Lasers

Introduction
The word Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a device which
amplifies light. It has properties like Coherence, Unidirectional, Monochromatic, Focussability, etc.
Interaction of an electromagnetic wave with matter leads to transition of an atom or a molecule from
one energy state to another. If the transition is from lower state to higher state it absorbs the incident
energy. If the transition is from higher state to lower state it emits a part of its energy.
Emission or Absorption takes through quantum of energy called photons. hν is called quantum energy
or photon energy.
h = 6.626×10-34 Joules Second, is Planck’s constant and ‘ν’ is the frequency.
If ∆E is the difference between the two energy levels,
Then ∆E = (E2 - E1) Joule
According to Max Planck, ∆E = hν = (E2 - E1)
ν = (E2 - E1) /h Hz.

Three types of interactions, which are possible, are as follows:

1. Induced absorption:
An atom in the ground state may absorb
a photon of suitable energy and go to an excited
state. This is known as the induced absorption
and the process is represented by the following
equation.
Atom + photon ----->Atom*

2. Spontaneous emission:
An atom which is already in an excited
state will be unstable and it falls back to the
ground state by emitting a photon of appropriate
energy.

This is known as the spontaneous emission and the process is represented by the following equation.
Atom*---------> Atom + photon

3. Stimulated emission:
It is the emission of a photon by a system under the influence of a passing photon of just the right
energy, due to which the system transits from a higher energy state to a lower energy state.

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 Atom*+ photon ----->Atom + photon + photon

ENERGY DENSITY EXPRESSION IN TERMS OF EINSTEIN’S COEFFICIENTS:

Consider at any given instant of time, N1 be the number of atoms in the ground state of energy
level E1 and N2 be the number of atoms in the excited state of energy level E2. Let radiation of frequency
γ = (E2 – E1) / h and Uγ be the energy density of radiation of frequency γ. Then Uγ dγ will be energy density
of radiations whose frequencies lie in the range γ and γ+ dγ.
(i) Case of induced Absorption
In this case when radiation of frequency γ = (E2 – E1) / h is incident on an atom, it goes from
ground state E1 to excited state E2 by absorbing radiation. The rate of absorption is directly proportional
to the number of atoms in the ground state and also the energy density ‘U γ’ incident on the system.
Therefore
rate of absorption ∝ Uγ N1

rate of absorption = B12 Uγ N1 -------------- (1)

Where, B12 is known as Einstein’s coefficient of

absorption.
(ii) Case of spontaneous Emission:
In this condition, the rate of spontaneous emission is only proportional to the number of atoms in the
excited state i.e, N2.

rate of spontaneous emission ∝ N2

rate of spontaneous emission=A21 N2 ……(2)

Here A21 is known as Einstein’s coefficient of

spontaneous emission.

iii) Case of Stimulated Emission : The rate of stimulated emission is proportional to the number atoms in
the excited state and the radiation density ’ Uγ’

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 rate of stimulated emission ∝ Uγ N2
rate of stimulated emission = B21 Uγ N2 ….(3)

Where B21 is known as Einstein’s coefficient of

Stimulated emission.

Under equilibrium conditions the rate of absorption is equal to the rate of emission.

Therefore,
Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission

B12 Uγ N1 = A21 N2 + B21 Uγ N2 …………..(4)

Rearranging the terms we get

𝐴21 𝑁2
Uγ = 𝐵12 𝑁1 −𝐵21 𝑁2

𝐴21 𝑁2 1
Uγ = [𝐵12 𝑁1 ]
𝐵21 𝑁2 −1
𝐵21 𝑁2

According to Boltzman’s equation

N2 = N1 e (-h ν /kT)

N1/N2 = e (h ν /kT)
Substituting this in the above equation

𝐴21 1
Uγ = [ ]………(5)
𝐵21 𝐵12 𝑒 h ν⁄kT −1
𝐵21

Since the above equation is for an equilibrium state the radiation density ‘U γ’ is the same as given for a
black body by Planck.
According to Planck’s radiation law
8 πhν3 1
Uγ = [ h ν⁄ ] ------ (6)
𝐶3 𝑒 kT −1

Where ‘ν’ is the frequency of the radiation, ‘c’ velocity of light, ‘k’ Boltzman’s constant and T is the
temperature of the system
Comparing the equations (5) and (6) one can write

𝐴21 8 πhν3 𝐵12

= and =1 (7)
𝐵21 𝐶3 𝐵21

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Equation (7) gives the relation between Einstein’s coefficients.
Therefore
𝑨𝟐𝟏 𝟏
Uγ = [ 𝐡𝛎 ] ……………….(8)
𝑩𝟐𝟏 𝒆 ⁄𝐤𝐓−𝟏

This is the expression for energy density.

Condition for Laser Action:

Population Inversion:

Population inversion is the state of a system at which the population of a particular higher energy
state is more than that of a specified lower energy state.
Metastable State :

It is the special type of excited state where in the life

time of atom is more than the normal excited state.
This state plays an important role in lasing action. In
metastable state, atoms stay of the order of 10-3 to 10-
2
second. In normal excited state other than
metastable atom stays of order of 10-8 to10-9 seconds. It is possible to achieve population inversion
condition in certain system which possesses a metastable state.
Let E1, E2, E3 be the energy levels of the system E3>E2>E1. E2 is the metastable state of the system.
Atoms get excited from the state E1 to E3 by means of external source and stay there for short time. These
atoms undergo spontaneous transitions to E2 and E1. The atoms at the state E2 stay for longer time. A
stage is reached in which the number of atoms at state E2 is more than the number of atoms at E1 which
is known as population inversion.

REQUIREMENTS FOR LASER ACTION:

The principal components of a laser system are

1. Pumping Source
2. Active medium
3. Laser cavity
(i) Pumping technique: The method of exciting the system to
a higher state by supplying external energy, in the above
example from E1 to E2 is what is known as pumping. There
are different methods of pumping. If the light energy is used
to excite the system then the pumping is called as optical

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 pumping, when the electrical energy is used it is called as electrical pumping, chemical energy
brings the chemical pumping and so on.
(ii) Active system: The system which is responsible for laser action that is a system in which
amplified signal is attained through population inversion.
(iii) Resonator or Laser cavity: The cavity in which the active material is placed and in which a
resonance is brought about by adjusting the two mirrors such that the distance between them
is integral multiples of half wavelength of the amplified signal. For constructive interference,
the distance between two mirrors should be an integral number of half wavelengths,
i.e L= mλ /2

Semiconductor Laser(Gallium-Arsenide Laser):

A Semiconductor diode laser is one in which the active medium is formulated by semiconducting
materials.
Construction: Gallium-Arsenide Laser is a single crystal of GaAs consists of heavily doped n-type and p-
type. The diode is very small size with sides of
the order of 1mm. The width of the junction
varies from 1-100m. The top and bottom
surfaces are metalized and Ohmic contacts are
provided for external connection. The front
and rear faces are polished. The polished faces
functions as the resonant cavity. The other two
faces are roughened to prevent lasing action in
that direction.

Working :
The energy band diagram of heavily doped p-n junction is as shown. At thermal equilibrium the Fermi
level is uniform.
 Because of very high doping on n- side, the Fermi level is pushed in to the conduction band and
electrons occupy the portions of the
conduction band that lies below the Fermi
level and on p-side, the Fermi level lies within
the valence band and holes occupy the
portions of the valence band that lies above
the Fermi level.
 A suitable forward bias is applied to
overcome the potential barrier. As a result
electrons from n-region and holes from p-
region injected into the junction.
 The current begins to flow following which
there will be a region in junction in which the
population inversion can be achieved.
 Initially concentration of electrons in the energy levels at the bottom of the conduction band will be
less than that of energy levels at top of valence band. So that the recombination of electrons and holes
result only in spontaneous emission.
 When the current exceeds the threshold value, population inversion is achieved in the active region
which is formulated in the junction.

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 At this stage the photons emitted by spontaneous emission triggers stimulated emission, over a large
number of recombination leading to build up laser.
ℎ𝑐
The wavelength of the laser emitted by the GaAs laser source is given by λ = 𝐸 = 8400Å
𝑔
where Eg is the energy gap of the semiconductor(1.4ev)
Semiconductor lasers are numerically the most common type of laser. They find wide use in
telecommunication, barcode readers, CD players, DVD and Blue-ray technology, material processing,
range-finding, laser target designation, surgery, holography and tattoo removal.
Characteristics of LASER beam:
1. Light Intensity - It has highly concentrated energy that is the energy per unit cross sectional area
is very high.
2. Directionality:- Laser light is highly unidirectional because the divergence is less. Since the laser
cavity reflect only those photons which are incident in a direction normal to their own planes. If the
divergence is less the action of the beam at any point away from the source will remain constant.
3. Highly monochromatic:- It has the light contains more than one frequency naturally they cannot
be in phase and hence the reduction of energy takes place. Thus it is expected that to bring about
coherence the source should be highly monochromatic.
4. Phase coherence, it is not just sufficient that light is monochromatic but every ray in a beam should
be in phase with respect to each other so that intensity do not reduce. This is known as phase
coherence
5. Temporal coherence, the above parameters of phase coherence and monochromatic makes the light
to
have the intensity at any point across the cross section of the beam to be same. This is known as
temporal coherence.

Applications of Lasers:
1. Bar code scanner : a bar code is a printed series of
parallel bars or lines of varying width.
it consists of a Laser source, oscillating mirror and
photo diode which acts as a sensor and used to
measure the reflected light from the bar code. In the
bar code the dark lines gives less reflected light and
white lines gives more reflected light. This variation is
studied by the photodiode and an analog signal is created from the photodiode, and is then converted
into a digital signal.

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2. LASER Printer : It is Invented at XEROX in 1969 by Gary
Starkweather. These are digital printing devices that
produces high quality text and graphics. It consists of
a diode laser, charged rotating drum, toner and fuser.
Laser beam projects image of the page on to a charged
selenium coated photosensitive drum.The areas that
are exposed to light gets positively charged. Toner
particles are picked up by the charged areas of the
drum. The drum then prints the image on to the paper by direct contact and heat fuses the ink to the
paper.
Advantages : 1. Laser printers are generally quiet and fast.
2. Laser printers can produce high quality output on or dinary papers.
3. The cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than other printers.
Disadvantages: 1. The initial cost of laser printers can be high.
2. Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix printers and ink-jet printers.

3. LASER Cooling: Laser cooling is the use of dissipative light

forces for reducing the random motion and thus the temperature
of small particles, typically atoms or ions. Depending on the
mechanism used, the temperature achieved can be in the
millikelvin, microkelvin, or even nanokelvin regime. If an atom is
traveling toward a laser beam and absorbs a photon from the
laser, it will be slowed. The temperature to which a material could be cooled down depends on the
number of such absorptions.
The follwing are the types of laser cooling
• Doppler Cooling.
• Sisyphous Cooling.
Applications:
1. Construction of atomic clocks

2. Atomic interferometers

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 Optical fibers
construction and working of optical fibers
Optical fibers are used in optics as wave guides. They are transparent dielectric materials able to
guide visible and infrared light over long distances. The work on the principle of Total Internal
Reflection (TIR)
Construction
The structure of an optical fiber is shown in Figure. The optical fiber consists of fibers of plastic or
glass cylinder called ‘Core’. The core is surrounded by a concentric cylinder of similar material called
‘Cladding’ but of lower refractive index (n2) than that of core (n1). The purpose of the cladding is to
make the light to undergo TIR. The cladding is covered with in a jacket called ‘Sheath’ made of
polyurethane, which protects the cladding and the core from abrasions, contaminations and the harmful
influence of moisture. In addition, it improves mechanical strength of the fiber.

Working or guiding mechanism in optical fiber as a waveguide

A tubular structure through which light energy could be guided in the form of wave is called “wave
guide”. Since light waves can be guided through the optical fiber, it is called “light guide”. It is also
called “fiber wave guide” or “fiber light guide”.
Light travels as an electromagnetic wave through an optical fiber. Light from a laser or some other
sources enters one end of the core of an optical fiber and it strikes the interface of the core and cladding
at an angle greater than critical angle of incidence. The ray undergoes series of total internal reflection
and finally emerges from other end of the fiber without much loss of energy. At the other end light is
received by a detector such as a photosensitive device.

Total Internal Reflection:

• When light travels from denser to rarer medium and incident at an angle greater than critical
angle the entire incident light is reflected back into the same medium (denser) is called
“Total Internal Reflection”.
• For a particular angle of incidence called the “critical angle”, the refracted ray grazes the
surface separating the media at which the angle of refraction is equal to 90°.
Numerical Aperture:
Let n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of core and cladding of the optical fiber which is kept in the
surrounding medium of refractive index n0.
Let AO represent incident ray and ‘θ0’ angle made by AO with axis of the fiber .This ray is refracted
along OB inside the fiber with angle of refraction θ 1. The ‘θ1 ’ is called critical angle of propagation.
If the refracted ray OB is incident on the core cladding interface at an angle (90˚- θ1) equal to critical
angle of incidence, refracted ray BC grazes along core cladding interface. For the ray to undergo TIR
angle of incidence at the interface must be greater than (90˚- θ1).This is possible only when light enters
the fiber at an angle of incidence θi > θ0.Thus any ray which enters the fiber at an angle of incidence θ i
> θ0 undergoes TIR. θ0 is called wave guide acceptance angle or acceptance cone half angle and sin
θ0 is called the numerical aperture(NA) of the fiber. The NA measures the light gathering capacity
of the fiber.

From Snell’s law, at O

nosinθ0 = n1sinθ1 ------------------------------------- (1)

Again Snell’s law at B;

n1Sin(90-θ1) = n2sin90
n1cosθ1 = n2
cosθ1 = n2 / n1 ------------------------------------------------- (2)
From eqn. (1)
𝑛1
Sinθ0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
𝑛0

𝑛
= 𝑛1 √1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃……………(3)
0
Using eqn. (2) in (3)
𝑛1 𝑛 2
Sinθ0 = √1 − 𝑛22 -------------- (4)
𝑛0 1

√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
Numerical Aperture (NA) = Sinθ0 =
𝑛0

If the surrounding medium is air, no = 1, then

Numerical Aperture (NA) = Sinθ0 = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2

for any angle of incidence equal to θi equal to or less than θ0, the incident ray is able to propagate.
θi < θ0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 < Sinθ0
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 < √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒊 < 𝑵. 𝑨 is the condition for propagation

1. Critical angle: For the ray to undergo TIR inside the fiber, angle of refraction i.e the angle made by
the refracted ray with the axis of the fiber must be less than certain maximum value called Critical
propagation angle (θ1). If the angle of refraction is greater than this angle, the angle of incidence at the
interface becomes less than critical angle and hence ray escape outside the fiber without undergoing
TIR.
2.Wave guide acceptance angle or acceptance cone half angle:
The angle made by the incident ray with the axis of the fiber is called Wave guide acceptance angle or
acceptance cone half angle. OR
If the incident ray is rotated about the fiber axis keeping θ i constant, it forms a cone. The rays which
are incident within this cone travel inside the fiber, undergo TIR is called Wave guide acceptance
angle or acceptance cone half angle.
3.Numerical aperture:
Numerical aperture of an optical fiber is a measure of light gathering capacity of the fiber, it equal to
the sine of wave guide acceptance angle i.e

√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
Numerical Aperture (NA) = Sinθ0 = 𝑛0
Where n1, n2 and n0 represent refractive indices of core, cladding and surrounding medium
respectively.
4.Fractional Index Change:
“It is the ratio of difference in the refractive indices between the core and cladding to the refractive
index of the core of an optical fiber”.

𝑛1 −𝑛2
Δ=
𝑛1

Relation between N.A and Δ :

𝑛1 −𝑛2
Consider Δ= 𝑛1

Δn1 = n1 – n2 ………….(1)

We have; N.A =

= from eqn. (1)

Considering n1≈n2

Increase in the value of Δ increases N.A, as it enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ
value cannot be increased very much because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.
Refractive index profile:
The graph obtained by plotting refractive index of the fiber with respect to radial distance from the
axis of the fiber is called Refractive index profile.
V-number :
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a parameter called V-
number and is given by

V=
If the surrounding medium is air, then
Where ‘d’ is the core diameter, n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively, ‘λ’
is the wavelength of light propagating through the fiber.

V=
If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then,

V=
For V >>1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by, number
of modes (M) ≈ V2/2.

Types of optical fibers:

Depending on NA, fractional index change, refractive index profile, fractional index change and modes
of propagation optical fibers are classified into 3types.They are
1. Step index single mode fiber (SISM)
2. Step index multimode fiber (SIM)
3. Graded index multimode fiber (GRIM)

1. Step index Single mode fiber (SISM):

❖ In steps index single mode optical fiber, refractive index
of core is uniform. Similarly refractive index of cladding
is also uniform; but it is lesser than that of cladding.
Hence R.I profile of SISM optical fiber takes the shape of
a step as shown in the figure.
❖ Diameter of these type of fibers is of about 8-10μm and outer
diameter value Of cladding is about 60-70μm.
❖ Since the core diameter is very small, it can guide a single
mode as shown in the diagram. Hence it is called single
mode fiber.
❖ Wave guide acceptance angle, NA, and fractional index change of these fibers are very small.
❖ Laser can be used as the source of light for operating systems involving these fibers.
❖ They are used in long distance communication like in operating submarine cables systems.
❖ Losses of signal in these fibers are very less and are the best guides. These types of fibers are less
expensive.
❖ The disadvantage of these fibers is that, difficult to join strands of one with the other because of
their narrow core.
2. Step index multimode fiber (SIM):
❖ It’s construction is similar to that of single mode fiber but
it’s core has larger diameter. The core and the cladding
diameter of step index multimode fiber is 50 to200μm and

100 to250 μm respectively. The geometry of a step index

multimode fiber is as shown in Figure.
❖ Because of it’s larger diameter it can propagate large
number of modes as shown in figure.
❖ The NA, fractional index change, acceptance angle are
very large compared to SISM.
❖ In SIMM fibers Laser or LED is used as a source of light.
It has an application in data links.

❖ Its refractive index profile is also similar to that of a single mode fiber but with a larger plane region for

core.

❖ It is least expensive and finds its application in data link between central offices which has lower band

width.

❖ Its core has much larger diameter by the virtue of which it will be able to support propagation
of larger number of modes as shown.

3.Graded index multimode fiber (GRIN):

❖ Its geometry is similar to that of SIMM i.e diameter of the

Core and Cladding diameter are 50 to 200 μm and 100to 250

μm respectively. Its geometry is as shown in the figure.

❖ In GRIN optical fibers, RI of a core is not uniform. It decreases

uniformly from the axis of the fiber towards core cladding and

becomes equal to that of the cladding at the interface. But the

R.I of cladding is uniform but lesser than that of the core.

❖ Either laser or LED is used as source for operating the system.

❖ It is most expensive; splicing can be done with some difficulty. It is used in telephone trunk between
the central offices.
Attenuation
The loss of strength suffered by optical signal when it propagates through the fiber is called attenuation
or fiber loss. As a result output power through an optical fiber is always less than that of input signal.
It is expressed in decibel/kilometer [db/km].
 The losses may be due to absorption, dispersion, scattering and bending of the fiber. Power
loss depends on wave length of light and also on length of propagation.

−10 𝑃
attenuation coefficient α = log⁡( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) dB/Km
𝐿 𝑖𝑛

is the expression for attenuation coefficient

Types of attenuation or fiber losses in optical fibers:
The loss of strength suffered by an optical signal when it propagates through the fiber is called
attenuation or fiber loss. As a result output power through an optical fiber is always less than that of
input signal
Attenuation is caused by three mechanisms; they are Absorption, Scattering and Radiation losses.
a] Absorption:. This arises due to absorption of photons associated with optical signal. These
absorption losses are of two types. They are intrinsic loss an extrinsic loss.
Intrinsic absorption:- The absorption of signal photons by basic core material itself is called
intrinsic loss. This arises due to the fact that molecules in the fiber absorb energy at certain wavelength.
Even a highly pure glass (core material) absorbs light energy (photons) in specific wavelength region.
Extrinsic absorption:- These are due to the absorption of light energy (photons) by the
impurities present in the fiber. Electrons on absorbing energy get excited to the higher energy states.
Later these electrons are deexcited into the lower energy levels by liberating energy in the form of heat.
The type of impurity atoms generally present in the fibers are such as transition metal ions such as
Iron, chromium, manganese, vanadium and manganese etc. The other impurity atoms which would
cause significant loss is the Hydroxyl ion (OH−) which enter into the fiber at the time of fabrication.
This indicates high purity silica glass required for communication.
These losses can be minimized by restricting metals ions content to less than few parts/billion
and OH impurity to less than few parts per million.
b] Scattering: There is structural inhomogeneity and imperfection present in the fiber which enters
into the fiber during fabrication of the fiber.

This leads to sharp variations in the refractive index of the material which are smaller than wavelength
of the signal. When signal travels in the fiber, the photons may get scattered by these smaller particles.
This type of scattering is same as “Rayleigh scattering” (occurs when a light wave travels through a
medium having scattering objects whose dimensions are smaller than wavelength of light).
The Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength [I α −4]
which means that light of smaller wavelengths are scattered to a larger extent. Due to Rayleigh
scattering, the photons moves in random direction and leave the fiber, thus leading to loss. Thus, loss
due to Rayleigh scattering can be minimized by using the signals having larger wavelengths. It is found
that Rayleigh scattering sets a lower limit on the wavelengths that can be transmitted by a fiber at 0.8
μm, below which the scattering loss is very high.
c] Radiation losses (Bending losses):
The radiation losses occur due to bending of optical fibers. Two types of bendings are observed in
optical fibers. They are macro bending and microbending of the fiber.
Macrobending:
Bending of the fiber having radii, more than radius of optical fiber is called Macrobending. These
bendings generally occur while turning the fiber around the corner or while wrapping the fiber. If the
bending is more than critical value, may result in the modification of the angle of incidence on the
core-cladding interface and hence signal fails to undergo TIR ; hence radiation loss takes place (see
Fig).

Microbending:
Microbending occur due to small scale fluctuations in the linearity of the fiber. The bendings are occur
due to nonuniformities in the manufacture of the fiber or by the lateral pressure or crushing force to
which the fiber might have subjected during cabling the fiber. At these bends light rays undergo
reflections and couple between various modes. As a result light leak out of the fiber. These losses can
be minimized by covering the fiber with compressible jacket (polyurethane jacket) over the fiber,
which can withstand the stresses and also by keeping the fiber straight.
Fiber Optics Communication System: (Point to Point Communication)
Fiber Optics Communication System: The transmission of signal through optical fibers which
involves conversion of electrical signal into optical signal using LED or semiconductor lasers at the
transmitting end and conversion of optical signal back to electrical signal using transducers at the
receiving end is called optical fiber communication.

Fig. Block diagram of point to point communication

Optical fiber communication system consists of Information signal source, transmitter, information
channel and receiver.
Information signal source: The signals available at the information source are either voice, music or
video signals and it is in analog form. In order to communicate through optical fiber the analog signals
are converted into electrical signals and then passed through the transmitter.
Transmitter: It is a modulator device which converts the electrical signal into digital pulse for
propagation. The modulator consists of a driver circuit which converts analog electrical signal into
digital pulses and the light source namely LED or LASER converts the digital pulses into optical
pulses. The optical pulses then focused into the optical fiber as shown in fig.
Optical fiber: The optical fiber is used as a transmission medium to propagate the received optical
signals to the other end using total internal reflection principle.
Receiver: It is a demodulator device used to receive the optical pulses from the optical fiber and then
convert them into electrical pulses. It consists of a photo detector, amplifier, and signal restorer. Photo
detector converts the digital optical pulses into electrical pulses. The electrical signals are then
amplified by the amplifier. The optical analog signal contains the same information available at the
information source. A single optical fiber is used to transmit several optical signals using a device
known as multiplexer.
Advantages of optical communication over metallic cables communication system:
1) Optical fibers can carry very large amount of information due to its large bandwidth.
2) The materials used for making optical fiber are SiO2/Plastic, both are available at low cost
compared to metallic cable.
3) The materials of optic fibers are dielectric in nature. So, they do not interference with
electromagnetic signal.
4) Fibers are much easier to transport because of their compactness and lightweight.
5) They easily adjust with electronic system.
6) In optical fibers there is no leakage of signal, where as in metallic cables there is leakage of
signal because electromagnetic signal interfere easily with other channels.
7) Lightning may cause disturbance in metallic cables where as signals passing through optic
fibers do not cause any damage.
8) It can be operated in high temperature range.
9) Direct tapping is not possible in optical fiber communication, where as in metallic cables
tapping is possible due to leakage of signal.
10) The fibers are free from corrosion caused by salt, pollutants, radiation, moisture etc.
11) It does not get affected by nuclear radiations.
12) In optical fibers signal can travel up to 80km without decreasing amplitude, where as in
metallic cable they can travel only upto 5km and hence amplifiers are required for every 0.5 to
1km.
Disadvantages of optical communication system :
1. The optical connectors used to connect two fibers are expensive.
2. Fibers undergo expansion and contraction with temperature that upset some critical alignments
which lead to loss in signal power.
3. Attenuation loss is large, when length of the fiber increases. Hence, amplifiers are required to
amplify the weak signal in long distance communication.
4. The bending will increase the loss of the signal. hence, the fiber should be laid straight.
Other Applications of Optical fibers :
a) Medical applications: Fibro scopes widely employed in endoscopic applications for
visualization of internal portions of human body.
b) Military applications: In aircrafts and ships, use of optical fibers in place of copper reduces
much weight.
c) Industrial applications: Optical fibers are used in fabrication of sensors to monitor various
physical quantities such as pressure, temperature, flow rate, current, etc.
 Fiber optic networking

Introduction:
Optical transmission system usually refers to a point-to-point optical link between a transmitter
and a receiver. Communication network is much more general. It is a communication among a
large number of users at many different locations and with various different types of services and
applications. There are many types in network (fig-1) and communication network is shared by
many end users (sender-receiver) as shown in fig-2, where lines connecting different nodes can be
cables, optical fibers, wavelengths channels etc. With the rapid increase of the number of users
and the types of applications, the complexity of networks increases exponentially. Fortunately
optical fibers introduction into communication networks has drastically increased the networking
capacity (compared to the use of copper wires).

Fig-1 Fig-2
Details:
An optical network is a type of data communication network built with optical fiber technology.
Optical fibers are used for passing (transmitting) data as light pulses between sender and receiver
nodes. Here an optical transmitter device is used to convert an electrical signal received from a
network node into light pulses, which are then placed on a fiber optic cable for transport to a
receiving device. An optical network is less prone to external inference and attenuation and can
achieve substantially higher bandwidth speeds. The block diagram is as follows

Components of a fiber-optical networking system include:

 Optical transmitter (Laser or LED)– to convert electrical signals into optical pulses
 Multi-mode or single-mode optical fiber – to carry optical signals
  Multiplexer- to receive multiple signal and combine them
 Demultiplexer – to receive single signal (input) and generate multiple signals (outputs)
 Optical switch - to direct light between ports without an optical-electrical-optical
conversion
 Optical splitter- to send a signal down different fiber paths (not shown in block diagram)
 Optical amplifier- to enhance the signal strength

And finally service providers have deployed more than 5 billion kilometers of optical fibers
so far– that’s enough cable to wrap the earth more than 120,000 times!!!
 QUANTUM MECHANICS
Wave- Particle dualism:
Albert Einstein’s analysis of the photoelectric effect in 1905 demonstrated that light
possessed particle like properties, and this was further confirmed with the discovery of the
Compton scattering in 1923. Later on, the diffraction of electrons would be predicted and
experimentally confirmed, thus showing that electrons must have wave-like properties in addition
to particle properties. The wave-particle duality is the concept that all matter and energy exhibits
both wave-like and particle-like properties. This duality addresses the inadequacy of classical
concepts like ‘particle’ and ‘wave’ in fully describing the behavior of small-scale objects. This
confusion over particle versus wave properties was eventually resolved with the advent and
establishment of quantum mechanics in the first half of the 20th century.

Wave – Particle Dualism (de-Broglie’s hypothesis):

1. The experiments on interference, diffraction and polarization in light infer that light
behaves as waves. While the Photoelectric effect infers that the light at the time of interaction show
that they behave as quanta (particle).
2. The X- rays through the process of diffraction show that they are waves, while the same
X-rays show that they are scattered as if they are particles following the law of conservation of
energy.
The above two examples clearly talk of duality of electromagnetic radiation.
De-Broglie in his study, assuming that what is true with energy (X- ray/light) is also true
with matter, as they are interchangeable according to Einstein’s theory of relativity, put forward an
hypothesis stating that “ Since nature loves symmetry, if the radiation behaves as particle
under certain circumstances, then one can even expect that entities which ordinarily behaves
as particles to exhibit properties attributable to only waves under appropriate
circumstances”. This hypothesis is known as de-Broglie hypothesis.
De- Broglie proposed that the wave length λ associated with a particle of momentum p is given as
λ = h/p
Where h is Planck’s constant and p is momentum of the particle/ wave. λ is the wave length, known
as de-Broglie wavelength.
Derivation de-Broglie wavelength by Analogy :
De-Broglie developed a theory in terms of light quanta (Photon). According to this theory,
Light considered as a wave of frequency ν and its energy is given by E = hν ……(1) and
Light considered as a particle of mass m, its energy is given by E = mc2………(2)
Where ‘c’ is the velocity of the electromagnetic radiation in free space.
From equations (1) and (2)
mc2 = hν
but ν = c/λ
so mc2 = hc/λ
mc = h/λ
mc is the product of mass and velocity
⸫ mc = p (momentum)
p=mc= h/λ
for a particle of mass ‘m’, moving with a velocity ‘v’ the momentum ‘p’ is given by
p=mv= h/λ
λ = h/p
λ is called as the de-Broglie wavelength.

de-Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron:

Consider an electron (mass m, charge e) accelerated from rest through a potential V. The
kinetic energy K of the electron equals the work done (eV ) on it by the electric field
E=eV ------ (1)
1
We know that kinetic energy of electron is K = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

Expressing the kinetic energy in terms of linear momentum p (= mv), we rewrite the above
equation as
𝑝2
K= ----- (2)
2𝑚

From eq.s (1)&(2)

P = 2mE

P= 2meV

According to De-Broglie
ℎ
λ=
𝑝
ℎ
λ=
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
Substituting the constant values of h = 6.626 × 10−34 Js, m = 9.11 × 10−31 kg and e = 1.602 × 10−19
C
1.226 𝑋 10−9
We get λ= m.
V
1.226
λ= nm.
√𝑉

Where, V is the magnitude of accelerating potential in volts.

Various forms of de-Broglie wavelength:
1. λ = h/p
ℎ
2. If a particle is having an energy E, then its de-Broglie wavelength is given by λ =
√2𝑚𝐸

3. If an electron is accelerated through a potential difference of ‘V’ Volts then the de-Broglie
ℎ
wavelength is given by λ =
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉

Wave packet : when a group of two or more waves differing slightly in wavelengths are
superimposed on each other a resultant
pattern emerges in the shape of variation in
amplitude. Such variation represents the wave
group as a whole and is called the “wave
Packet”.
“Wave packet is the resultant wave formed due to the superimposition of two or more waves
with slightly different wavelengths”.
Group Velocity : The velocity with which the wavepcket propagates is called Group velocity. It
is the velocity with which the energy transmission occurs in a wave.
Group velocity = dω / dk
Wave velocity :
The wave velocity is defined as the velocity associated with the disturbance propagating in the
given medium. The wave velocity depends upon the nature of the medium used.
Wave velocity is given by v = ω/k ……..(1)
Where,
ω - The angular velocity

k - the angular wavenumber or propagation constant

We know that,

The value of the angular velocity = ω = 2πν;

where ν- Frequency of the wave
The value of the wavenumber = k = 2π/λ;
where λ- The wavelength
Substituting these value in equation (1) we get,

V = 2πν/2π/λ=λν
Therefore, we have,

V = λν…….(2)
Where,

λ- The wavelength
ν- Frequency of the wave
Equation (2) is known as the equation of wave velocity.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

“In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of a particle , the
product of the corresponding uncertainities inherently present in the measurement is
greater than or equal to h/4π”.

Simultaneous measurement of both the position and momentum (two conjugate variables)
of a particle cannot be done with arbitrarily high precision. If one tries to measure the position of a
particle precisely there is an imprecision (uncertainty) in the measurement of momentum and vice
versa even with sophisticated instruments and technique, it arises from the wave properties inherent
in the quantum mechanical description of nature i.e. the uncertainty is inherent in the nature of
things.

The uncertainty relations may be expressed as.

ΔxΔp ≥ h/4π
ΔEΔt ≥ h/4π
ΔLΔθ ≥ h/4π

Where,
1 Δx is the uncertainty of the position measurement.
2 Δp is the uncertainty of the momentum
3 ΔE is the uncertainty in the energy measurement.
4 Δt is the uncertainty in the time measurement.
5 ΔL is the uncertainty in the angular momentum measurement
6 ΔӨ is the uncertainty in the angle measurement .
 If we measure the position of a moving atomic particle with a great accuracy that is Δx is very
small almost tending to zero then, what happens to the measurement of the momentum Δp,
which we measure at the same instant.
From the equation
Δp > h / 4 π Δx
we can see that the uncertainty in the momentum measurement, Δp is very large, that is it
approaches infinity since Δx in the denominator is very small.
Physical significance: The physical significance of the above statement is that one should not
think of the exact position, or an accurate value for momentum of a particle. Instead one should
think of the probability of finding the particle at a certain position, or of the probable value for the
momentum of the particle.
Application of Uncertainty Principle - Proof of Non-existence of free electron in the nucleus:

The diameter of nucleus of any atom is of the order of 10-14 m. If any electron is confined
within the nucleus then the uncertainty in its position (Δx) must not be greater than 10-14m.
According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,
ΔxΔp ≥ h/4π
the uncertainty in momentum is Δp > h / 4π Δx, where Δx = 10-14m
6.63 𝑥 10−34
Δp ≥
4 𝑥 3.14 𝑥 10−14

Δp > 0.5x10-20 Ns.

This is the uncertainty in the momentum of electron and then the momentum of the electron
must be in the same order of magnitude. We know that the mass of the electron is m = 9.1 x 10-31
kg.
If the electron has to exist in the nucleus then its energy must be

𝑝2 (0.5𝑋 10−20 )2
E= ≥
2𝑚 2 𝑋 9.1 𝑋 10 −31

E ≥ 1.372 x 10-11 J
Expressing in eV, we get
E > 85 MeV

The above value for the kinetic energy indicates that if an electron has to exist within the
nucleus it must have energy equal to or greater than 85 MeV. But the experimental results on β
decay show that the maximum kinetic energy an electron can have, when it is confined within the
nucleus is of the order of 3 - 4 MeV. Therefore, the electrons cannot exist within the nucleus.
Principle of Complementarity: The complementarity principle holds that objects have certain
pairs of complementary properties which cannot all be observed or measured simultaneously. An
example of such a pair is position and momentum.
“The inability to observe the wave nature and the particle nature of the matter simultaneously is
known as the complementarity principle.”
Now suppose that an experiment is constructed in such a way that it is designed to measure the
particle nature of the matter. This implies that, during this experiment, errors of measurement of
both position and the time coordinates must be zero or absent, this in turns explains that the
momentum, energy and the wave nature of the matter are completely unknown. Similarly, if an
experiment is designed for measuring the wave nature of the particle, then the errors in the
measurement of the energy and the momentum will be zero, whereas the position and the time
coordinates of the matter will be completely unknown.
From the above explanation, we can conclude that, when the particle nature of the matter is
measured or displayed, the wave nature of the matter is necessarily suppressed and vice versa.
What Bohr explained or Bohr exact words were “In a situation where the wave aspect of a system
is revealed, its particle aspect is concealed; and, in a situation where the particle aspect is revealed,
its wave aspect is concealed. Revealing both simultaneously is impossible; the wave and particle
aspects are complementary.”

Wave function
In quantum mechanics, because of the wave-particle duality, the properties of the particle
can be described as a wave. Therefore, its quantum state can be represented as a wave of arbitrary
shape and extending over all of space. This is called a wave function.
The wave function is usually complex and is represented by Ѱ.
Ѱ = Aei(kx - ωt)
Since the wave function is complex, its direct measurement in any physical experiment is
not possible. It is just mathematical function of x, t etc. Once the wave function corresponding to
a system is known, the state of the system can be determined. The physical state of system is
completely characterized by a wave function.

Time Independent Schrodinger wave equation:

In quantum mechanics, the Schrodinger equation is an equation that describes how the
quantum state of a physical system changes in time. It is as central to quantum mechanics as
Newton’s laws are to classical mechanics. The equation is named after Erwin Schrodinger, who
discovered it in 1926.
Let us consider a particle having a mass ‘m’ associated with a de-Broglie wave of wave
length ‘λ’ and moving with a group velocity ‘v’ then λ = h/mv. Let this wave equation be a
stationary wave that is time independent type then the wave function associated with this wave ψ
can be written as
Ѱ = Aei(kx - ωt) …………..(1)
here ψ is the total wavefunction.
Let the space dependent part is ѱ= Aeikx
Ѱ = ѱ e-i ωt
differentiating Ѱ twice , with respect to x then
d2 Ѱ d2 ѱ
= e−iωt ...............(2)
dx2 dx2

Again differentiating Ѱ twice , with respect to time then

d2 Ѱ
= −ω2 e−iωt ѱ ……………(3)
dt2

The travelling wave equation is given by

d2 y 1 d2 y
=
dx2 𝑣 2 dt2

Y is the displacement and v is the velocity of the wave. By analogy the wave equation
for de-Broglie wave can be written as
d2 Ѱ 1 d2 Ѱ
= ………….(4)
dx2 𝑣 2 dt2

Substituting equation (2) and (3) in equation (4), we get

d2 ѱ 1
e−iωt = −ω2 e−iωt ѱ
dx2 𝑣2
d2 ѱ ω2
= − ѱ
dx2 𝑣2

We know that ω = 2πν and v = νλ

Substituting these values in the above equation we get,
d2 ѱ 4π2
= − ѱ
dx2 λ2
1 −1 d2 ѱ
= ……………(5)
λ2 4π2 ѱ dx2

For a particle of mass m , moving with velocity v,

1 𝑝2
Its kinetic energy = 𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 2𝑚

But p = h/λ , then

ℎ2 1
Kinetic energy = …………….(6)
2𝑚 λ2
1
Substituting equation (5) in equation (6) for , equation (6) becomes
λ2
−ℎ 2 1 d2 ѱ
Kinetic energy = …………..(7)
8π2 m ѱ dx2
Let the particle be in a field, and its potential energy is V, then total energy of the particle is
E = kinetic energy + potential energy
−ℎ 2 1 d2 ѱ
E= +𝑉
8π2 m ѱ dx2

−ℎ2 1 d2 ѱ
=𝐸−𝑉
8π2 m ѱ dx 2
d2 ѱ −8π2 m
= (𝐸 − 𝑉)ѱ
dx 2 ℎ2
d2 ѱ 8π2 m
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉)ѱ = 0
dx2 ℎ2

This the time-independent Schrodinger’s equation in one – dimension.

−𝒉𝟐 𝐝𝟐 ѱ 𝐝𝟐 ѱ 𝐝𝟐 ѱ
( + + ) + 𝑽(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)ѱ = 𝑬ѱ
𝟖𝛑𝟐 𝐦 𝐝𝐱 𝟐 𝐝𝐲 𝟐 𝐝𝐳 𝟐
This the time-independent Schrodinger’s equation in three – dimension.

Physical significance of a wave function:

Probability density: The wave function contains information about the system it represents. Even
though the wave function itself is not directly an observable quantity, the square of the absolute
value of the wave function gives the probability of finding the particle at a given space and time.
This probabilistic interpretation of
Wave function was given by Max Born in 1926.
If Ѱ is the wave function associated with a particle, the | Ѱ|2 is the probability per unit volume that
the particle will be found at the given point.
The probability density is given by | Ѱ|2 = Ѱ. Ѱ* (Ѱ* is the complex conjugate of Ѱ)
For a particle restricted to move only long x- axis, the probability of finding it between x1 and x2
is given by
x2
∫ | Ѱ|2 dx
x1

Normalization:
In obtaining the Eigen functions from equation of motion associated with a de-Broglie

wave involves the process of integration such that the  ψ* ψ dτ = 1 for an existing particle that


is the constants have to adjusted in such a manner. This process is known as process of
Normalization of a wave function.
Since the probability of finding a particle anywhere in a given volume must be one, we have
 +∞
∫−∞ | Ѱ|2 dτ =1
This condition is known as normalization.

Expectation value : The expectation value is the probabilistic expected value of the result
(measurement) of an experiment. It can be thought of as an average of all the possible outcomes of
a measurement as weighted by their likelihood, and as such it is not the most probable value of a
measurement; indeed the expectation value may have zero probability of occurring.
A is a self-adjoint operator on a Hilbert space. In the most commonly used case in quantum
mechanics, σ is a pure state, described by a normalized vector ψ in the Hilbert space. The
expectation value of ’A’ in the state ψ is defined as
<A>ψ= <ψ|A|ψ>

Properties of a wave function:

A wave function has the following characteristics.

1. Ѱ must be single-valued everywhere.
2. Ѱ is finite everywhere.
3. Ѱ and its first derivatives with respect to its variable are continuous everywhere.

Eigen functions:

Eigen functions are the wave functions which possess the properties that they are single
valued and finite everywhere, and also their first derivatives with respect to their variables are
continuous everywhere. (or) Eigen functions are those functions such that, an operator operating
on it produces back the same wave function multiplied by a constant.
Eigen Values :
When an operator is operated on a eigen function it returns the same function multiplied by
a constant and such values are called as eigen values.
Application of Schrödinger wave equation:
Particle inside a potential well of infinite height:Let
us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ inside a potential well
of width ‘a’ moving along x-direction. The potential
inside the box can be considered as zero and outside the
well potential is infinity. Inside the well (V=0), the
Schrodinger wave equation can be written as
𝐝𝟐 𝛙 𝟖𝛑𝟐 𝐦
+ (𝐸 )𝛙 = 𝟎 …………………(1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

𝐝𝟐 𝛙 𝟖𝛑𝟐 𝐦
=− (𝐸 )𝛙
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
−ℎ2 d2 ѱ
= 𝐸ѱ
8π2 m dx 2
Hѱ = Eѱ
𝟖𝛑𝟐 𝐦
Let 𝐸 = K2 ……………(2)
ℎ2

Thus equation (1) can be

𝐝𝟐 𝛙
+ K2 ѱ = 0…………..(3)
𝑑𝑥 2

The general solution of the above equation can be written as

Ψ = C Cos (kx) + D Sin (kx) ……………. (4)
Applying the boundary conditions to the equation (4)
Using these boundary conditions in the solution of the wave function can be written as
1. at x = 0, ψ = 0
i.e. 0 = C Cos0 + D Sin0
Then, C = 0 Therefore ψ = D Sin (kx) ……………….(5)
2. at x = a, ψ = 0
i.e. 0 = D Sin (ka) (Since C=0) or D Sin(ka) = 0,

𝑛𝜋
Therefore ψ = D Sin ( )x ……………..(6)
𝑎

Substitute the ‘k‘ value in equation (2)

𝟖𝛑𝟐 𝐦 𝐧𝟐 𝛑𝟐
𝐸=
ℎ2 𝑎2
𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐
𝐸= ,
8𝑚𝑎 2

n = 1 represents ground state and the corresponding energy is called ground state energy or zero
point energy.
𝐡𝟐
Ground state energy E0 =
8𝑚𝑎 2
 4𝐡𝟐
n = 2 represents First excited state, and first excited state energy E1= = 4 E0
8𝑚𝑎 2
9𝐡𝟐
n = 3 represents second excited state, and second excited state energy E2= = 9 E0
8𝑚𝑎 2

Normalization Process:
+∞
This wave function ‘ψ’ has to satisfy the condition that ∫−∞ | Ѱ|2 dτ =1
Thus using the boundary conditions, we can write
+∞ 𝑛𝜋
∫−∞ 𝐷 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 ( 𝑎 ) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1

W.K.T Sin2θ = (1-Cos2θ)/2

𝐷2 𝑎 𝐷2 𝑎 𝑛𝜋
Then ( ) [ ∫0 𝑑𝑥 d] - ( ) [∫0 Cos 2 ( ) x dx] = 1
2 2 𝑎
𝑎
D2 ( ) = 1
2

2
D=√
𝑎

2 𝑛𝜋
ψn = √ Sin( )x ------------ (7)
𝑎 𝑎

Eigen functions, probability densities and Energy Eigen values:

𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐
The energy Eigen value of a particle in a potential well of infinite height is given as 𝑬 =
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐

𝟐 𝒏𝝅
The Eigen function is given as ψn = √ Sin( )x
𝒂 𝒂

The probability of location and energy values varies in various allowed energy levels as given
below.
1) n = 1 is the lowest energy state and is termed as ground state and the corresponding energy
𝐡𝟐
is called as Zero point energy and given as E0 =
8𝑚𝑎 2

𝟐 𝝅
the Eigen function for ground state is ψ = √ Sin( )x, wave function ψ =0, at x=0 and x=a
𝒂 𝒂

and maximum at x = a/2

 the probability density | Ѱ|2 is maximum at x=a/2 and zero at the walls(x=0, x=a) as shown

in fig1.

2) n = 2 is the first excited state and the energy in this state is given as E 1 = 4.
𝟐 𝟐𝝅
the Eigen function for first excited state is ψ = √ Sin( )x, wave function ψ =0, at x=0,
𝒂 𝒂

x=a and
x = a/2 and maximum at x=a/4 and x=3a/4
The probability density | Ѱ|2 is maximum at x=a/4 ,3a/4 and zero at the walls(x=0, x=a) and
at a/2 as shown in fig2.
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Introduction to Quantum Computing : A quantum computer is a machine that performs
calculations based on the laws of quantum mechanics, which is the behavior of particles at the
sub-atomic level.
Quantum computing is based on two features namely Superposition and Entanglement.
Superposition : It is the ability of a quantum system to exist in more than one state at the
same time. It is associated with quantum systems, i.e., small objects such as nuclei, electrons,
elementary particles, and photons, for which wave-particle duality and other non-classical
effects are observed.
Entanglement : It is the ability of a pair to exist in a single quantum state. Quantum
entanglement is a physical phenomenon that occurs when multiple qubits are correlated with
each other.
Moore’s law: it states that roughly every two years, the number of transistors on microchips
will double. The law claims that for every two years the speed and capability of computers
will increase and the cost is halved. It also implies that the computers, machines using
computers become smaller, faster and cheaper with time.
End of Moore’s law :
Moores law is said to be
breaking down, according
to theoretical physicist
Michio Kaku.
Engineers are unable to
keep pushing the limit on
smaller transistors, and
thus, computer systems
may have reached their
limit in transistor capacity
and power. Hence, industry leaders are asserting that Moore’s Law has come to an end, and
computers will no longer have many more transistors every year.
One of the major concerns associated with the end of Moore's Law is the fact that more
computing resources and power is necessary for the continued evolution of advanced
technologies, such as advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI), self driving cars, IoT (Internet of
Things) technology, and more robust cloud systems.
1
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Dr. Krishna Reddy B V SVCE, Bangalore – 57.

Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Differences between Classical Computing and Quantum Computing:

Classical Computing Quantum Computing
1. It is based on the classical phenomenon of 1. It is based on the phenomenon of
electrical circuits being in a single state at a Quantum Mechanics, such as superposition
given time, either on or off. and entanglement, the phenomenon where it
is possible to be in more than one state at a
time.
2. Information storage and manipulation is 2. Information storage and manipulation is
based on “bit”. based on Quantum Bit or “qubit”.
3. The circuit behavior is governed by 3. The circuit behavior is governed by
classical physics. quantum physics or quantum mechanics.
4. It uses binary codes i.e. bits 0 or 1 to 4. Quantum computing use Qubits i.e. 0, 1
represent information. and superposition state of both 0 and 1 to
represent information.
5. CMOS transistors are the basic building 5. SQUID or Quantum Transistors are the
blocks of conventional computers. basic building blocks of quantum
computers.
6. In conventional computers, data 6. In quantum computers, data processing is
processing is done in Central Processing done in Quantum Processing Unit or QPU,
Unit or CPU. which consists of a number of
interconnected qubits.

Qubit: In quantum computing, a qubit or quantum bit is a basic unit of quantum information.
A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in any one of the two states denoted by |0>
and |1>. A single bit of this form is known as qubit. |0> and |1> are called as the basis or basis
vectors.
A qubit |q> can be represented as a linear combination of |0> and |1> as shown below. This is
the superposition of |0> and |1>.
|q> = α|0> + β|1>
Here α and β are complex numbers and are amplitudes of |0> and |1>.
α2 + β2 = 1
Properties of qubits: qubits can present superposition entanglement properties .
Superposition : It is the ability of a quantum system to exist in more than one state at the
same time. It is associated with quantum systems, i.e., small objects such as nuclei, electrons,
elementary particles, and photons, for which wave-particle duality and other non-classical
effects are observed.
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Dr. Krishna Reddy B V SVCE, Bangalore – 57.

Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Entanglement : It is the ability of a pair to exist in a single quantum state. Quantum

entanglement is a physical phenomenon that occurs when multiple qubits are correlated with
each other.
Quantum Interference: It is the behavior of a qubit due to superposition to influence the
probability of it collapsing in one way or the other. Quantum computers are designed and built
to reduce interference as much as possible and ensure the most accurate results.
Geometrical representation of qubit: The state of a qubit can be represented in Bloch
sphere. It is a sphere of unit radius and is represented by
|Ψ> = Cos(θ/2)|0> + eiφSin(θ/2)|1>
1. For φ = 0 and θ = 0 the state |Ψ> corresponds to |0> and
along positive Z axis.
2. For φ = 0 and θ = 1800 the state |Ψ> corresponds to |1>
and along negative Z axis.
3. For φ = 900 and θ = 900 the state |Ψ> corresponds to a
1
superposition state (|0> + i|1>) and along positive Y
√2
axis.
4. For φ = - 900 and θ = 900 the state |Ψ> corresponds to a superposition state
1
(|0> - i|1>) and along negative Y axis.
√2
1
5. For φ = 00 and θ = 900 the state |Ψ> corresponds to a superposition state (|0> + |1>)
√2
and along positive X axis.
1
6. For φ = 00 and θ = - 900 the state |Ψ> corresponds to a superposition state (|0> - |1>)
√2
and along negative X axis.
A single-qubit has two computational basis states. In the z-basis these are ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩.
A two-qubit system has 4 computational basis states denoted as ∣00⟩, ∣01⟩, ∣10⟩, ∣11⟩.
A multi-qubit system of N qubits has 2N computational basis states denoted
as ∣00...00⟩, ∣00⋯01⟩, ∣00⋯10⟩ ... ∣11⋯11⟩.
A qubit |q> can be represented as the superposition of |0> and |1>.
|q> = α|0> + β|1>
1 0
In matrix form the states |0> and |1> can be represented as |0> = ( ) and |1> = ( )
0 1
Representation of wave function in vector notation: State of a system can be represented
by certain vectors called Ket vectors or Bra vectors. Ket vector is denoted by the symbol | >
3

and bra vector is denoted by the symbol < | . Bra vector is the conjugate of ket vector.
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Eg : If ‘q’ is the state of a system then in ket vector it is represented as |q> and in bra vector
it is represented as < q|.
let |a> and |b> are two kets , then their linear combination |q> = C1|a> + C2|b> is also a ket
vector.
The Conjugate of ket vector |q> = C1|a> + C2|b> is a bra vector and is represented as
<q|= C1*<a|+C2*<b|
where the C1* and C2* are the conjugates of C1 and C2 .
if |Ψ1> and |Ψ2> are the two state vectors then their scalar product can be written as
+∞
< Ψ1|Ψ2> = ∫−∞ 1*(x)2(x)𝒅𝒙 . here 1*(x) is the conjugate transpose of 1.

Identity operator: It is an operator which leaves the function unchanged after operation.
i.e I |a> = |a>
1 0
In matrix representation it is written as I = ( )
0 1
It satisfies the condition UU* = U*U = I,
Here U* is the conjugate transpose of U.
Determination of I|0> and I|1> :
1 0 1 0
We know that in matrix form I = ( ) , |0> = ( ) and |1> = ( ) then
0 1 0 1
1 0 1
I|0> = ( )( )
0 1 0
1 0
=( )=I
0 1
1 0 0
lly I|1> = ( )( )
0 1 1
1 0
=( )=I
0 1
⸫ I|0> = I|1> = I
Pauli Matrices : These are set of 3, 2x2 matrices, which are unitary and Hermitian.
Hermitian means the conjugate transpose of a matrix itself is that matrix.
These represented as mentioned below.
4

0 1 0 −𝑖 1 0
σx = ( ) σy = ( ) σz = ( ).
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

And it can be proved that σx2 = σy2 = σz2 = I

Operation of Pauli matrices on 0 and 1 states:
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
When the Pauli –X matrix is operated on |0> ( )( ) = ( )
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
When the Pauli –X matrix is operated on |1> ( )( ) = ( )
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 −𝒊 𝟏 𝟎
When the Pauli –Y matrix is operated on |0> ( )( ) = ( )
𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝒊
𝟎 −𝒊 𝟎 −𝒊
When the Pauli –Y matrix is operated on |1> ( )( ) = ( )
𝒊 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
When the Pauli –Z matrix is operated on |0> ( )( ) = ( )
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
When the Pauli –Z matrix is operated on |1> ( )( ) = ( )
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
Conjugate and Transpose of a matrix : The conjugate of a matrix can be obtained by
replacing each element of the matrix by its complex conjugate .
𝟐+𝒊 −𝒊
Eg : If a matrix given by A = ( )
𝒊 𝟏
The conjugate of A can be found as mentioned below.
Conjugate of the element 2 + i is 2 – i
Conjugate of – i is +i
Conjugate of i is – i
Conjugate of 1 is 1
𝟐−𝒊 𝒊
⸫ The conjugate of A is Ᾱ = ( )
−𝒊 𝟏
The transpose of a matrix is found by interchanging its rows into columns or columns into
rows. The transpose of the matrix is denoted by using the letter “T” in the superscript of
the given matrix. For example, if “A” is the given matrix, then the transpose of the matrix is
represented by A' or AT.
𝟐+𝒊 −𝒊
Eg : If a matrix A = ( ) then its Transpose matrix can be written as
𝒊 𝟏
𝟐+𝒊 𝒊
AT = ( )
−𝒊 𝟏
Unitary Matrix : It’s a complex matrix, the product of it and its conjugate transpose matrix
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is identity matrix.
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

UU* = U*U = I
1 𝟐 −𝟐 + 𝒊
Eg : let U = ( )
3 𝟐+𝒊 𝟐
1 𝟐 𝟐−𝒊
Its conjugate transpose U* = ( )
3 −𝟐 − 𝒊 𝟐
1 𝟐 −𝟐 + 𝒊 1 𝟐 𝟐−𝒊
⸫ UU* = ( ) ( )
3 𝟐+𝒊 𝟐 3 −𝟐 − 𝒊 𝟐
1 𝟗 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
= ( )=( )
9 𝟎 𝟗 𝟎 𝟏
=I
lly U*U = I
So U is a Unitary matrix.
Representation of Row and Column Matrices: A row matrix is a type of matrix that has
a single row. But the number of columns could be more than one. Therefore, if the matrix is
in the order of 1 x n, then it is a row matrix. The elements are arranged in an order such that
they represent a single row in the matrix.

Eg : (𝒖𝟏 𝒖𝟐 𝒖𝟑 … … . 𝒖𝒏)
A column matrix is a type of matrix that has only one column. The order of the column
matrix is represented by m x 1, thus the rows will have single elements, arranged in a way that
they represent a column of elements.
𝑣1
𝑣2
𝑣3
Eg:V =
.
.
(𝑣𝑛 )
𝑢1
𝑢2
𝑢3
Let U = , UT = (𝒖𝟏 𝒖𝟐 𝒖𝟑 … … . 𝒖𝒏)
.
.
(𝑢𝑛 )
The inner product of these two matrices is given as
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing
𝑣1
𝑣2
𝑣3
UTV = (𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 … … . 𝑢𝑛) = u1v1 +u2v2+u3v3+….unvn
.
.
(𝑣𝑛)
UTV =<U|V> = ∑ni=1 UiT Vi
Inner Product: It is the scalar product or dot product between two vectors.

The scalar product of two state vectors |1> and |2> is

+∞
< 1 | 2> = ∫−∞ 1*(x)2(x)𝒅𝒙

If the scalar product of the two vectors is zero then the two vectors are orthogonal and the
property is called orthogonality.
+∞
< 1 | 2> = ∫−∞ 1*(x)2(x)𝒅𝒙 = 0

If the scalar product of a vector with itself is unity then then it is said to be normalized and
the property is called Normalization.
+∞
< 1 | 1> = ∫−∞ 1*(x)1(x)𝒅𝒙 = 1

A set of vectors is called orthonormal when every vector is normalized to 1 and for every 2
different vectors their inner product is 0.
Quantum Gates: Quantum Gates are similar to classical gates, but do not have a degenerate
output. i.e. their original input state can be derived from their output state, uniquely. They
must be reversible.

There are quantum gates like single qubit, multi qubit quantum gates.
Single Qubit Quantum gates : Quantum Not Gate, Pauli – X, Y and Z Gates, Hadamard Gate,
Phase Gate (or S Gate), T Gate.
Quantum NOT gate : It transforms the |0> to |1> and |1> to |0>.
Incase of superposition state α|0>+β|1> to α|1>+β|0>, the roles of ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩ are
interchanged.
0 1
In the Matrix form the NOT gate represented as X = ( )
1 0
α
In the vector notation if α|0>+β|1> is written as (β) , output from the quantum NOT gate is

α 0 1 α β
X(β) = ( ) (β) = ( )
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1 0 α
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

= α|1>+β|0>

α|0>+β|1>
X α|1>+β|0>
Truth Table:
Input Output
|0> |1>
|1> |0>
α|0>+β|1> α|1>+β|0>
Pauli’s X – Gate : This is similar to NOT gate.
0 1
The gate is defined as X =( )
1 0
It changes the |0> to |1> and |1> to |0> which acts as a NOT gate.
X|0> = |1> and X |1> = |0> or
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
( ) ( ) =( ) , ( ) ( ) =( )
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
The state α|0>+β|1> is transformed to α|1>+β|0>

α|0>+β|1> Pauli - α|1>+β|0>

X
Truth Table:

Input Output
|0> |1>
|1> |0>
α|0>+β|1> α|1>+β|0>

Pauli’s Y – Gate :
0 −𝑖
The gate is defined as Y =( )
𝑖 0
1 0 0 −𝑖
It changes the ( ) to ( ) and ( ) to ( )
0 𝑖 1 0
0 −𝑖
Y|0> = ( ) and Y |1> = ( ) or
𝑖 0
8

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 −𝑖
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( ) ( ) =( ), ( ) ( ) =( )
1 0 0 𝑖 1 0 1 0
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

The state α|0>+β|1> is transformed to -iβ|0> + iα|1>

α|0>+β|1> Pauli - -iβ|0> + iα|1>

Y
Truth Table:
Input Output
|0> i i|1>|1>
|1> -i|0>
α|0>+β|1> -iβ|0> + iα|1>

Pauli’s – Z gate :
1 0
 The gate is defined as Z =( )
0 −1
1 0 0
 It unchanges the ( ) and ( ) changes to ( )
0 1 −1
 Z|0> = |0> and Z|1> = -|1>
1 0
 Z|0> = ( ) and Z|1> = ( ) or
0 −1
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
 ( ) ( ) =( ) , ( ) ( ) =( )
0 −1 0 0 0 −1 1 −1
The state α|0>+β|1> is transformed to α|0> - β|1>.

α|0>+β|1> Pauli - α|0> - β|1>

Z

Truth Table:

Input Output
|0> |0>|1>
|1> -|1>
α|0>+β|1> α|0> - β|1>
Hadamard Gate :
 Simplest gate involves one qubit and also known as a square-root of NOT gate. Used
to put qubits into superposition.
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

1 1 1
 𝐻= ( )
√2 1 −1
(|0>+|1>) (|0>-|1>)
 It transforms |0> to = and |1> to
√2 √2

 The state α|0>+β|1> will transformed as

1 1 1 α 1 α+β
( ) (β) = ( )
√2 1 −1 √2 α-β

α+β
H
1
α|0>+β|1> ( )
√2 α-β

Truth Table:
Input Output
|0> (|0>+|1>)
√2
1>
|1> (|0>-|1>)
√2
α|0>+β|1> 1 α+β
( )
√2 α-β

Two Hadamard gates used in succession can be used as a NOT gate.

H H
State State State
|0> |0> + |1> |1>
H = (X+Z)/√2 is the relation between Hadamard gate and Pauli Gates.
Phase Gate(S-gate):
1 0
 It is represented as ( ).
0 𝑖
 When it is operated on |0> the output is |0> only.
1 0 1 0 1 1
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 ( ) |0> = ( ) ( ) = ( ) = |0>
0 𝑖 0 𝑖 0 0
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

 When it is operated on |1> the output is i|1> only.

1 0 1 0 0 0
 ( ) |1> = ( ) ( ) = ( ) = i|1>
0 𝑖 0 𝑖 1 𝑖
 When it is operated on α|0>+β|1> the output is
1 0 1 0 α α
 ( ) α|0>+β|1> = ( ) (β) = (iβ) = α|0>+iβ|1>
0 𝑖 0 𝑖

Truth Table:
α|0>+β|1>
S α|0> +iβ|1>

Input Output
|0> |0>|1>
|1> i|1>
α|0>+β|1> α|0>+iβ|1>
T – Gate:
1 0
 It is represented as T = ( (𝑖𝜋/4) ).
0 𝑒
𝜋
 Also called as 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠
8

exp(-𝑖𝜋/8) 0
 T = exp(𝑖𝜋/8) ( )
0 exp(𝑖𝜋/8)
 When it is operated on |0> the output is |0> only.
1 0 1 0 1 1
 ( (𝑖𝜋/4) )|0> =( (𝑖𝜋/4) ) ( ) = ( ) = |0>
0 𝑒 0 𝑒 0 0
 When it is operated on |1> the output is exp(𝑖𝜋/4)|1>.
1 0 1 0 0 0
 ( (𝑖𝜋/4) )|1> =( (𝑖𝜋/4) ) ( ) = ( (𝑖𝜋/4) ) = 𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4)|1>
0 𝑒 0 𝑒 1 𝑒
 When it is operated on α|0>+β|1> the output is
1 0 1 0 α α (𝑖𝜋/4)
(
0 𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4) )α|0>+β|1> = (
0 𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4) ) ( β ) = ( 𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4)
β) = α|0>+𝑒 β|1>

α|0>+β|1>
T α|0>+𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4)β|1>
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Truth Table:
Input Output
|0> |0>|1>
|1> exp(𝑖𝜋/4)|1>
α|0>+β|1> α|0>+𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4)β|1>

Controlled Gate: The gate which has two input qubits namely control and target.
 If the control qubit is 0, then the target qubit is not altered.
 If the control qubit is 1, then the target qubit is transformed.
 The control qubit remains unaltered in both the cases.
Control |0> |0>

Target |1> |1>

Control |1> |1>

Target |0> |1>

|1> |0>

Truth Table:

Input Output
|00> |00>
|01> |01>
|10> |11>
|11> |10>

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
Matrix form : ( )
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
Controlled Not gate : This is similar to Controlled gate . A gate which operates on two
qubits.
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

The CN gate has a similar behavior to the XOR gate with some extra information to make it
reversible.
Control |0> |0>

Target |1> |1>

Control |1> |1>

Target |0> |1>

|1> |0>

Truth Table:
Input Output
|00> |00>
|01> |01>
|10> |11>
|11> |10>
The action of C NOT gate can be written as

1 0 0 0 |00> |00>
0 1 0 0 |01> |01>
( ) =
0 0 0 1 |10> |11>
0 0 1 0 ( |11> ) ( |10> )
Swap Gate : simple quantum circuit containing three quantum gates. It is read from left to
right. It swaps the inputs and gives as output.

In the Matrix form

1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
U swap= ( )
0 1 0 0
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0 0 0 1
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Controlled Z gate : another example of controlled gate. If ‘A’ is true then do ‘B’.
In matrix form
1 0 0 0
UZ=(
0 1 0 0
) Z
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −1
Truth Table:

Input Output
|00> |00>
|01> |01>
|10> |10>
|11> -|11>
Toffoli Gate : it is a reversible gate, having three inputs (a,b,c) and three outputs (a’,b’,c’). In
the inputs first two bits(a,b) are control bits. Third bit (c) is target bit. ‘C’ is inverted when
both ‘a’ and ‘b’ are 1 otherwise unaffected.

a a
b b
Truth Table :
c c
a b c a’ b’ c’
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Matrix form of Toffoli Gate:

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
U T=
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
(𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎)

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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Electrical Conductivity in Metals
MODULE – 4
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS
Concept of Phonon:

The concept of phonon was introduced by soviet physicist Igor Tamm in 1932. The word
phonon was derived from the Greek word phone, which refers to the meaning of sound or
voice because long-wavelength phonons result in the production of sound. In analogy with
the quantum energy, photon, in the electromagnetic field, the name phonon was suggested
for the quantum lattice vibrational energy by Frenkel in 1935.
What is Phonon?
 Solid crystal consists of atoms bound into a specific repeating three-dimensional
spatial pattern called a lattice.
 The solids execute elastic behavior at the atomic level, the bond between the atoms
and the intermolecular bonds are elastic.
 The atoms act like they are connected with a spring, just like coupled harmonic
oscillators and the thermal energy generated or any external forces will cause the
atoms and molecules to oscillate. This will generate mechanical waves that carry heat
and sound through the material.
 A packet of these waves can travel throughout the crystal with definite momentum
and energy known as phonons.
 a phonon is the quantum energy of the lattice vibration. he energy of each phonon is
given by:
⇒ E = hv
 According to the phonon definition, a phonon is a collective excitation in a periodic,
elastic arrangement of atoms or molecules condensed specifically in solids and some
liquids. In other words, a phonon can be defined as a discrete unit of vibrational
mechanical energy, the phonons exist with a discrete amount of energy given by E=ħ.
 Phonons play an important role in many of the physical properties of solid states,
such as they play a key role in thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity. The
study of phonons is an essential concept in condensed matter physics or solid-state
physics.
Properties of Phonons:
 Phonons are said to have a kind of negative mass and negative gravity.
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 Phonons are known to travel faster (with maximum velocity) in denser materials.
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Electrical Conductivity in Metals
 It is projected that phonons would deflect away as it detects the difference in
densities, exhibiting the qualities of a negative gravitational field.
 They can be affected by gravity.
 They tend to have negative energy and negative mass.
 They travel faster in denser material (with higher velocity).
Effect of Temperature and Impurity on resistivity of metals:
Resistivity is an intrinsic property of a material and it is temperature-dependent.. It is a
constant for material under a given temperature. The resistivity of a material can be defined
as the resistance of the material of unit cross-sectional area and unit length. The resistivity
of a material is independent of its length and area.
𝑅𝐴
Resistivity ρ = ohm – meter.
𝑙

The Temperature Dependence of Resistivity :

The resistivity of a material is temperature-dependent. The temperature dependence of the

resistivity is different for conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.

The variation of electrical resistivity with temperature in

the low temperature region for sodium is shown in fig.
Except for superconducting materials this variation in
general applies to all the metals. It can be noticed that ρ
does not becomes zero even at T = 00K, but has a small
constant value and it also can be observed the increase in
ρ with increase in temperature. There is linear variation at
higher temperatures and it continues till the metal melts.
As we are aware the resistivity is due to the scattering of
conduction electrons, this scattering takes place under
two mechanisms as explained below.

1. Resistivity ρph due to scattering of electrons by phonons(lattice vibrations)

which increases with increase in temperature and it is the resistivity
exhibited by a pure specimen and is called ideal resistivity.
2. Resistivity ρi due to scattering of electrons by the impurities, imperfections
present in the metal. This is independent of temperature and is called
residual resistivity.

The total resistivity is the sum the ideal resistivity and residual resistivity.

ρ = ρph + ρi ……………..(1)

The above equation is called Matthiessen’s rule. It states that the total resistivity of a
2

metal is the sum of the resistivity due to phonon scattering, which is temperature
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Electrical Conductivity in Metals
dependent, and the resistivity due to scattering by impurities, which is
temperature independent.
n𝑒 2 𝜏
Resistivity ρ = 1/σ and σ =
𝑚
m
So ρ can be written as ρ =
n𝑒 2 𝜏

𝜏ph is the mean collision time assuming there is no impurities then

m
ρph =
n𝑒 2 𝜏𝑝ℎ

𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝜏i is the mean collision time assuming there is no scattering due to phonons
then
m
ρi =
n𝑒 2 𝜏𝑖

then equation (1) can be written as

m m
ρ= +
n𝑒 2 𝜏𝑝ℎ n𝑒 2 𝜏𝑖

At lower temperatures the amplitude of vibration is small, so the scattering of

electrons also become less. This results in 𝜏ph becoming larger and ρph tends to zero at
very low temperatures. On the other hand when the temperature becomes high, the
amplitude of lattice vibrations increases which results increase in the scattering of
electrons. So the resistivity increases.
Assumptions of classical free electron theory:
 The metal consists of free electrons; the current flowing through a metal is due
drift velocity of electrons.
 The free electrons are treated as equivalent to gas molecules and they are
assumed to obey the laws of kinetic theory of gases. In the absence of the field,
the energy associated with each electron at a temperature T is given by 3/2 kT,
where k is Boltzmann constant. It is related to the kinetic energy.
3/2 kT = ½ mvth2
Where vth is the thermal velocity same as root mean square velocity.
 The electric potential due to the ionic cores is assumed to be constant
throughout the metal.
 The attraction between the lattice ions and electrons, the repulsion between the
electrons are neglected.
3
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Failures of classical free electron theory:

Dr. Krishna Reddy B V SVCE, Bengaluru - 57
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Electrical Conductivity in Metals
Electrical and thermal conductivities can be explained from classical free electron
theory. It fails to account the facts such as specific heat, temperature dependence of
conductivity and dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration.
3
i) Specific heat: The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is Cv = R
2

As per the classical free electron theory, free electrons in a metal are expected to
behave just as gas molecules. Thus the above equation holds good equally well for the
free electrons also.
But experimentally it was found that, the contribution to the specific heat of a metal by
its conduction electrons was CV=10-4RT
which is for lower than the expected value. Also according to the theory the specific
heat is independent of temperature whereas experimentally specific heat is proportional
to temperature.
ii)Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:
Experimentally, electrical conductivity σ is inversely proportional to the temperature T.
1
i.e. σexp α → (1)
𝑇

According to the assumptions of classical free electron theory

1
σ α →(2)
√𝑇

From equations (1) & (2) it is clear that the experimental value is not agreeing with the
theory.
iii)Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration:
According to classical free electron the theory
n𝑒 2 𝜏
σ=
𝑚

i.e., σ α n , where n is the free electron concentration,

Consider copper and aluminum. Their electrical conductivities are 5.88×10 7/Ωm
and 3.65x107/Ωm. The electron concentrations for copper and aluminum are
8.45×1028/m3and 18.06x1028/m3. Hence the classical free electron theory fails to
explain the dependence of σ on electron concentration.
4
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Quantum free electron theory:

Dr. Krishna Reddy B V SVCE, Bengaluru - 57
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Electrical Conductivity in Metals
Assumptions of quantum free electron theory:
 The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed
energy values are realized in terms of a set of energy values.
 The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occur as per
Pauli’s exclusion principle.
 The electrons travel with a constant potential inside the metal but confined
within its boundaries.
 The attraction between the electrons and the lattice ions and the repulsion
between the electrons themselves are ignored.
Density of states g(E): Density of states is defined as
the number of allowed energy states per unit energy
range per unit volume in the valance band of a
material. It is denoted as g(E).
A graph of g(E) verses E is shown in fig.
Consider an energy band spread in an energy interval
between E1 and E2. Below E1 and above E2 there are
energy gaps. g(E) represents the density of states at E. As
dE is small, it is assumed that g(E) is constant between E
and E+dE. The density of states in range E and (E+dE)
is denoted by g(E)dE.
8√2𝜋𝑚3/2
i.e. g(E)dE = [ ] 𝐸1/2dE
ℎ3

It is clear g(E) is proportional to √𝐸 in the interval dE

Fermi energy and Fermi level:
The energy of electrons corresponding to the highest
occupied energy level at absolute 0𝐾 is called Fermi
energy and the energy level is called Fermi level.
Fermi-Dirac statistics:
 At thermal equilibrium the free electrons
acquire energy obeying a statistical rule called Fermi-Dirac statistics.
 Fermi-Dirac statistics is applicable to the assembly of particles which obeys
Pauli’s exclusion principle; they must also be identical particles of spin ½ and
are indistinguishable.
5
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Dr. Krishna Reddy B V SVCE, Bengaluru - 57

Applied Physics for CSE Stream Electrical Conductivity in Metals
 Fermi-Dirac statistics permits to evaluation of probability of finding the
electrons occupying energy levels in a certain energy range and is given by a
function called Fermi factor f(E).
Fermi factor:
Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state by the electrons in
a material at thermal equilibrium.
The probability f(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied by the
electrons at a steady temperature T is given by
1
f(E) = 𝐸−𝐸𝑓
( )
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 +1

f(E) is called the Fermi factor.

Dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and energy:
The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and
energy is as shown in the figure.
i) Probability of occupation for E<EF at T=0K:
When T=0K and E<EF
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = = =1
𝑒 −∞ +1 0+1

The probability of occupation of energy state is 100%

f(E)=1 for E<EF.
f(E)=1 means the energy level is certainly occupied and E<EF applies to all energy
levels below EF. ∴ at T=0K all the energy levels below the Fermi level are occupied.
ii)Probability of occupation for E>EF at T=0K:
1 1 1
When T=0K and E>EF 𝑓(𝐸) = = = =0
𝑒 ∞ +1 ∞+1 ∞

The probability of occupation of energy state is 0%

f(E)=0 for E>EF ... At T=0K, all the energy levels above Fermi levels are
unoccupied. Hence at T=0K the variation of f(E) for different energy values, becomes
a step function as shown in the above figure.
ii) The probability of occupation at ordinary temperature ( for E≈EF at T>0K)
At ordinary temperatures though the value of probability remains 1, for E<E F it starts
6
Page

reducing from 1 for values of E close to but lesser than EF as in the figure.
Dr. Krishna Reddy B V SVCE, Bengaluru - 57
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Electrical Conductivity in Metals
The values of f(E)becomes ½ at E=EF
This is because for E=EF
𝐸−𝐸𝑓
( )
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒0 = 1
1 1
∴𝑓(𝐸) = =
1+1 2

The probability of occupation of energy state is 50% .

Further for E>EF the probability value falls off to zero rapidly.
Fermi energy at T > 0 K :
The fermi energy Ef , at any temperature T in general can be expressed in terms of Ef0
through the relation,
𝜋2 𝑘𝑇 2
Ef = Ef0[1 − ( ) ]
12 𝐸𝑓0

Except at extremely high temperatures, the second term in the

brackets is very small compared to unity
∴ Ef = Ef0
Fermi temperature (Tf) : It is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of
the free electron in a solid becomes equal to the fermi energy at 0 K. The thermal
energy possessed by the electron is kT.
When T =Tf , kTf = Ef0,
Tf = Ef0/k
Fermi velocity (Vf ) : The velocity of the electrons which occupy the fermi level is
called the fermi velocity V f .
1
Ef= 𝑚𝑉𝑓 2
2
2𝐸𝑓 1
Vf = ( ) 2
𝑚

Effective mass : The mass possessed by the electron under the influence of electric
field and potential due to lattice ions is called as effective mass. This is different from
the true mass of the electron. This is shown as m*.
Expression for electrical conductivity based on quantum free electron theory :
Sommerfield has given the expression for electrical conductivity of metals by
7
Page

applying Fermi – Dirac statistics and Boltzmann transport equation as

Dr. Krishna Reddy B V SVCE, Bengaluru - 57
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Electrical Conductivity in Metals
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
σ=
𝑚∗ 𝑉𝑓

m* is the effective mass of the electron.

Success of Quantum free electron theory(Merits):
Quantum free electron theory has successfully explained following observed
experimental facts whereas the classical free electron theory failed.
i) Temperature depends on electrical conductivity: Experimentally electrical
conductivity σexpt α 1/ 𝑇
According to quantum free electron theory electrical conductivity is given by
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
σ= ------------------ (1)
𝑚∗ 𝑉𝑓

Where m* is called effective mass of an electron.

According to quantum free electron theory EF and VF are independent of temperature.
The dependence of λ & T is as follows
Conduction electrons are scattered by the vibrating ions of the lattice. As the
temperature increases the vibrational cross sectional areas (πr 2) increases and hence
mean free path decreases.
The mean free path of the electrons is given by λ α1/(πr2)
Where ‘r’ is the amplitude of vibrations of lattice ions
Considering the facts the energy of vibrating body is proportional to the square of
amplitude and the energy of ions is due to the thermal energy.
The thermal energy is proportional to the temperature ‘T’. We can write r2 α T
λ α 1/T substituting for λ in eqn (1) Hence σ α 1/ 𝑇
Thus σ α 1 / 𝑇 is correctly explained by quantum free electron theory.
ii) Electrical conductivity and electron concentration:
Aluminium and gallium which have three free electrons per atom have lower electrical
conductivity than that of copper and silver, which have only one free electron per
atom.
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
As per quantum free electron theory the electrical conductivity is σ =
𝑚∗ 𝑉𝑓
8

i.e σ α (n) and σ α (λ/VF)

Page

Dr. Krishna Reddy B V SVCE, Bengaluru - 57

Applied Physics for CSE Stream Electrical Conductivity in Metals
The value of (n) for aluminium is 2.13 times higher than that of copper. But the value
of (λ/VF) for copper is about 3.73 times higher than that of aluminium. Thus the
conductivity of copper exceeds that of aluminium.

9
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Dr. Krishna Reddy B V SVCE, Bengaluru - 57

 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Certain metals, alloys and compounds exhibit zero resistivity and hence infinite
conductivity at a temperature above 0 K. These materials are called as superconductors and
the phenomenon is known as Superconductivity.

In superconducting materials the resistivity suddenly drops to zero at a particular

temperature known as critical temperature (Tc) and remains
zero below that as shown in below fig. The critical
temperature for mercury is 4.2 K. below this temperature
mercury is in superconducting state where as above this
temperature it behaves like a normal conductor. Different
superconducting materials have different critical
temperatures but the nature of the variation in resistivity with
temperature remains more or less similar.

Critical Temperature (Tc) : Temperature at which the resistivity of the material drops to zero is
called as Critical Temperature(Tc) or Transition temperature
Ex : Hg = 4.2 K , Pb = 7.2 K, Nb = 4.5 K , Yitrium Barium Copper Oxide = 92 K etc.

General properties of Superconductors:-

1. It is a low temperature phenomenon.
2. The transition temperature is different for different substances.
3. Materials having high normal resistivities exhibit superconductivity.
4. Materials for which 6 Zρ =10 (where Z is a atomic number and ρ is resistivity) show
superconductivity.
5. For chemically pure and structurally perfect specimen, the superconductivity is ery sharp.
6. Ferro magnetic and Anti ferromagnetic materials are not superconductors.
7. Below the transition temperature the magnetic flux lines are rejected out of the superconductors.
8. Superconducting elements, in general, lie in the inner columns of the periodic table.
9. Those metallic elements having their valence electrons lies between 2 to 8 exhibits
superconductivity.
10. Below the transition temperature the specific heat curve is discontinuous.
Meisner Effect (Effect of Magnetic field):
“When a weak magnetic field is applied to the superconducting material and then cooled
below the critical temperature, then magnetic flux will be expelled out of the
superconductor”.Thus the super conductor show perfect diamagnetism. This effect is
reversible and the specimen returns to its normal state when its temperature raised above
its critical temperature.
We have the magnetic field inside the specimen

B = 0 ( H + M )
H = Applied magnetic field and
M = Magnetisation in the specimen
According to Meisner effect, when the specimen is in

superconducting state, it has B = 0 Thus H = -M 

Magnetic susceptibility = (M/H) = -1.

This is the indication for a perfect diamagnetic material.

Critical field OR Critical Magnetic field

It is defined as the magnetic field required to switch the material from superconducting state
to normal state and is denoted by HC.
When once the applied magnetic field is removed, the material will regains its
superconducting property, provided T < Tc.
Thus the material will remains in the superconducting state below HC and , above HC the
material will be in the normal state

Temperature dependence of critical magnetic field HC :

• Magnitude of HC depends on temperature.
• If H0 the critical magnetic field at T = 0 K and HC the critical magnetic field at T0K,
then

It can be seen that

 The curve of HC v/s T is almost parabolic

 If the superconductor is held at 0 K, then
higher magnetic field is required to destroy the superconducting property
 When the temperature of the superconductor is close to TC, then lesser magnetic
field is sufficient to destroy the superconducting property.

Types of Superconductors
• The Classification is based on the response shown by the super conductors in the
applied magnetic field
• The response curve of magnetisation v/s applied magnetic field show a different
nature of variation for different category of superconductors
• This classification provides useful information for the selection of superconductors in
 the development of high field magnets

Type -1 superconductors (Soft superconductors):

• They exhibit complete Meisner effect
• Material in the superconducting state retains its
diamagnetic nature, until the critical
field is reached.
• Once the critical field is reached, the material suddenly
loses superconducting property.
• Here onwards the flux starts penetrating the specimen
• These superconductors have low critical magnetic field.
• They are not useful for the construction of
superconducting magnetsEx : Hg, Pb, Nb, Sn etc

Type -2 Superconductors (Hard Superconductors):

• They do not exhibit complete Meisner effect.
• They are characterised by two critical magnetic fields namely lower critical field HC1
and upper critical field HC2.
• For the applied field less than HC1 the magnetic
field is completed expelled out ofthe
superconductor and it behaves as perfect
diamagnetic.
• When the field is greater than HC1 and less than
HC2, the flux starts penetrating the specimen. In
this region, the material is not perfect diamagnetic,
but still retains zero resistance. Hence it is called as
mixed state or vortex state.
• When the applied field exceeds HC2, all the flux will
penetrates the specimen and thematerial becomes a normal conductor.
Ex : - Compounds like Y-Ba-Cu-O, Bi-Sr-Ca-Cu-O etc.

Difference between Type 1 and type 2 superconductors

Type 1 Type 2

1. Exhibits complete Meisner effect 1. Exhibits partial Meisner effect

2. Only one Critical field 2. Two critical fields namely lower and upper

3. No vortex state is present 3. Vortex state is present

4. Low critical temp. (<10K) 4. High critical temp (>10K)

5. Low critical magnetic field 5. High critical magnetic field

6. Cannot be used to prepare 6. Can be used to prepare high field magnets

high field magnets
 BCS Theory of Superconductivity
• It is a quantum mechanical theory to explain superconductivity. According to this
theory, Superconductivity is due to the formation of cooper pairs
• “Cooper pairs are the pair of electrons formed by the interaction between electrons
with opposite spin and momentum in a phonon field”.
• Flow of current in a superconductor causes attraction between electron and positive
ions. Due to this, the positive ion gets displaced from its position.
• When a second electron reaches this distorted position, it also experience attractive
force.

• Thus we have attraction between two electrons that takes place via lattice.
• This pair of electrons forms cooper pair.
• In a given superconductor, each cooper pair causes the formation of many number of
such pairs, causing the formation of cloud of cooper pairs.
• Due to the orderly motion of these cooper pairs in group, and less collision with the
lattice, large current is produced.
• when the temperature exceeds Tc, there is no formation of cooper pairs and the
superconductivity destroys.

High Temperature Superconductors

• Super conductors that exhibit high Tc are called as High temperature
superconductors
• Generally, those superconductors that can work at liquid Nitrogen temperature
(above 77K) are classified under High Tc superconductor.
• They are oxides of copper bearing pervoskite crystal structure.
• Ex : Barium copper oxide, Yttrium barium copper oxide etc
• Recently developed high Temperature superconductors are from ceramic compounds.
• All the high temperature superconductors are classified under Type 2, since they
have higher critical magnetic fields.
• The current in the high temperature superconductors are direction dependent.
• The currents are maximum in a direction parallel to copper oxide planes.
• Supercurrents are minimum in a direction perpendicular to copper oxide planes.

Quantum Tunnelling
• It is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which an object such as an electron or
atom passes through a potential energy barrier. This concept is not
possible, according to classical mechanics
• Tunneling is a outcome of wave nature of matter and is found in low mass particles
 like electrons, protons etc
• Probability of transmission of a wave packet through a barrier decreases
exponentially with the barrier height. When the quantum wave reach the barrier, its
amplitude will decrease exponentially

(E the energy of the particle and V the potential energy of the barrier)

Josephson Junction
• A Josephson junction is made by sandwiching a thin layer of a non superconducting
material between two layers of superconducting material. The non superconducting
barrier separating the two superconductors must be very thin.
• If the barrier is an insulator, it must be about 30 angstroms thick or less. If the barrier
is another metal , it can be as much as several nanometer thick.

• In this system, the cooper pairs tunnel through the barrier without resistance
• This phenomenon of flow of current between two pieces of superconductor
separated by a normal material is called as Josephson effect and the current is called
Josephson current. The current flows through the junction even in the absence of
external DC voltage. Hence the Josephson current is present in the absence of supply
voltage
• If the external DC voltage is applied, current oscillates rapidly with a frequency of
several GHz, leading to the development of AC voltage.

DC Josephson Effect
• It is the phenomenon of flow of super current through the junction even in the
absence of external emf . If the voltage across the junction is measured, it gives zero.

• Consider a Josephson junction containing two superconducting films separated by

thin oxide layer. Here cooper pairs in the superconductor starts tunneling through the
oxide layer which are represented by wave function.
• During this process the oxide layer introduces the phase difference between input
and output wave functions.
 • Due to this, super current flow through the junction, even in the absence of external
source.

• The super current through the junction is

Is = Ic sin 0

Ic = critical current at zero voltage, which depends on the thickness of the

junction layer and the temperature, 0 = Phase difference between the
wave functions of cooper pairs

AC Josephson Effect
 When dc voltage is applied across the Josephson junction, it leads to the
development of oscillating current. In other words an alternating emf of high
frequency is established across the junction. This effect is called as AC Josephson
effect.
• The oscillating current is because of the fact that, the application of dc voltage across
the junction causes the additional phase change for the cooper pairs

• The energy difference of cooper pairs on both sides is of the order of 2eV
• Thus the current

Is = Ic sin (0 +Δ)

Δ = phase difference, Ic is the critical current

The frequency of the generated AC is

f = 2eV / h
• Where 2eV is the energy difference between the cooper pairs on either side of the
junction
Thus if a voltage of if a voltage of about 1V is applied, and AC frequency of about
484 MHz can be obtained.

SQUIDS
• Stands for Super conducting Quantum Interference Devices.

• It is an instrument used to measure extremely weak magnetic field of the order of

10-13 T
• Hence it is a sensitive magnetometer.
• Heart of the SQUID is a super conducting ring containing one or more Josephson
junctions.

• Two types of SQUIDS are available namely DC SQUID and RF SQUID.

• It works on the principle of Josephson effect.
 DC SQUID
It has two Josephson junctions connected in parallel and works on the interference of
current from two junctions. It works on the principle of DC Josephson effect which is
the phenomenon of flow of super current through the junction even in the absence
of external emf.

Construction and Working :

• The crosssectional view of the arrangement is shown.

• P and Q are twoJosephson Junctionsarranged in parallel.
• When current I flows through the point C, it divides into I1 and I2

• Hence the wave function due to these super currents (cooper pairs) experience
a phase shift at P and Q
• In the absence of applied magnetic field, the phase difference between the wave
functions is zero. If the magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the current loop,
then phase difference between the wave functions will not be zero. This is identified
by the sum of the currents I1’ and I2’
• The magnitude of phase difference is proportional to applied magnetic field.
Hence, Even if there is a weak magnetic field in the region will be detected.
 RF SQUID
• It works on the principle of AC Josephson effect - When dc voltage is applied across
the Josephson junction, it leads to the development of oscillating current.
• It has single Josephson Junction
• Magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the
plane of the current loop.
• The flux is coupled into a loop containing a
single Josephson Junction through an input coil
and an RF source. Hence when the RF current
changes, there is corresponding change in
the flux linked with the coil
• This variation is very sensitive and is
measured.

• It is also used in the detection of low magnetic field

• It is less sensitive compared to DC Squid
• Due to its low cost manufacturing, it is commonly used SQUID in many applications.
Application of SQUIDs in quantum computing:
Charge qubit (Cooper-pair box):
• It is a qubit whose basis states are charge states.
• Charge qubit composed of a Josephson junction and a capacitor.
• a charge qubit is formed by a tiny superconducting island coupled by
a Josephson junction to a superconducting reservoir(Capacitor)
• The state of the qubit is determined by the number of Cooper pairs
which have tunneled across the junction.
• The quantum superposition of charge states can be achieved by
tuning the gate voltage U.
Phase Qubit :
• A phase qubit is a current-biased Josephson junction, operated in the zero voltage state with a
non-zero current.
• the phase qubit is a superconducting device based on the superconductor–
insulator–superconductor (SIS) Josephson junction, designed to operate as
a qubit.
• The phase qubit is closely related, yet distinct from, the flux qubit and
the charge qubit.
• The major distinction among the three is the ratio of Josephson
energy vs charging energy
• For phase qubit, this ratio is on the order of 106, which allows for
macroscopic bias current through the junction.
Flux Qubit :

These are also known as persistent current qubits.

These are micrometer sized loops of superconducting metal that is interrupted

by a number of Josephson junctions.

Typically for a flux qubit the coupling energy is 10-100 times greater than the
charging energy.
 Module 5 : APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICS IN
COMPUTING
Physics of Animation
Animation
Animation is a method of photographing successive drawings, models, or even puppets, to create an illusion
of movement in a sequence. Because our eyes can only retain an image for approx. 1/16 th of a second, when
multiple images appear in fast succession, the brain blends them into a single moving image. Animation is the
process of displaying still images in a rapid sequence to create the illusion of movement.
The Taxonomy of Physics-Based Animation Methods
At the highest level, the field of physics-based animation and simulation can roughly be subdivided into two
large groups:
1. Kinematics is the study of motion without consideration of mass or forces.
2. Dynamics is the study of motion taking mass and forces into
consideration. kinematics and dynamics come in two flavors or subgroups:
1. Inverse is the study of motion knowing the starting and ending points.
2. Forward is the study of motion solely given the starting point.

Frames
A frame is a single image in a sequence of pictures. A frame contains the image to be displayed at a unique
time in the animation. In general, one second of a video is comprised of 24 or 30 frames per second also known
as FPS. The frame is a combination of the image and the time of the image when exposed to the view. An
extract of frames in a row makes the animation.
Frames per Second
An animated film with 25 frames per second is played on television at 24 frames per second would result in a
black bar rolling up the screen. Then Digital Converts are to be used to transfer one speed of film to another
speed of video. The most important thing to find out when animating something is what speed the animation
will be played back at.
Size and Scale
The size and scale of characters often play a central role in a story’s plot.

We often equate large characters with weight and strength, and smaller characters with agility and speed. There
is a reason for this. In real life, larger people and animals do have a larger capacity for strength, while smaller
critters can move and maneuver faster than their large counterparts. When designing characters, you can run
into different situations having to do with size and scale, such as:
1. Human or animal-based characters that are much larger than we see in our everyday experience.
Ex : Superheroes, Greek gods, monsters etc.
2. Human or animal-based characters that are much smaller than we are accustomed to, such as fairies and
elves.
3. Characters that need to be noticeably larger, smaller, older, heavier, lighter, or more energetic than
other characters.
 4. Characters that are child versions of older characters. An example would be an animation featuring a
mother cat and her kittens. If the kittens are created and animated with the same proportions and timing
as the mother cat, they won’t look like kittens; they’ll just look like very small adult cats.
Proportion and Scale
Creating a larger or smaller character is not just a matter of scaling everything about the character
uniformly. To understand this, let’s look at a simple cube. When you scale a cube, its volume changes much
more dramatically thanits surface area. Let us say each edge of the cube is 1 unit length. The area of one side
of the cube is 1 square unit, and the volume of the cube is 1 cubed unit. If you double the size of the cube along
each dimension, its height increases
by 2 times, the surface area increases by 4 times, and its volume increases by 8 times. While the area increases
by squares as you scale the object, the volume changes by cubes.
Wight and strength
Body weight is proportional to volume. The abilities of your muscles and bones, however, increase by
area because their abilities depend more on cross-sectional area than volume. To increase a muscle or bone’s
strength, you need to increase its cross- sectional area. To double a muscle’s strength, for example, you would
multiply its width by
√2. To triple the strength, multiply the width by √3. Since strength increases by squares and weight increases
by cubes, the proportion of a character’s weight that it can lift does not scale proportionally to its size.
Let us look at an example of a somewhat average human man. At 6 feet tall, he weighs 180 pounds
and can lift 90 pounds. In other words, he can lift half his body weight. If you scale up the body size by a factor
of 2, the weight increases by a factor of 8. Such a character could then lift more weight. But since he weighs
more than 8 times more than he did before, he can not lift his arms and legs as easily as a normal man. Such a
giant gains strength, but loses agility.
Motion and Timing in animations:
Introduction to Motion:
Motion is an essential component in games and animations. The motion is governed by the newton’s
laws and kinematic equations. When animating a scene, there are several types of motion to consider. These
are the most common types of motion:
1. Linear
2. Parabolic
3. Circular
4. Wave
Motion and timing go hand in hand in animation.

Motion Lines and Paths

Individual drawings or poses have a line of action, which indicates the visual flow of action at that single
image. Motionhas a path of action, which indicates the path along which the object or character moves. The
path of action refers to the object’s motion in space. While it can help show timing, its primary function is to
see the direction and path of the motion, and not necessarily its timing.
 Line of Action

Path of Action

Timing
The timing is the choice of when something should be done; the regulation of occurrence and pace to achieve
a desired effect. Animators have the ability to move forward and backward in time to place objects when and
where they are tobe.
Timing Tools
In animation, timing of action consists of placing objects or characters in particular locations at specific frames
to give the illusion of motion. Animators work with very small intervals of time; most motion sequences can
be measured in seconds or fractions of seconds. Frame intervals between keys are usually smaller than one
second.

Linear Motion Timing

Linear motion refers to motion in a straight line, always in the same direction. An object moving with linear
motion might speed up or slow down as it follows a linear path. A heavy ball rolling on a table or incline is an
example of linear motion. The ball is rotating, but its center of gravity follows a linear path.

Uniform Motion Timing

When uniform motion occurs, the net force on the object is zero. Net force is the total of all forces
added up. There might be several forces acting on the object, but when both the magnitude and direction of
the forces are added up, they add up to zero. Uniform motion is the easiest to animate because the distance the
object travels between frames is always the same. Uniform motion is a type of linear motion with constant
speed and no acceleration or deceleration. The object moves the same distance between consecutive frames.
The longer the distance between frames, the higher the speed.
Slow in and Slow out
When motion is accelerating or decelerating, we refer to this type of motion as a slow in or slow out. This type
of motion is sometimes called ease in or ease out.

1. Slow in (ease in) —The object is slowing down, often in preparation for stopping.

2. Slow out (ease out) —The object is speeding up, often from a still position.
For example, a ball rolling down on an incline or dropping straight down is slowing out, as it goes from a still
position or slow speed to a fast speed. A ball rolling up an incline is slowing in.

Acceleration Timing
Timing for acceleration can be calculated very accurately when the net force being exerted is constant.
Let’s take a look at the forces and how they can be used to calculate the animation’s timing.
Constant Forces
A constant force is a force that doesn’t vary over time. Examples of constant forces include:
1. Gravity……..pulling an object to the ground
2. Friction…… bringing an object to a stop

Constant force and Acceleration

Constant forces result in constant acceleration. Because the acceleration is constant, we can figure
out thetiming for such sequences using a few principles of physics.
The resulting acceleration depends on the direction of the force and motion, if the object is in motion.
1. When constant net force is applied to an unmoving object, the result is acceleration.
2. When constant net force is applied to a moving object in the same direction as the motion, the
result is acceleration.

3. When constant net force is applied in the direction opposite the existing motion, the result is
deceleration.

Forces Exerted by Characters

Forces exerted by people’s bodies are rarely constant throughout an entire motion. For the purposes
of animation, however, one can break the character motion into short time segments and consider each of
these segments to be responding to constant net force. This will make it easier for one to calculate the timing
for each individual segment.
As an example, let’s look at the push for a jump. The force a character exerts during the push is somewhat
constant, andthe timing is very short (less than half a second).

A character walking and pushing a rock is not exerting a constant force throughout the entire sequence, but
during each short part of the walk cycle the net force could be considered to be a different constant value.
The Odd Rule
When acceleration is constant, one can use the Odd Rule to time the frames. With this method, one
can calculate the distance the object moves between frames using a simple pattern of odd numbers. Between
consecutive frames, the distance the object moves is a multiple of an odd number. For acceleration, the
distance between frames increases by multiples of 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.
For deceleration, the multiples start at a higher odd number and decreases, for example 7, 5, 3, 1.

The Odd Rule is a multiplying system based on the smallest distance(base distance) traveled between two
frames in the sequence. Base distance is the distance between the first two frames in a slow out motion or the
distance between the last two frames in slow in motion . This base distance, is used in all Odd Rule calculations.
Odd Rule Multipliers
The Odd Rule in its simplest form, as described above, is just one way to use it. For example, one can
instead calculate the distance from the first frame to the current frame and use these distances to place the
object on specific frames.

calculating the distance for a large number of frames and a chart like this

isn’t practical, one can figure out the odd number multiplier for

consecutive frames with this formula:

Odd number multiplier for consecutive frames = ((#frame – 1) * 2) – 1

In the charts above, note that the distances in the last column are squared numbers: 4 = 22, 9 = 32,
16 = 42, and so on. One of the benefits of the Odd Rule is one can calculate the total distance traveled from the
start point to the current frame with the following formula:
Multiplier for distance from first frame to current frame = (current frame – 1)2

When setting the keys, one can use either the consecutive key multipliers or total distance multipliers but need
to Choose the one that’s easiest to use for the animated sequence.
Odd Rule Scenarios
Here are a few different scenarios for calculating the distance an object travels between keys in a slow-in or
slow-out.
Base Distance Known in slow out motion:
If the object is speeding up, the first frame distance is the base distance. If one knows the base distance, figuring
out the distance the object travels at each frame is pretty straightforward. Just multiply the base distance by 3,
5, 7, etc. to get the distances between consecutive frames, or use squares to multiply the base distance to get
the total distance traveled on each frame.
Base Distance Known in Slow in motion :
Suppose one wants an object to slow down, and one knows the distance between the last two frames before it
stops. The solution is to work backward, as if theobject were speeding up in the opposite direction. Working
backward, multiply the base distance by 3, 5, 7, etc. to get the distances between each previous frame in the
sequence.

Total Distance and Number of Frames Known in slow out motion:

If one wants know the total distance and the total number of frames, one can find the base distance with
this formula: Base distance = Total distance/(Last frame number – 1) 2
Suppose there is a jump push (take off ) with constant acceleration over 5 frames, and the total distance
traveled is 0.4m. Using the formula above, we find the base
distance.
Base distance = 0.4m/(5 – 1) 2 = 0.4m/16 = 0.025m
Using the base distance, one can calculate the distances
between each frame. If one adds up the distances traveled, one
will find that they add up to exactly 0.4m.

First Key Distance Known in Slow in motion :

Suppose one has a moving object that one wants to slow down, and one has set the first frame of the slow-in
to give an idea of the pacing for the sequence. In
this case, one can consider that the distance the
object moved between the last two frames before the slow-in is part of the calculation— the distance between
them becomes the first frame distance (0.5m), and the first slow-in frame (0.35m) becomes the second frame
in the sequence.

One feature of the Odd Rule is that the base distance is always half the difference between any two adjacent
distances. To find the base distance, one can simply calculate:
(0.5m – 0.35m)/2 = 0.07m

To figure out how many frames are in the slow-in, divide the first frame distance by the base distance to find
out which oddnumber it corresponds to.
0.5/0.07 = 7

This means the first distance corresponds to 7 in the 7, 5, 3, 1 sequence, making the sequence five frames long.
Now we can work back the other way, multiplying the base distance by odd numbers to get the distances for
the rest of the slow- in frames.

Motion Graphs
A motion graph plots an object’s position against time. If one is using animation software, understanding and
using motion graphs is a key skill in animating anything beyond the simplest of motions. If one is drawing the
animation, drawing motion graphs before animating can help one to visualize the motion. On a motion graph,
the time goes from left to right across the bottom of the graph(x-axis) , while the object’s position is plotted
vertically against the time(y-axis). Each axis in 3D space (X, Y, Z) has its own line showing the object’s
position along that axis. At the very least, one needs to understand the types of lines in a motion graph and
what they represent in terms of visible motion. one can also look at motion graphs to get a better understanding
of any difficulties one is having with the timing or action.
Examples of Character
AnimationJumping and
Walking
Jumping
A jump is an action where the character’s entire body is in the air, and both the character’s feet leave the
ground atroughly the same time. A jump action includes a takeoff, free movement through the air, and a landing.

Parts of Jump
A jump can be divided into several distinct parts:
• Crouch—A squatting pose taken as preparation for jumping.
• Takeoff—Character pushes up fast and straightens legs with feet still on the ground. The distance
from the character’s center of gravity (CG) in the crouch to the CG when the character’s feet are just
about to leave the ground is called the push height. The amount of time (or number of frames) needed
for the push is called the push time.
• In the air—Both the character’s feet are off the ground, and the character’s center of gravity (CG) moves
in a
parabolic arc as any free-falling body would. First it reaches an apex, and then falls back to the ground
at the same rate at which it rose. The height to which the character jumps, called the jump height, is
measured from the CG at takeoff to the CG at the apex of the jump. The amount of time the
character is in the air from takeoff to apex is called the jump time. If the takeoff pose and the landing
pose are similar, then the jump height and jump time are about the same going up as they are going
down.
• Landing—Character touches the ground and bends knees to return to a crouch. The distance from
the
Character’s CG when her feet hit to the ground to the point where the character stops crouching is
called the stop height. The stop height is not always exactly the same as the push height.
Calculating Jump Actions
When working out the timing for a jump, one will need to first decide on:
1. Jump height or jump time
2. Push height
3. Stop height
4. Horizontal distance the character will travel during the
jump From these factors, one can calculate the timing for the
jump sequence.

Calculating Jump Timing

When planning the jump animation, the most likely scenario is that
you know the jump height, expressed in the units you are using for the animation (e.g., inch or cm).
Placement and timing for frames while the character is in the air follow the same rules as any object thrown into
the air against gravity.
Example:
Jump height = 1.2m
Jump time for 1.2m = 0. 5 seconds
Jump time at 30fps = 0. 5 * 30 = 15 frames
Jump Magnification
When calculating the remainder of the timing for the entire jump action, you can use a factor called jump
magnification(JM). The JM can be used to calculate the push timing and stop timing.

The JM is the ratio of the jump height to the push height.

JM = Jump Height
Push Height

Since you already know the jump height and push height, you can calculate the JM. Then you can use the
JM tocalculate other aspects of the jump.
Example:
Jump Height = 1m
Push Height =
0.33m
JM = Jump Height/Push Height = 3

Jump Magnification and Acceleration

Jump Magnification is in fact an exact ratio that tells one how much the character has to accelerate against
gravity to get into the air. The JM, besides being the ratio of jump-to-push vertical height and time, is also the
ratio of push-to-jump vertical acceleration.
𝐽𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐽𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Jump Magnification(JM) = = =
𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐽𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The magnitude of jump acceleration is always equal to gravitational acceleration, with deceleration as the
character rises and acceleration as it falls.

𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Jump Magnification(JM) = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

Your landing speed is the same as the velocity of any falling object, which you can easily calculate from the
free fall time. The general formula for calculating the velocity of an accelerating object is: Velocity =
Acceleration * Time
v = at
Let’s relate this back to our jump. If the landing velocity is the same as the push velocity, we
know that: v = Jump Acceleration * Jump Time = Push acceleration * Push Time

𝐽𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

= = 𝐽𝑀
𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐽𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Look, it’s the JM! And it’s equal to the ratio of the push acceleration to gravity acceleration. Increase your
jump time, and the push acceleration goes up. Decrease your push time, and the push acceleration goes up.
We know Distance = Average Velocity * Time
d = vt

velocity v = d/t

Because the average velocity is the same for both the push and jump, we can say that d/t is the same for both
jump and
push:
Jump Height/Jump Time = Push Height/Push
Time
Push Time
The JM also gives you the ratio of the jump time to the push
time. JM = Jump Time/Push Time
Push Time = Jump Time/JM
Example:
JM = 3
Jump Time: 15 frames
Push Time = 15/3 = 5 frames

Landing
The forces on landing are similar to takeoff. If the landing has faster timing, the forces will be larger than
for a longer timing.
Stop Time
The stop height is often a bit larger than the push height, but the timing of the push and stop are the same in
the sense that the CG moves the same distance per frame in the push and stop. If the stop height is larger than
the push height, you’ll just need more frames for the stop than the push.
Push Height/Push Frames = Stop Height/Stop
Frames This can also be expressed as:
Push Height/Push Time = Stop Distance/Stop
Time You can also flip everything over and
express it as:

Push Time/Push Height = Stop Time/Stop Distance

Stop Time = (Push Time * Stop Distance)/Push Height
Example:
Push Time: 5 frames
Push Height: 0.4m
Stop Height: 0.5m
Stop Time = (5 * 0.5) / 0.4 = 6 frames
 Walking
Walk feature all the basics of mechanics while including personality. The ability to animate walk cycles is
one of the most important skills a character animator needs to master.
Strides and Steps
A step is one step with one foot. A stride is two steps, one with each foot. Stride length is the distance

the character travels in a stride, measured from the same part of the foot. Step and stride length indicate
lengthwise spacing for the feet during a walk.
Gait is the timing of the motion for each foot, including how long each foot is on the ground or in the
air. During a walk, the number of feet the character has on the ground changes from one foot (single support)
to two feet (double support) and then back to one foot. You can plot the time each foot is on the ground to see
the single and doublesupport times over time. A normal walking gait ranges from 1/ 3 to 2/3 of a second per
step, with 1/2 second being average.
Walk Timing
Walking is sometimes called “controlled falling.” Right after you move past the passing position, your
body’s center of gravity is no longer over your base of support, and you begin to tip. Your passing leg moves
forward to stop the fall, creating your next step. Then the cycle begins again. The horizontal timing for between
the four walk poses is not uniform. The CG slows in going from the contact to passing position, then slows out
from passing to contact. The CG also rises and falls, rising to the highest position during passing and the lowest
during contact. The head is in the highest position during passing.

Statistical Physics for Computing

Statistics is a method of interpreting, analysing and summarising the data. Statistics is classified as the following
two types.
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics:
Descriptive Statistics : It is a way to represent and describe a collection of data using tables, graphs, and summary
measures. It is a simple way to describe our data. Descriptive statistics is very important to present our raw data
in effective/meaningful way using numerical calculations or graphs or tables. This type of statistics is applied to
already known data.
Inferential Statistics : In inferential statistics, predictions are made by taking any group of data in which you
are interested. It can be defined as a random sample of data taken from a population to describe and make
inferences about the population. Any group of data that includes all the data you are interested in is known as
population. It basically allows you to make predictions by taking a small sample instead of working on the
whole population.

Difference between Descriptive and Inferential statistics :

Sl. Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

 No.
It gives information about raw data which It makes inferences about the population using
1
describes the data in some manner. data drawn from the population.
It helps in organizing, analyzing, and to It allows us to compare data, and make
2
present data in a meaningful manner. hypotheses and predictions.
It is used to describe a situation. It is used to explain the chance of occurrence
3
of an event.
It explains already known data and is limited
It attempt s to reach the conclusion
4 to a sample or population having
about
a small size.
thepopulation.
It can be achieved with the help of char t s,
5 It can be achieved by probability.
graphs, tables, etc.

Poisson Distribution : In statistics, a Poisson distribution is a probability distribution that is used to show how
many times an event is likely to occur over a specified period.
 A Poisson distribution measures how many times an event is likely to occur
within “x” period of time.
𝑒 −𝜆 𝜆𝑥
 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥!
 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
 Here ‘𝑥’ is the number of occurences , e is Euler’s Number, ! is the factorial
function. λ is the positive real number.
The positive real number λ is equal to the expected value of X and also to its Variance. The
Poisson distribution may be used in the design of experiments such as scattering experiments where a small
number of events are seen.
Example of probability for Poisson distributions:
On a particular river, overflow floods occur once every 100 years on average. Calculate the probability of x =
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 overflow floods in a 100 year interval, assuming the Poisson model is appropriate. Because
the average event rate is one overflow flood per 100 years, λ =1
𝑒 −𝜆 𝜆𝑥
 𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑥!
𝑒 −110
𝑓 (𝑥 = 0) = = 0.3678
0!
𝑒 −111
𝑓 (𝑥 = 1) = 1!
= 0.3678
𝑒 −212
𝑓 (𝑥 = 2) = 2!
= 0.0676

Modeling the Probability for Proton Decay

The experimental search for Proton Decay was undertaken because of the implications of the Grand unification
Theories. The lower bound for the lifetime is now projected to be on the order of τ = 10 33 Years. The probability
for observing a proton decay can be estimated from the nature of particle decay and the application of Poisson
Statistics. The number of protons N can be modeled by the decay equation

N=N0 e− λ t
Here λ = 1/t= 10-33/ year is the probability that any given proton will decay in a year. Since the decay constant
λ is so small, the exponential can be represented by the first two terms of the Exponential Series.

e − λt =1 − λ t ,thus N ≈0 N0 ( 1 − λ t )
For a small sample, the observation of a proton decay is infinitesimal, but suppose we consider the volume of
protons represented by the Super Kameokande neutrino detector in Japan. The number of protons in the
detector volume is reported by Ed Kearns of Boston University to be 7.5 x 10 33protons. For one year of
observation, the number of expected proton decays is then

N0 – N0= N00λ t= ( 7.5× 1033 protons ) ( 10 −33 / year ) ( 1 year )=7.5

About 40% of the area around the detector tank is covered by photo-detector tubes, and if we take that to be
the nominal efficiency of detection, we expect about three observations of proton decay events per year based
on a 1033year lifetime.
So far, no convincing proton decay events have been seen. Poisson statistics provides a convenient means for
assessing the implications of the absence of these observations. If we presume that λ = 3 observed decays per
year is the mean, then the Poisson distribution function tells us that the probability for zero observations of a
decay.

𝑒 −𝜆 𝜆𝑥 𝑒 −330
 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥!
= 0!
= 0.04978

This low probability for a null result suggests that the proposed lifetime of 10 33 years is too short. While this
is not a realistic assessment of the probability of observations because there are a number of possible pathways
for decay, it serves to illustrate in principle how even a non-observation can be used to refine a proposed
lifetime.
Normal Distribution and Bell Curves
A bell curve is a common type of distribution for a variable, also known as the normal distribution. The term
"bell curve" originates from the fact that the graph used to depict a Normal Distribution consists of a
symmetrical bell-shaped curve.
The highest point on the curve, or the top of the bell, represents the most probable event in a series of data (its
Mean, Mode and Median in this case), while all other possible occurrences are symmetrically distributed
around the mean, creating a downward-sloping curve on each side of the peak. The width of the bell curve is
described by its Standard Deviation.
The term "bell curve" is used to describe a graphical depiction of a normal probability distribution, whose
underlying standard deviations from the mean create the curved bell shape. A standard deviation is a
measurement used to quantify the variability of data dispersion, in a set of given values around the mean. The
mean, in turn, refers to the average of all data points in the data set or sequence and will be found at the highest
point on the bell curve.

Standard Deviations
The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread
out numbers are. From the fig. 68% of values are
within 1 standard deviation of the mean. 95% of
values are within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
99.7%of values are within 3 standard deviations of
the mean

Monte-Carlo Method
Monte Carlo methods vary, but tend to follow a particular pattern:
1. Define a domain of possible inputs
2. Generate inputs randomly from a probability distribution over the domain
3. Perform a deterministic computation on the inputs
4. Aggregate the results

Monte Carlo method applied to approximating the value of π. For example, consider a quadrant inscribed in
a unit square. The area of the square is 4 units and area of circle is π.
Given that the ratio of their areas is π/ 4 , the value of π can be approximated using a Monte Carlo method:

1. Draw a square, then Inscribe a quadrant within it.

2. Uniformly scatter a given number of points over the square.
3. Count the number of points inside the quadrant.
4. The ratio of the inside-count and the total-sample-count is an
estimate of the ratio of the two areas, π/ 4. Multiply the result by 4 to
estimate π.
There are two important considerations:
1. If the points are not uniformly distributed, then the approximation will be
poor.
2. There are many points. The approximation is generally poor if only a few points are randomly
placed in the whole square. On average, the approximation improves as more points are placed.

Uses of Monte Carlo methods require large amounts of random numbers.