) of data stream into the printer from your computer.
2. An electronic circuit in the printer (effectively, a small computer in its own right) figures
out how to print this data so it looks correct on the page.
3. The electronic circuit activates the corona wire. This is a high-voltage wire that gives a
static electric charge to anything nearby.
4. The corona wire charges up the photoreceptor drum so the drum gains a positive charge
spread uniformly across its surface.

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5. At the same time, the circuit activates the laser to make it draw the image of the page onto
the drum. The laser beam doesn't actually move: it bounces off a moving mirror that scans
it over the drum. Where the laser beam hits the drum, it erases the positive charge that was
there and creates an area of negative charge instead. Gradually, an image of the entire page
builds up on the drum: where the page should be white, there are areas with a positive
charge; where the page should be black, there are areas of negative charge.

6. An ink roller touching the photoreceptor drum coats it with tiny particles of powdered ink
(toner). The toner has been given a positive electrical charge, so it sticks to the parts of the
photoreceptor drum that have a negative charge (remember that opposite electrical charges
attract in the same way that opposite poles of a magnet attract). No ink is attracted to the
parts of the drum that have a positive charge. An inked image of the page builds up on the
drum.
7. A sheet of paper from a hopper on the other side of the printer feeds up toward the drum.
As it moves along, the paper is given a strong negative electrical charge by another corona
wire.
8. When the paper moves near the drum, its negative charge attracts the positively charged
toner particles away from the drum. The image is transferred from the drum onto the paper
but, for the moment, the toner particles are just resting lightly on the paper's surface.
9. The inked paper passes through two hot rollers (the fuser unit). The heat and pressure from
the rollers fuse the toner particles permanently into the paper.

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10. The printout emerges from the side of the copier. Thanks to fussier unit, the paper is
still warm. It’s literally hot off the press!

Advantages of Laser Printer

• The main advantage of Laser printer is its speed & efficiency at which it prints high
quality graphics & text.
• Laser printers produce high-quality output as compared to other printers.
• Laser printers are quite and does not produce disturbing sounds.
• They are also capable to produce color prints.

Disadvantages of Laser Printer

• The main disadvantage of Laser printer is its cost, they are relatively costly as compared
to other printers.
• The maintenance, repair & servicing charges are also high of these printers.
• Laser printers emit small amount of ozone and are hazardous to health and the
atmosphere.

LASER COOLING

Laser cooling is a method of slowing down atoms, and thus cooling them, using lasers.
Typically, we view lasers as heating things up, and they certainly do on macroscopic scales,
but for individual atoms or small groups of atoms, they can be used for cooling. The coldest
temperatures ever generated, less than half a billionth of a Kelvin (0.5 nanoKelvins) have been
achieved by using a combination of laser cooling and evaporative cooling. These temperatures
are achieved with tiny amounts of diffuse gases.
The primary mechanism by which laser cooling slows down atoms is by causing them to absorb
and emit photons in random directions. As long as the velocity of the atom is greater than the
recoil velocity of photon emission, the overall velocity is reduced. If you were floating on a
hovercraft, moving a significant velocity in one direction, and randomly threw metallic balls
off the hovercraft, eventually your velocity would slow down and your movements would
entirely be dictated by the recoil effect of throwing the balls. That is how laser cooling works.

Laser cooling selectively targets atoms moving in certain directions and at certain speeds within
the gas. By tuning the light to a specific frequency, just below the resonant frequency for the

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substance, the laser trap targets only those atoms moving towards it. This is due to the Doppler
effect - when the atom is moving towards the source laser, the frequency of the light increases
from the viewpoint of that atom. This is the same reason that the sound frequency varies as a
train speed past a stationary observer - the relative velocity between source and object
manipulates the apparent frequency. For atoms not moving at that threshold velocity, they are
transparent to the laser and therefore not affected by it.

OPTICAL FIBER
Construction: -

Figure 12: Construction of optical fiber

Optical fiber is cylindrical in nature consists of three different regions/parts.

Inner most part of the optical fiber is called core medium as shown in figure (12). It is

surrounded by another cylindrical medium called cladding medium. To have the core and
cladding medium usually very high pure glass/plastic is preferred, such that refractive index
of core medium (n1) is always greater than the refractive index of cladding (n2). The role of
core medium is to carry the information from one point to another. Cladding medium will
support the core is carrying out the information. The role of jacket/sheath in an optical fiber is
to act as the protective layer and also gives mechanical strength to the optical fiber.
Propagation Mechanism: -
Cladding

Core
Figure 13: Propagation mechanism in optical fiber

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Consider an optical fiber consisting of core and cladding with refractive indices n1 and n2 respectively. Let a light signal is launch into the optical
fiber and reach to the interface of core and cladding medium as shown in figure (13). At the interface if the angle of incident made by the light
signal is more than critical angle than the light signal undergoes total internal reflection (TIR). With such multiple TIR phenomenon light signal
is propagated into the optical fiber and reaches to the other end of the fiber. As the signal is always guided in the core medium as shown in figure
(14), thus optical fibers are also called as optical wave guides.

Acceptance angle & Numerical Aperture :-

90 - θ1′′

θ1′′ 90 - θ1 90 - θ1′
(90 - θ1′′) < (90 - θ1)
(90 - θ1 ′′) < θC
θ1 θ1′

θ1 θ0 θ1′ < θ1 (90 - θ1′) > (90 - θ1)

TIR
θ1′′ > θ1 (90 - θ1′) > θC
θ3
θ3 > θ0
θ1 < θ0
(90 - θ1) = θc

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 Defn :- The maximum angle of incidence at the axis of the optical fiber for the
refracted ray moves along the interface of core and cladding is called acceptance
angle and represented by θ0.
 Sine of acceptance angle is called numerical aperture (NA)

NA = Sin θ0
Expression for numerical aperture (NA)
Condition for propagation of light signal into the optical fibre

Cladding
B

Air (n0) 90 - θ1
A θ1
θ0

O
Core

Figure 14: Optical fiber placed in air medium

Consider on optical fiber with core and cladding medium having the refractive indices
n1 and n2 respectively placed in air medium with refractive index n0 as shown in figure (14).
Let a light signal OA makes an angle of incidence θ0 at the axis of the optical fiber. Now the
light signal gets refracted into the core medium with angle of refraction θ1. Finally, the light
signal reaches the interface of core and cladding with angle of incidence 90 - θ1 and moves
along the interface of core and cladding as shown in figure (14).
Applying Snell’s law at point ‘A’, we have
n0 Sin θ0 = n1 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 θ1  (1)
Once again apply Snell’s law at point ‘B’, we have
o
n1 Sin (90 - θ1) = 𝐧𝐧𝟐𝟐 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 90
𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐
⇒ Cos θ1 =  (2)
𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏

From equation (1) we can write as, n0 Sin θ0 = 𝐧𝐧𝟏𝟏 √𝟏𝟏 − 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 θ1

Substituting the value of Cosθ1 from equation (2), we have

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)𝟐𝟐
𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐
no Sin θ0 = 𝐧𝐧𝟏𝟏�𝟏𝟏 − (
𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏

𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 −𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐
no Sin θ0 = 𝐧𝐧𝟏𝟏� 𝟐𝟐
𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏

no Sin θ0 = √𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 − 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

For air medium, we know that its refractive index is n0 = 1.

𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
∴ √𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 −𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐
Sin θ0 =
𝒏𝒏𝟎𝟎

∴NA = Sin θ0 = √𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 − 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

-1
θ0 = Sin √𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 − 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Condition for propagation :-
If θi is the angle of incidence made by a light signal at the axis of the optical fiber than
the condition for propagation is given by
θi < θ0
Sin θi < Sin θ0
Sin θi < NA

Sin θi < √𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 − 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

θi < Sin-1 √𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 − 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

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Types of Optical Fiber

There are three different types of optical fiber and they are
1. Single mode optical fiber
2. Step-index multimode optical fiber
3. Graded-index multimode optical fiber

1. Single mode optical fiber: In this optical fiber the diameter of core is around 8 to 10
µm surrounded by cladding medium with diameter around 70 to 90 µm as shown in figure
15(a). The refractive index of the core medium is uniform and value is n1. Cladding medium
will also have a uniform refractive index with its value equal to n2. Thus, the RI profile of this
optical fiber is as represented in figure 15(b).

Geometry:
(70 – 90)µm

n1 > n2 (8 – 10)µm
n2
CLADDING n1
CORE
Figure 15(a): The geometry of single mode optical fiber

RI Profile:

Figure 15(b): The RI profile of single mode optical fiber

As the diameter of single mode optical fiber is very narrow thus, in this type of optical
fiber only one mode of light signal can propagate as shown in figure 15(c). Hence this optical
fiber is named as ‘single mode’ optical fiber.

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Propagation mechanism:

O/P

I/P

Figure 15(c): The propagation mechanism of single mode optical fiber

As only one mode of light signal is propagated in this type of optical fiber at a time
thus, no loss of information as represented with input and output waveforms. LASER can alone
be used as the source for transmitting the information in this optical fiber. Finally, these optical
fibers are preferred for ‘long distance’ communication purpose such as submarine cable.

2. Step index multimode optical fiber: In this optical fiber the diameter of core is around
50 to 200 µm surrounded by cladding medium with diameter around 100 to 250 µm as shown
in figure 16(a). The refractive index of the core medium is uniform and value is n1. Cladding
medium will also have a uniform refractive index with its value equal to n2. Thus, in the RI
profile clearly a step function for this optical fiber hence the name ‘step index’ is as represented
in figure 16(b).

Geometry: (100 – 250)µm

(50 – 200)µm
n2
n1
n1 > n2
Figure 16(a): The geometry of step index multimode optical fiber
RI Profile:

Figure 16(b): The RI profile of step index multimode optical fiber

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As the diameter of step index multimode optical fiber is broader thus, in this type of
optical fiber a greater number of light signals can propagate as shown in figure 16(c). Hence
this optical fiber is named as ‘multimode’ optical fiber.
Propagation mechanism:

I/P O/P

Figure 16(c): The propagation mechanism of step index multimode optical fiber
As greater number of light signals are propagated in this type of optical fiber at a time
thus, during the propagation of light signals information may get lost due to the overlapping of
the light signals as represented with input and output waveforms. LASER and LED can be used
as the source for transmitting the information in this optical fiber. Finally, these optical fibers
are preferred for ‘short distance’ communication purpose such as LAN.

3. Graded-index multimode optical fiber: In this optical fiber the diameter of core is
around 50 to 200 µm surrounded by cladding medium with diameter around 100 to 250 µm as
shown in figure 17(a). The refractive index of the cladding is uniform and value is n2, whereas
the core medium will have different refractive index values. Such that the RI is maximum at
the axis and decreases with radial distance in the core medium and at the interface of core-
cladding medium the RI value is same. Thus, the RI profile is as represented in figure 17(b)
hence the name ‘graded-index’.

Geometry:
(100 – 250)µm

(50 – 200)µm
n2

Figure 17(a): The geometry of graded-index multimode optical fiber

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RI Profile:

Figure 17(b): The RI profile of graded-index multimode optical fiber

As the diameter of graded-index multimode optical fiber is broader thus, in this type of
optical fiber a greater number of light signals can propagate as shown in figure 17(c). Hence
this optical fiber is named as ‘multimode’ optical fiber.
Propagation mechanism:

I/P O/P

Figure 17(c): The propagation mechanism of graded-index multimode optical fiber

As greater number of light signals are propagated at a time where the RI have multiple
values in this type of optical fiber. Thus, some light signals will travel in high RI value region
and other in low RI value region. So, all the light signals will cover same distance in same
interval of time hence no information will be lost as represented with input and output
waveforms. LASER and LED can be used as the source for transmitting the information in this
optical fiber. Finally, these optical fibers are preferred for ‘medium distance’ communication
purpose such as data links, cable wire.

Attenuation Mechanisms
The process in which the light signal losses its intensity/power as it propagates into the
optical fiber is called attenuation or loss. The amount of loss in the optical fiber is usually
measured as a parameter called attenuation coefficient or loss factor and is represented as
−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐
∝= 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 � � dB/km
𝑳𝑳 𝑷𝑷𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊

The following are different attenuation mechanisms in optical fiber

1. Absorption
2. Scattering
3. Radiation

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1. Absorption losses: In this mechanism the photons of the light signal are absorbed.
There are two types of absorption losses and they are
i. Absorption by impurities
ii. Intrinsic absorption

i. Absorption by impurities: Usually in optical fibers transition metal ions such as Fe2+, Cu2+,
Zn2+ …... act as impurities. During the propagation of light signal in the optical fiber reach to
impurities, some of the photons of the light signal will be get absorbed. The impurities emit the
absorbed photons but usually their energy or at least the phase will be different with the
absorbed. Thus, strength of photons in the light signal decreases leads to loss in fiber.
ii. Intrinsic absorption: In any optical fiber the core medium is constructed with either high pure
glass or plastic. Thus, during the propagation of light signal into the optical fiber it is noticed
that some of the photons present in the light signal will be absorbed by the core medium itself.
Hence strength of photons in the light signal deceases leads to loss in the fiber.

2. Scattering losses: This mechanism is noticed in the optical fiber due to sharp change
in RI value. During the propagation of light signal into the optical fiber, if the photons of the
light signal reach to the region of change in RI as shown in below figure.

The photons get scattered in different direction from the region of change in RI. Thus,
the strength of photons of the light signal decreases and leads to loss in fiber. This type of
scattering in optical fiber is similar to ‘Rayleigh scattering’. The characteristic property of this
scattering is that the scattering distance is inversely proportional to fourth power of wavelength
𝟏𝟏
𝒅𝒅 ∝
λ𝟒𝟒

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3. Radiation losses: There are two types of radiation losses and they are
i. Macrobends: While placing the optical fibers for communication purposes at some point the
optical fibers should be bent sharply as shown in below figure.

Now during the propagation of light signal into the optical fiber at the bent portion the light
signal may not satisfy the condition for TIR than the light signal may undergo refraction and
leads to loss in the fiber.
ii. Microbends: While placing the optical fibers for communication purposes due to the
application un equal pressure on the surfaces of the optical fiber leads the formation of
microbends as shown in below figure.

Now during the propagation of light signal into the optical fiber at the microbend portion the
light signal may not satisfy the condition for TIR than the light signal may undergo refraction
and leads to loss in the fiber.

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Applications of Optical fiber

Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to
another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. Fiber is preferred over electrical
cabling when high bandwidth, long distance, or immunity to electromagnetic interference are
required. This type of communication can transmit voice, video, and telemetry through local
area networks, computer networks, or across long distances.
Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals,
Internet communication, and cable television signals.

Information Source Transmitter

OPTICAL FIBER

Receiver Destination

Figure 18: Block diagram for Optical fiber communication

In case of optical fiber communication, the information source provides an electrical
signal to a transmitter comprising an electrical stage which drives an optical source to give
modulation of the light wave carrier. The optical source which provides the electrical–optical
conversion may be either a semiconductor laser or light-emitting diode (LED). The
transmission medium consists of an optical fiber cable and the receiver consists of an optical
detector which drives a further electrical stage and hence provides demodulation of the optical
carrier. Photodiodes (p–n, p–i–n or avalanche) and, in some instances, phototransistors and
photoconductors are utilized for the detection of the optical signal and the optical–electrical
conversion. Thus there is a requirement for electrical interfacing at either end of the optical
link and at present the signal processing is usually performed electrically. The optical carrier
may be modulated using either an analog or digital information signal.

Dr S. S. Lature