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Science and Scientific Method

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 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
SJIF (2022): 7.942

Science and Scientific Method

Joao Gilberto Correa da Silva
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Federal University of Pelotas (retired). Pelotas, RS, Brazil
Orcid ID 0000-0003-2985-0925.
E-mail: jgcs1804[at]yahoo.com.br

Abstract: The roots of science go back to the contributions of Greek philosophers some 2,500 years ago. However, science as it is
known today and its great power and remarkable influence over humanity emerged in the 16th century as a consequence of the
Renaissance revolution that radically transformed the objects, methods and objectives of knowledge of nature. Objects became natural
phenomena; the methods, disciplined cooperative research, and a set of objective, systematic, rational, and critical procedures that have
been generically called the "scientific method"; and the objectives, the construction of a factual, verifiable and explanatory body of
knowledge. What essentially characterizes science as a rationally and critically grounded body of knowledge is the method by which that
knowledge is constructed. This article reviews the foundations of the scientific approach to knowledge generation and characterizes the
scientific method.

1. Introduction of the scientific approach to knowledge generation. This

review is based mainly in the contributions of Descartes [1],
The common person can acquire knowledge in different Madden [2], Lastrucci [3], Bunge [4], Heath [5], Cervo &
ways. The farmer, for example, is aware of the plants he Bervian [6], Wilson [7], Hinkelmann & Kempthorne [8],
cultivates, the time of sowing and planting, the way to treat Johann [9], Christensen [10], Carey [11], Gottschall [12],
the land, the means of protection against insects and pests. Silva [13].
This knowledge comes from imitation, information
transmitted by predecessors, family members and formal 2. Sources of Knowledge
education, and personal experience. This person may also
possess knowledge generated by research carried out by The search for knowledge of nature was already a
scientific institutions that is transmitted to him by means of characteristic of prehistoric man. Man's first contacts with
communication and training. Scientific knowledge can also nature generated eminently sensitive knowledge. Limited
be acquired more rationally through formal higher education, resources allowed the perception of phenomena only through
and enhanced with specialization in postgraduate courses. the senses and superficial explanations. Seeking to unravel
the universe, man adheres to the cult of the forces of nature as
The discovery that nature is governed by an intelligible a form of knowledge. In the passage from primitive times to
scheme originated in Greece. Greek theory discovered the antiquity, man expands the limits of his knowledge, going
universe of ideas and forms, ordered by the rules of geometry, from mythological explanations of the universe to
and the universe of nature, consisting of logically ordered explanations of a religious nature. The next step is
movements. All Greek theory is dedicated to the description interpretation by way of reason. With the rise of philosophy,
of these two orders, embodied in Euclid's Geometry, in the explanation of nature becomes eminently rational. The
Aristotle's Physics and in Plato's Theory of Ideas. Only at the incessant search for truth leads to the passage from
beginning of the 17th century did modern science originate. philosophy to science, that is, to the interaction of reasoning
with the empirical approach to explaining the causal
Science is a logical process of investigation for solving relationships between phenomena, through rigorous
problems and seeking answers to questions regarding natural analytical and rational procedures.
phenomena. Through the scientific method, scientists
attempt to generate a body of knowledge free from personal Empirical knowledge
beliefs, perceptions, values, attitudes and emotions. This is The most remote and ordinary way for man to create his
achieved by the empirical verification of ideas and beliefs representations and interpretations of reality is through
through a procedure open to public inspection. The everyday experience and common sense. The knowledge
reliability of scientific knowledge derives from its evidence constituted by these representations arises from the need to
base provided by objective observation. solve immediate problems. This empirical knowledge is a
spontaneous and unsystematic way of representing reality,
Scientific knowledge is not absolute and definitive without an appropriate method to deepen its foundations.
knowledge. On the contrary, it tends to improve itself and, as This is the knowledge of the common person, without
a result, lead, for example, to the creation of new more training, generated by his relationship with the material
adequate and convenient methods, techniques and world. It originates from individual and collective
procedures. This progress is achieved by the permanent experiences and beliefs. This knowledge is developed, used
activity of inquiry to which researchers are dedicated. Thus, to predict future events and transmitted from one generation
science is a source of knowledge generation that renews to the next.
itself to solve problems, answer questions, and develop more
effective procedures to solve problems and answer questions. Common sense implies a certain degree of abstraction.
However, it proceeds to a simple junction of ideas, notions
This article reviews the origins, evolution and characteristics and concepts and does not reach a level of elaboration that
Volume 11 Issue 4, April 2022
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Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Paper ID: SR22412084104 DOI: 10.21275/SR22412084104 621
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
SJIF (2022): 7.942
originates the creation or use of concepts whose meanings happened and happens to human beings, and seeks to study
deepen the understanding of reality. This limitation issues relating to knowledge of the deities, their attributes
generates knowledge of facts based on their appearance, and relationships with the world and with men. Religion has
without concern for their explanation through analysis to its foundations in dogmas and rites, which are accepted by
characterize their origins. The knowledge generated is faith and cannot be proved or criticized, because it is the only
constituted by an agglomeration of elements, without unity source of truth. The sources of theological knowledge are the
and coherence. Besides, it is not subjected to a level of holy books – Koran for Muslims, Veda for Hindus, Talmud
criticism necessary to understand reality beyond what is for Jews and Bible for Christians. The interlocutors between
experienced. This can lead to fatalistic interpretations of the man and God are priests, rabbis, pastors and other
situations that present themselves, which attribute to destiny interpreters.
defined by a superior being responsible for the events of life.
Philosophical knowledge
Mythical knowledge Philosophical knowledge began with man's first attempts to
Without using writing, primitive man sought to explain, understand the world by associating reasoning with
narrate and announce phenomena through symbols and observation. Philosophy developed in Persia, China, India,
allegories, thus creating myths. Reality then began to be and elsewhere in the Orient. Western philosophy originated
interpreted based on these myths. Mythical knowledge is a six centuries before Christ, from the teachings mainly of
product of the oral transmission of empirical knowledge from Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras (580-500 BC),
generation to generation. Myths were rooted in the culture and Socrates (470-399 BC), Plato (428-348 BC) and Aristotle
tradition of ancient peoples and represented much more than (384- 322 BC), and the first ones who sought to interpret
an attempt to explain reality. Myth constituted the historical nature by observation and logic, without necessarily
foundation of civilizations, explaining the past and the origin supernatural interpretation.
of the present. It was a representation of the real world,
recreated from the subjective elaboration of man's Philosophy seeks knowledge of first causes or principles. It
experiences. The origins of inexplicable phenomena were has no particular object, but assumes the guiding role of
attributed to immanent powers and forces existing within science itself in the solution of universal problems. Thus,
objects, animals and people. Ancient peoples worshiped the philosophy is the expression of the universality of human
Sun and the Moon; the Hindus, the cow; the Mayans, the knowledge, that is, the source of all areas of human
Incas, the Aztecs and other peoples, the totems and amulets, knowledge. In this context, science not only depends on
monuments and objects that they built themselves. These philosophy but also includes itself.
peoples believed that these entities and objects had the
strength and powers to do good and evil, and created their Philosophical knowledge developed from ideas and theories
interpreters or interlocutors, such as witches, sorcerers, formulated by great philosophers, such as the
priests, shamans. aforementioned Greek philosophers, and Saint Thomas
Aquinas (1224-1274), Francis Bacon (1561-1626), René
At a later stage, these mysterious forces are transferred to Descartes (1596-1650) , John Locke (1632-1704), Jean
fictitious beings with human forms. These beings were Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), Immanuel Kant (1724-1804),
invisible, represented by statues, to which, mainly the Georg Hegel (1770-1831), Karl Marx (1818-1883) and, in
Greeks, Romans and Egyptians, rendered cults. The recent times, Bertrand Russell ( 1872-1970), Ernest Nagel
interventions of these superior beings, called gods, would be (1901-1985), Karl Popper (1902-1994) and Carl Gustav
the origin of all natural phenomena. It is the phase of Hempel (1905-1997).
polytheism. The cause of a set of phenomena in a particular
sector of nature was attributed to a particular god. Philosophy rests on reflection on experience. Reflection
Polytheism predominated in Greece and ancient Rome. provides interpretation variations on impressions, images
Thus, for example, Diana was the goddess of the hunt, Eolo and opinions. However, philosophy is not reduced to a
the god of the wind, Neptune the god of the sea, Ceres the search for reflexive and conceptual originality. Above all,
goddess of the harvest. philosophy aims to understand reality and provide reflective
and logical content to change and transform reality.
Theological knowledge Philosophy has the task of elaborating presuppositions and
Religious experience is as old as civilized man is. Religious guiding principles of human actions. Philosophy is also a
or theological knowledge is aimed at understanding the critical reflection of society, politics, law, education. For this
totality of reality. Its purpose is the explanation of a unique reason, philosophical knowledge evolves according to the
origin and end concerning the genesis and existence of the historical context.
universe. It attributes the cause of all phenomena to a single
superior being: God. In the Judeo-Christian religion, God is Scientific knowledge
the only creator of all that exists. The creation of the universe Science originated from philosophy. From 5,000 years
and natural phenomena are attributed to him, in particular the before Christ, Babylonians and Egyptians developed
creation of man and animals, their existence, transformations important knowledge mainly in mathematics and astronomy.
and purposes. However, the Greek philosophers were the main responsible
for the combination of knowledge in these two areas, which
From a theological point of view, the divine existence is constituted the starting point of science.
evident and evidence needs no proof. Based on this
principle, it seeks to find explanations for everything that has The task of science is the explanation of natural processes
Volume 11 Issue 4, April 2022
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Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Paper ID: SR22412084104 DOI: 10.21275/SR22412084104 622
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
SJIF (2022): 7.942
and phenomena. No system of theoretical ideas, technical verification of such conjectures through objective
terms, and mathematical procedures can be regarded as experience, planned and interpreted with the aid of theories.
scientific unless it relates to these empirical facts at some Common sense can achieve only limited objectivity because
point and in some wa y, and helps to make them more it is closely linked to perception and action.
intelligible. Scientific knowledge is a system of methodical
knowledge about nature. It differs from other forms of In short, scientific knowledge is rational and objective like
knowledge in that it requires objective empirical verification that which comes from common sense, but much more
of all explanations regarding phenomena, which allows an rational and objective than that. The peculiarity of the
understanding of their nature and causes, free from the scientific approach that distinguishes it from common sense
observer's influences, desires and prejudices. Scientists seek is the way it operates, that is, the scientific method, and the
knowledge of the relationships between phenomena, that is, purpose for which this method is applied.
of natural laws. It relies on logical reasoning to deduce new
knowledge from general laws or concepts. 3. The relation of Science with Philosophy
The special character of science can be explained by the Sometimes the scientific method is contrasted with other
circumstances in which scientists work in their respective approaches to knowledge generation and the philosophical
fields. These circumstances include the basic principle of character and logical structure of scientific knowledge are
knowing the natural world through demonstrative arguments. questioned. First, it should be noted that science is a method
Thus, a representation or interpretation of a phenomenon or and not a philosophy. As such, it is not committed to any
process is only scientific knowledge if it has been verified or particular theory or philosophy of knowledge. Indeed, the
empirically demonstrated. scientist's action reveals certain mental preferences and
consistencies of his method that are sometimes related to the
The search for scientific knowledge stems from the views of philosophical schools known by the designations of
perception that the available body of knowledge is rationalism, empiricism, positivism, pragmatism and
insufficient to understand some phenomenon or natural determinism.
event. Part of the available knowledge is common or
ordinary knowledge, that is, non-scientific, and part is A brief examination of the philosophical meaning of these
scientific knowledge, that is, knowledge derived through the designations is useful to clarify the distinction of the
method of science. This knowledge can be put back to the scientist's position in relation to these views, which imply
test, perfected or surpassed, through this same method. As differences in perspectives concerning knowledge.
the scientific process progresses, portions of the ordinary
body of knowledge are corrected or rejected, and the body of Rationalism refers to the philosophical conviction that
scientific knowledge is increased. Thus, science grows from human reason is the main instrument and ultimate authority
common knowledge and surpasses it with its growth. In fact, in the search for truth. Rationalism does not deny the value
scientific work begins at the point where experience and of sensory experience as a source of knowledge, but holds
common knowledge fail to provide solutions to problems that only the logical operation of the mind can determine the
related to phenomena of interest, or even to formulate them. truth of any experience or idea. For his adherence to the
However, scientific knowledge is not a mere refinement and established rules of logic, the scientist could be labeled a
extension of common knowledge. It is knowledge of a rationalist. However, this designation would be
special nature. Science also deals with unobservable inappropriate, since he does not only believe in pure reason
phenomena not considered by the common person, raises as a guide to valid knowledge. The rationale of the scientific
conjectures that go beyond common knowledge, and puts method is grounded in the system of logic employed in
these conjectures to the test on the basis of its theories and scientific reasoning, but the method of scientific analysis
with the help of special techniques. On the other hand, requires much more than just faith in reason.
science is unable to develop knowledge from unnatural
explanations. Empiricism is based on the conviction that sensory
experience must be regarded as the most reliable source of
Thus, scientific knowledge is radically distinguished from knowledge. Certainly, science is, in part and in certain areas,
common knowledge in many respects, particularly in terms an empirical method as well as a logical, that is, rational
of method. However, these two sources of knowledge have method. However, the empirical aspect of science is related
some similarity, at least if consideration is limited to the to the way data are perceived and not to faith in the exclusive
ordinary knowledge generated by common sense. In fact, validity of sensory experiences. Reasoning about empirical
common sense, like science, aspires to be rational and impressions is as important as the sensations received.
objective. However, the ideal of rationality, that is, the Empirical evidence is basic to science, but it only has meaning
coherent systematization of knowledge is only achieved if interpreted by particular notions about its attributes,
through theories, which constitute the core of science, while effects, etc. In fact, a large part of the structure of scientific
common knowledge is constituted by the accumulation of knowledge is composed of abstractions, that is, ideas about
unrelated pieces of information. Besides, ideal objectivity, phenomena and their interrelationships, not empirical
that is, the construction of impersonal representations of evidence. Science is empirical in the sense that its last resort
reality, cannot be achieved without overcoming the narrow for establishing the credibility of any particular knowledge is
limits of everyday life and personal experience. It demands empirical fact, empirical demonstration, or empirical
the formulation of conjectures about the existence of physical prediction. However, to hold that science is only or basically
objects in addition to precarious sensory impressions, and the empirical is to inadequately limit its theoretical framework.
Volume 11 Issue 4, April 2022
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Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Paper ID: SR22412084104 DOI: 10.21275/SR22412084104 623
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
SJIF (2022): 7.942
These two philosophical schools have more than three fourth century BC. Through rigorous observation and
centuries of history. A more modern school that has been disciplined theorizing, Aristotle studied animal anatomy in
related to science is logical positivism, which refers to the detail and created a biological science. In each study, he
belief that statements have factual meaning only when they defined the area and its problems, dialogued critically with his
are confirmed by empirical evidence. In fact, logical predecessors, and then proceeded to develop his argument
positivism is a move by some philosophers of science through experience and reason. His explanations were
towards a unification of the various branches of science by grounded in terms of perceptible qualities and a series of
clarifying ideas and developing methodological precision causes.
through logical analysis. It is a derivation of empiricism that
emphasizes the development of objective communication, Post-Renaissance Science
especially through symbolic logic and mathematics. Some Although the Greeks created a system of thought similar to
scientists have something of a logical positivist in that they the scientific approach some 2,500 years ago, there was little
constantly seek a common unity of method, basic principles, progress in the following centuries. The great power of
and communication. However, even among today's few science and its marked influence have recent origins.
“neopositivists” the original restrictive attitude regarding the Science as it is known today has roots in the 16th century,
credibility of certain types of knowledge has been greatly mainly from three sources of influence: a) the discovery of
modified. classical antiquity and the publication of Latin and Greek
texts from all fields, including science, in the Renaissance;
The fourth philosophical school that is sometimes related to b) the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg
science is pragmatism, which is the belief that the ultimate (1390-1468) and its rapid expansion, which made books
test of an idea's worth is its usefulness in solving practical available and cheap, before the end of the 16th century, with
problems. Certainly, the scientist is a practical man who a marked influence on learning and culture; c) the
seeks the solution of real problems. However, as a discoveries of new lands, by the Spaniards and the
philosophical position, pragmatism is of little value in Portuguese, which created new demands for knowledge of
modern science. In fact, much scientific knowledge is purely astronomy, hydrographic and mathematical techniques, and
theoretical, with no practical value in itself. This theoretical introduced new plants, animals, diseases and civilizations in
knowledge plays a vital role in the structure of science. The Europe.
set of abstract theories that underlie all science, which
constitute what is often called "pure science", is highly At the end of the 15th century, the first experimenters
unpragmatic. appeared in Europe. Speculation is replaced by
experimentation. The forerunner of this change in attitude
The last philosophical link to science is determinism, that is, was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1510). In studying phenomena
the argument that nothing has a place in nature without in nature, he sought to carry out experiments, under various
natural causes. Determinism in science is not a “creed” but a conditions and circumstances, in order to reach a general rule
“postulate” that is employed in the analysis of causality. that applied to all experiments carried out. This is how he
Science has also been related to materialism, that is, to the established the rule that the weight supported by a column is
philosophical doctrine that all knowledge can be derived proportional to the height and width of the column.
from the study of matter. However, today science is
materialist, mechanistic or deterministic only insofar as it is However, in the early 16th century knowledge was still
based on an objectively demonstrable fact base, with the aid rudimentary and heavily dependent on confused assimilation
of physical instruments of observation and measurement. from ancient sources. Before the middle of that century,
Furthermore, determinism should not be confounded with relevant works appeared, such as the treatise by the Polish
“fatalism”, that is, the natural inevitability of events. Science Nicolaus Copernicus (1473- 1543), published in 1543, which
seeks to understand the regularities of phenomena, but such revolutionized cosmology with the new heliocentric idea; the
regularities are not imputed to any unavoidable causal agent. new approach to research in anatomy by the Belgian Andreas
A “postulate of regularity in nature” is presupposed by the Versalius (1514-1564); and the advances in algebra of the
scientist as a principle, with the purpose of obtaining reliable Italian Gerolano Cardano (1501-1576). Copernicus defended
knowledge. However, this principle is not assumed as a “law the idea that mathematics could be applied to research any
of nature”. This term has no important meaning in modern problem involving measurable quantities. Although
scientific explanations of causality. theoretical developments tended to be speculative, there was
considerable progress in many areas. In particular, before the
4. Brief History of Science end of the century, mathematics was usually taught in
Europe.
Science in antiquity
Scientific knowledge (or science) has its roots in the Science in the 17th century
contributions of Greek philosophers. The first attempts to At the turn of the 17th century, a man of traditional higher
explain natural phenomena without the mythological education, called "scholastic", still believed that the Earth
foundation of personal agents, but based on reason and was the center of the universe and that the stars and planets
evocation of causes, originated with Thales of Miletus (624- revolved around it, moved by some intelligent and divine
546 BC),six centuries before Christ. However, speculative being, influencing events on Earth according to their
explanations of phenomena were based on common sense locations and aspects. He believed in a living world, created
rather than technical arguments about artificially controlled and guided by God for the benefit of man. Then, came
experiences. This approach emerges with Aristotle, in the important scientific discoveries that are still accepted today,
Volume 11 Issue 4, April 2022
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Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Paper ID: SR22412084104 DOI: 10.21275/SR22412084104 624
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
SJIF (2022): 7.942
but which were explained on the basis of the culture that was with detailed observations, proved Copernicus' heliocentric
still present. Thus, in 1600, Englishman William Gilbert idea.
(1540-1603), in the course of demonstrating that the soul of
the world was embodied in a magnet, explained the compass Despite their differences in ideas and contributions, Bacon,
on the grounds that the earth was a very weak gigantic Descartes, and Galileo shared a common commitment to the
magnet. Shortly afterwards, in 1609, the Polish Johanes natural world and its study. They saw nature as devoid of
Kepler (1571-1630) discovered the elliptical orbits of the spiritual and human properties. There could be no dialogue
planets around the sun, but his quest for harmony in the with her, either through mystical illumination or inspired
cosmos never ceased. Later, in 1628, Englishman William authority. Rather, it had to be investigated prudently and
Harvey (1578-1657) established the blood circulation, but impersonally, through sensory experience and reason. Care
explained it as a microscopic image of the world's and self-discipline were needed in both observation and
circulations rather than a purely mechanical system. theorizing, and cooperative work was important for the
continued accumulation and testing of results.
In the 17th century, there was a radical overhaul of the
objects, methods and functions of knowledge of nature. The The new ideas of science came to fruition in the 17th century
new objects became natural phenomena in a world devoid of and led to rapid progress in knowledge in some fields, but
human and spiritual properties, and the methods, disciplined slow development in others. Thus, modern conceptions began
cooperative research, and the functions of combining in optics with Johann Kepler 1571-1630), and in electricity
knowledge with the power of industry. The great proponents and magnetism with William Gilbert (1544-1603). At the end
of this revolution in science were the Englishman Francis of that century, Isaac Newton (1642-1727) formulated the
Bacon (1561-1626), the Frenchman René Descartes (1596- law of universal attraction, the law of gravity, and brought a
1650) and the Italian Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). Bacon new rigor to the methods of experimental research.
contested the exclusive use of logic and observation, as
opposed to Aristotle's rules of logic. He advocated a new Science in the 18th century
means by which man could establish control of nature, a Newton's contributions dominated science in the 18th
plan for the reorganization of science, and proposed a century. Scientific developments in that century were mainly
scientific method in his most celebrated work "Novum one of consolidation.
organum". Bacon created the method of “exhaustive
induction”, arguing that, ideally, the scientist should provide At the beginning of this period, scientific activity was
an exhaustive enumeration of all examples of empirical carried out on a small scale, mainly by wealthy men and
phenomena under investigation as a preliminary to well-trained professionals, such as physicists and engineers,
identifying the natural form of which they are a in their spare time. The mathematical sciences (mathematics,
manifestation. He argued that empirically observed facts are astronomy, mechanics and optics) were well developed, but
the starting points for all science and that theory must be physics was still a set of isolated experiments with qualitative
taken into account insofar as it is derived from facts. and mostly speculative theories, chemistry was almost
entirely empirical, and biology paid attention mainly to
In contrast, Descartes focused on the problem of collecting activities. Before the end of the period, successful
constructing a deductive system of consistent and coherent examples of well-organized scientific work already existed,
theory, by which the argument could proceed with the and the foundations for coherent and efficient theories in
formal certainty familiar to Euclidean geometry. He almost every area of science had been laid. Force technology
advocated the idea of a unitary universal science that would was the first to be influenced by the application of earlier
bind all possible human knowledge into one comprehensive scientific developments. The steam and vacuum engine
wisdom. His renowned work “Discourse on the method”, (1717), invented by the Englishman Thomas Newcomen
published in 1637, marked the definitive consolidation of the (1663-1729), originated from 17th century pneumatics.
scientific method. In search of certainty, Descartes
challenged Aristotle and scholasticism, and sought to At the end of the 18th century, the industrial revolution
compose a philosophy associated with mathematics, where began that transformed Europe from an agrarian to an urban
observation and interpretation are legitimized by empirical society. At the same time, the French Revolution introduced
demonstration. the modern policies of freedom and democracy. Scientific
activities underwent similar changes: at that time, the social
Galileo is considered a founder of the experimental method. and institutional foundations for the maturation of science in
Galileo was less radical in his ideals and more the 19th century were established.
comprehensive in practice. Combining experimentation with
mathematics, he contributed considerable advances in The dominant style of science at the time of the French
physics and astronomy. He observed that the chandeliers in Revolution was mathematics. At that time, some French
the tower of Pisa swayed in the currents of air and, based on mathematicians stood out, such as Pierre-Simon Laplace
the beat of his pulse, he measured the time taken for the (1749-1827), Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-1813), Gaspar
strokes of the largest and smallest arc described by the swing Monge (1746-1818), Jean Baptiste Fourier (1768-1830),
of the chandelier. Thus, he discovered the property of Siméon Denis Poisson (1781-1840) and Augustin Louis
constancy of pendulum motion. He carried out meticulous Cauchy (1789-1857). The great Swiss mathematicians
experiments on the flight trajectory of projectiles and the Jacques Bernoulli (1654-1705), Daniel Bernoulli (1700-
falling of bodies, built a telescope and with this instrument 1782) and Leonard Euler (1707-1783) developed the
studied the Moon, the Milky Way, the rings of Saturn and, differential and integral calculus, invented by the German
Volume 11 Issue 4, April 2022
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Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Paper ID: SR22412084104 DOI: 10.21275/SR22412084104 625
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
SJIF (2022): 7.942
Gottfried Leibnitz (1646-1716). Even in chemistry, the epidemic diseases and the cruel diseases of childhood.
nomenclature reform achieved by Antoine Laurent Lavoiser
(1743-1794) and his collaborators was mathematical and Until the end of that century, scientific advances continued
abstract in style. to grow in all areas, so dizzying that it becomes impossible
to catalog them. Just for illustration: in transport, culminated
Science in the 19th century. with the trip to the Moon and launching of satellites and
probes for space exploration; in health, with the control of
Science in the 20th century. Some 19th-century trends many diseases and increased longevity; in communications,
became more salient in the early 20th century. At that time, with the large-scale use of the Internet.
science became increasingly professional in its social
organization. Almost all research was carried out by highly 5. Scientific Method
trained specialists, employed exclusively or primarily for
this work in specialized institutions. Scientific communities, Science is often defined as an accumulation of systematic
organized by discipline, enjoyed a high degree of autonomy knowledge . This definition includes three basic terms for
in setting research goals and standards, and in certifying, the characterization of science. Yet it is inadequate, like
employing, and awarding their members. Forced by other definitions that emphasize the content of science rather
competition, scientists tend to become highly specialized than its fundamental characteristic: its method of operation.
researchers. The dominant style of this period was This is inconvenient as the content of science is constantly
reductionist: research was mainly concentrated on artificially changing, given that knowledge considered scientific today
pure, stable and controllable processes obtained in the may become unscientific tomorrow. Furthermore, the
laboratory, and the favored theories were those involving the demarcation between science and non- science is not
simplest physical causes, using mathematical arguments. obvious. Indeed, it is not a sharp line, but a mobile and
Scientific developments at that time were modeled after the debated area.
standards of theoretical physics.
Science aims at understanding the world in which man lives,
The positive spirit of this science was shown by its knowledge of reality. Thus, it is fundamentally a method of
increasing separation from philosophical reflection. The approaching the empirical world, that is, the world
theories of relativity (1905 and 1916) by Albert Einstein susceptible of experience by man. The consensus regarding
(1879-1955) and the uncertainty principle in quantum theory the essential attributes and processes of the method of
(1927) by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901- science allows for a functional conceptualization of science
1976) raised vigorous philosophical discussions. through its method, as follows:
 Science is an objective, logical and systematic method of
The scientific achievements of the early 20th century are too analyzing phenomena created to allow the
immense to be enumerated. However, a common pattern of accumulation of trustworthy knowledge.
advancement can be highlighted. In each of the most
important fields, progress was based on the successful For a better understanding of this definition of science, it is
descriptive work of the 19th century. Scientific activity was convenient to explain its key terms:
initially directed towards a more refined analysis of the
constituents and their mechanisms and then towards Method
syntheses that gave rise to the names of hybrid disciplines
such as biochemistry and biophysics. In physics, classical A controversy often arises over the uniqueness of the
theories of the main physical forces (heat, electricity, and scientific method. It can be argued that this is not a
magnetism) have been unified by thermodynamics; and at conceptual issue, but a mainly semantic problem that arises
the beginning of the century, completely new discoveries from the various meanings attributed to the word “method”.
appeared (X-rays and radioactivity, for example) and Indeed, although the various fields of science differ in
penetration into the structure of matter (atomic theory and content and techniques, an examination of all highly
isotopy). These discoveries required a review of the developed science reveals a common basis of inquiry
fundamental laws of physics and some of its metaphysical procedures, which constitutes the general method of science.
presuppositions (relativity and quantum theory). Chemical The implementation of this method in particular areas of
methods became necessary for much of this work in physics. science usually requires specific techniques and procedures,
On the other hand, the new physical theories were powerful which constitute the particular methods of science.
enough to provide effective explanations for a wide variety
of chemical phenomena. Based on these discoveries, the Objective
chemical industry produced a wide variety of synthetic Objectivity in science refers to attitudes devoid of personal
substances (fibers and plastics, for example). whim, bias, and prejudgment, to methods for discovering
publicly demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon, and to the
In the biological sciences, physical and chemical methods principle that the last resort of a speculative argument is the
have contributed to discoveries and explanations of objective phenomenon, that is, an observation or experience
ingenious agents (vitamins, hormones) and the that can be publicly verified by trained observers. Evidence
reconstruction of complex cycles of chemical in science is factual, not conjectural, and the “truth” is
transformations through which matter lives. Medical science obtained by empirical demonstration. Although science is
was able to develop bacteriology and, through the discovery practiced by individuals, the scientific method inspires a
of specific and general drugs, it markedly reduced the classic rigorous and impersonal way of proceeding, dictated by the
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demands of logical and objective procedures. Scientists synthesized in an interrelated and logical set created by
constantly seek this way of proceeding through training and human ingenuity. In turn, the scientific method is a creation
the use of objectification instruments that allow them to look to serve a particular purpose: the development and orderly
at their data with as little bias as possible. arrangement of that knowledge and ideas concerning reality
in the form that seems most fruitful for the ends to be served.
Logical It should be noted that man arranges his thinking concerning
To say that science is a logical method means that the the world in which he lives according to various preferences,
scientist is constantly guided by acceptable rules of and the scientific method is the arrangement that has so far
reasoning standardized by reputable logicians. Competence proved most fruitful for the explanation of objective
in science requires competence in logical analysis. Rules of phenomena..
definition, forms of deductive and inductive inference,
probability theory, calculus, etc., are fundamental to any Accumulation
reputable science. Science is a systematic arrangement of Science is an accumulative and integrated system, built in an
facts, theories, instruments and processes, interrelated by orderly way, where every fact, law, theory, principle, etc.
reasoning principles. While one can act in applied areas by support other facts, laws, theories, etc. However, science is
apprehending and applying formulas, acting as a scientist not a mere accumulation of knowledge. Scientific
requires a thorough grounding in logical analysis as well as knowledge is dynamic. Science always looks for additional
specific factual proficiency and knowledge. knowledge, in the belief that knowledge is never complete.
The “truth” in science is always relative and temporal, never
Systematic absolute and final. In contrast to many closed philosophical
Science is a systematic form of analysis. Science proceeds in and ideological systems, science is characterized as an open
an orderly manner, both in the organization of a problem and system of ideas. Therefore, it is constantly growing,
in the methods of operation. This is one of the essential discarding erroneous or useless notions and replacing them
features that distinguishes the scientific approach. The with more correct and useful ones in the light of new
systematic procedure inherent in the scientific approach takes evidence.
the form of a sequence of tightly interconnected and logically
arranged steps that allows for few deviations. Verification in The accumulative attribute of science must not mean that it
science is a systematic process of logical inference that grows by simple addition. The history of science shows that
requires that premises, facts, and conclusions be neatly complex explanations and designations are constantly being
arranged. replaced by scientifically simpler and more accurate
explanations and terminology. This principle of parsimony
The systematic character of science also implies internal of science determines that the scientist must constantly strive
consistency. In a well-developed science, the various theories to obtain explanations that involve as few terms, attributes,
and laws are interrelated and corroborative. They are concepts and formulas as possible. The accumulative
mutually supportive or at least not contradicting each other. attribute and the principle of parsimony are closely
An immature science is characterized by internal intertwined. Indeed, science constantly strives to predict the
disagreements between theories, laws, propositions, behavior of as-yet-unobserved phenomena on the basis of
principles and even methods. It should be noted, however, the commonly known qualities they possess as members of a
that complete and final consistency is never achieved, even class of phenomena. Together, accumulation, ordering and
in the most advanced sciences. New discoveries suggest new parsimony allow a large number of specific predictions to be
laws, principles and theories, which, in turn, require the made from a few basic and general laws.
modification of established notions of reality.
The term “reductionism” has been used in discussions of this
Phenomena broad principle of parsimony. Reductionism refers to the
The scientific method is applicable to any phenomenon, that general practice of seeking to encompass as many sub-
is, to any event or behavior that has objectively theories as possible in broader and more inclusive categories
demonstrable attributes or consequences. If an event is of "grand theories”. Although much of the scientific
presumed to be inherently subjective (for example, an idea, a knowledge at any given time is temporarily unrelated or
feeling, a dream), then it is not treatable by scientific uncoordinated, the scientist constantly strives to relate
analysis unless its presence can be demonstrated through isolated facts into meaningful sets or models. The history of
objective attributes or consequences. Although the science shows that over time such models become integrated
phenomena studied by science are publicly verifiable, it into broader systems of facts and ideas (“theories”) that
should not be understood that such research objects are the allow for a greater range of explanations than would be
only interest of science. The scientific method is built on a possible if segmented facts were used in isolation.
foundation of ideal abstractions (for example, notions, ideas,
theories, laws, principles, etc.) designed to relate and explain Trustworthy knowledge
observable objects and events. Much of the content of In the current context, it is referred to trustworthy knowledge
science consists of intellectual notions about things and for prediction. In this sense, trustworthy knowledge means
events. However, the object of all such thoughts is the correct knowledge. Science constantly strives for precision
particular phenomenon under study. and accuracy. In fact, science progresses as its measurements
and calculations become more refined. Note, however, that
Created precision and accuracy is not an end in itself. They are only
Science is a system made up of diverse factual knowledge related to the purposes they serve, that is, the promotion of
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more specific descriptions that allow for reliable prediction these weather conditions? Are they susceptible to these
or control. diseases?

The function of the scientific method is to understand Thus, an analysis of the overly generic and vague initial
phenomena in such a way that the reason and range of problem - low wheat productivity in the region - leads to a
accurate predictions can be constantly increased. set of more specific problems that have negative implications
Presumably, it is only through a valid and organized system for wheat productivity in that region; for example,
of knowledge, such as science, that predictions can be susceptibility of wheat cultivars to high temperature and
effectively extended beyond the limited experience of a relative humidity; incidence of fungal diseases; incidence of
particular and simple group of individuals. rust; susceptibility of cultivars to fungal diseases. Every
simple and precise problem or question that can be solved or
Through the scientific method, scientists attempt to generate a answered with current scientific knowledge and available
body of reliable knowledge. This is achieved by empirical resources constitutes a scientific problem or research
verification of ideas and beliefs through objective problem.
observation.
Each scientific problem will raise one or more conjectures for
6. Science: Strategy and Tactics a solution or an answer. Consider, for example, the following
problem: damage to wheat productivity due to the incidence
The scientific method is the general procedure of science of rust. This problem can raise several conjectures, such as:
applied in the knowledge acquisition process, regardless of a) high temperature and relative humidity favor the
the topic under study. However, each class of knowledge incidence of rust; b) the occurrence of rust can be controlled
problems requires the development and application of with the use of fungicides; and c) the incidence of rust can
special techniques and procedures suitable for the various be avoided with the use of resistant cultivars. Each of these
stages of problem treatment, from the enunciation of these to conjectures that can be verified empirically constitutes a
the control of the proposed solutions. Examples of these scientific hypothesis or research hypothesis.
special procedures or techniques are colorimetric analysis to
determine the physicochemical characteristics of a substance Then, each of these conjectures can be empirically verified
and vigor analysis to determine the physiological quality of through its consequences. For example, a) if high
the seed. temperature and relative humidity are determinants of the
incidence of rust and the consequent decrease in
Scientific strategy productivity, then wheat crops that differ in those
The scientific method comprises an ordered set of operations characteristics must present different degrees of incidence of
for the characterization and solution of problems, which is rust and different levels of productivity; b) if fungicides
common to all areas of science. Thus, the scientific method control the incidence of rust, then crops with effective
constitutes the strategy of science for the generation of fungicides should be more productive than crops without
knowledge. Example 1 illustrates this strategy. these fungicides or with ineffective fungicides; c) if rust
susceptibility is an important determinant of low
Example 1: Assume the following question: Why is wheat productivity, then crops that differ in terms of cultivars with
productivity in a particular region low? A simple answer to different levels of susceptibility (or resistance) and are
this question could be derived from the empirical similar in terms of other characteristics must have different
observation that the environmental conditions in this state levels of productivity.
are unfavorable for the cultivation of wheat. Scientific
researchers of this problem would not be satisfied with The verification of each scientific hypothesis may be carried
simple and generic explanations like this one, and would start out by scientific research that will include the observation
by critically examining the problem itself, before trying to and collection or gathering of data by scientific means. For
find a solution to it. In fact, that question implies an example, in this illustration, through: a) a research carried
empirical generalization that can be refined by breaking it out on crops, in different locations and over several years,
down into less general questions, such as the following two: with natural variation in temperature and relative humidity;
Under what environmental circumstances (concerning soil, b) a survey of available fungicides and a control (without
climate, disease and pest incidence, etc.) has productivity fungicide); c) a survey of available cultivars with different
been low? Under these circumstances, what are the relevant levels of susceptibility (or resistance) to rust.
characteristics of the wheat cultivation techniques (cultivars
used, phytosanitary treatments, fertilization and soil Finally, in each particular research, the merits of the
correction, etc.) that may have implications for productivity? alternatives of the hypothesis will be evaluated, which may
The questions posed in this way are still too vague and can be lead to the refutation or non-refutation of that hypothesis. If
further refined by asking more specific questions, such as: the observations collected or gathered by the research do not
Has yield been lower in years of high temperature and agree with the consequences derived from the hypothesis,
relative humidity during the growing season of wheat? At the hypothesis will be refuted. Otherwise, that is, if these
what stages of plant development are these conditions most observations are in line with the hypothesis, the hypothesis
adverse? At what stages of its development is the plant more will not be refuted. In the latter case, it will be said that the
susceptible to these climatic conditions? Do these weather observations corroborated the hypothesis. Note, however,
conditions favor the development of fungal wheat diseases? that a hypothesis is never proved, as it will always be subject
What fungal diseases? Are the cultivars in use susceptible to to being refuted by future observation.
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Then, the derived scientific knowledge will be incorporated sequence of operations can be distinguished:
into the previous body of knowledge. a) Enunciation of well-formulated and fertile questions –
scientific problems.
If a hypothesis has been refuted, it will be necessary to b) Formulation of well-founded conjectures that can be
formulate another hypothesis and restart the procedure; if it tested through experience to answer the questions –
has been corroborated, its expansion or improvement will be scientific hypotheses.
desirable. c) Derivation of logical consequences from conjectures.
d) Empirical verification of conjectures – scientific
In general, if research is thoughtful and imaginative, solving research.
the problem that gave rise to it will raise a new set of e) Analysis and interpretation of the results of the
problems. The most important and fertile researches are verification of the conjectures – evaluation of the
those capable of triggering new questions and not those pretense of truth of the conjectures.
tending to stagnate knowledge. In fact, the importance of f) Determining the domains for which the conjectures are
scientific research is evaluated by the changes it produces in valid, incorporating new scientific knowledge into the
the body of knowledge and the new problems it raises. available body of knowledge, and formulating new
problems arising from research.
Example 1 illustrates the general science procedure for
acquiring knowledge. In this process, the following ordered This process of the scientific method is outlined in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Schematic representation of the scientific method process

In short, the scientific method starts with examining existing The fundamental process of the scientific method can be
knowledge and identifying one or more problems of interest. summarized as a cyclical repetition of stages of synthesis,
For each of these problems, one or more hypotheses are analysis and synthesis. The scientific method for solving a
formulated. Then, each of these hypotheses is examined for generic problem related to a phenomenon starts with a global
the logical prediction derivation of consequences that can be view of that phenomenon (synthesis). However, even the
objectively verified. The next step is the objective most restricted parts of the universe are too complex to be
verification of each of these hypotheses through new understood globally and completely by human effort. It
observations. If this objective empirical verification becomes necessary to ignore many of the aspects of the
confirms the prediction concerning a particular hypothesis, phenomenon and abstract an idealized version of it, with the
evidence accumulates in favor of that hypothesis and it is expectation that it will be a useful approximation. Often,
accepted as fact and incorporated into the existing body of certain features of these idealizations are changed for
knowledge. Its subsequent life can be short or long, as simplification. This idealization is then broken down into a
constantly new deductions can be drawn and proved, or not, number of relatively simple parts into which specific
through objective empirical observation. This circular problems for separate treatment can be identified (analysis).
property of the scientific method is illustrated in Figure 2. This decomposition aims to identify independent or
interacting parts in a simple way. When the problems
relating to these parts are resolved, the new knowledge is
integrated into the existing body of knowledge (synthesis).

Scientific tactics
The scientific method is the common strategy of science.
However, the concrete execution of each of the operations of
the scientific method in a research requires a particular tactic
that comprises a set of techniques that depend on the topic and
the state of knowledge regarding this topic. These specific
techniques change much more quickly than the general
method of science. Furthermore, very often they are only
usable in particular fields of science. Thus, for example, the
determination of nutritional deficiency symptoms of rice
plants requires techniques essentially different from those
Figure 2: Diagram illustrating the circular property of the necessary to obtain plants resistant to infection with a virus.
scientific method. The effective resolution of the first problem will depend on

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the state of the plant nutrition theory, while the second one approximations and therefore tentative interpretations of
will depend on the state of the disease resistance theory. reality. The function of science is the constant effort to
refine and improve such models so that they can continually
Scientific techniques can be classified into conceptual and approximate reality in terms of growing and more refined
empirical. empirical evidence.

Conceptual techniques are based on definitions, axioms, Science is based on facts. A scientific fact is a proposition
postulates, laws and theories. Empirical techniques are referring to properties or characteristics of a phenomenon
related to the observation and evaluation of characteristics that has been verified empirically and objectively by the
of natural phenomena, through observation and scientific method. However, facts in science are not
measurement. interpreted and used in isolation. Rather, they are
significantly interrelated by scientific theories to suggest
Conceptual techniques make it possible to formulate problems causal relationships, such as the Mendelian theory of
precisely, state the corresponding conjectures or hypotheses, inheritance and the Newtonian theory of motion. Scientific
establish procedures to deduce consequences from the facts can be used to: a) suggest new theories; b) suggest
hypotheses, and check whether the proposed hypotheses revision or rejection of existing theories; and c) redefine or
solve the corresponding problems. Mathematics offers the clarify theories. Thus, scientific facts are the basic elements
richest and most powerful set of these techniques. These that constitute the foundation of reliable knowledge and
techniques are also powerful in scientific research into scientific theory the superstructure of that knowledge.
natural phenomena. However, its application requires that
scientific knowledge be sufficiently consolidated to be The relationship between theory and fact may not be
susceptible to translation and mathematical treatment. On the straightforward. An interrelated set of facts can constitute an
other hand, mastery of most empirical techniques depends empirical regularity and be formulated as a scientific law,
only on training. However, a talent is needed for its like the law of inertia and the law of gravity. However, a
application to new problems, for the critique of known scientific theory is a generalized synthetic explanatory
techniques, and particularly for the development of new and statement of the cause of a phenomenon or the
better techniques. interrelationship between classes of phenomena. In addition
to systematically explaining or taking into account the
7. Objectives and Scope of Science relationships between facts and laws, scientific theory also
has the function of serving as a unifying explanation for the
Science has two fundamental goals. First, the increase in possible deduction of hypotheses. Thus, hypotheses
knowledge - intrinsic, or cognitive, objective; secondly, the deducible from theory are intermediaries between facts and
increase of man's well-being and his dominion over Nature - theories, as are scientific laws that interrelate verified facts
an extrinsic or derivative objective. (Figure 3).

Science with a purely cognitive aim is called pure science.

Applied science or technology uses the same general method
as science and several of its special methods, but applies
them for practical purposes.

Examples of pure science are physics, chemistry, biology

and psychology; of applied science, electrical engineering,
biochemistry, agronomy, human and veterinary medicine Figure 3: Relationships between theory, hypothesis, law and
and pedagogy. fact
This division of science is often challenged, arguing that The ambition of science is to develop fruitful theories that
science is ultimately aimed at satisfying needs of some kind. cover the widest possible range of phenomena. In fact, the
However, it is related to the objectives of the various areas of basic objective of science is the creation of theories that make
science and explains the differences in attitude and it possible to explain or predict phenomena. Theory creation
motivation between the scientist who seeks to understand is developed by scientific research with the following
better reality and the scientist who seeks to improve his grip functions:
on it. a) Guide the research – it reduces the range of facts to be
used and at the same time determines what kinds of
Science is fundamentally a method of acquiring trustworthy facts are relevant for the research purposes;
knowledge. In pursuit of this goal, what it achieves - b) Serve as both a conceptualization and a classification
scientific knowledge - is theoretical knowledge, that is, an system – it allows the creation of concepts referring to
interpretation of reality, not reality itself. This theoretical important processes, the classification of relevant
interpretation is often expressed in terms of ideal or perfect objects (taxonomy) and the creation of structures of
conditions or forms; for example, a perfect synthesis of two concepts;
or more chemical substances, called “solution”, a space c) Allow a summary of what is already known about a
absolutely without matter, called “vacuum”, and an phenomenon, making possible an empirical
absolutely round figure, called “circle”. These conceivably generalization statement or the creation of systems of
ideal forms are called models. These models are only
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relations between propositions (laws, principles, of empiricism and increase the scope of theory. Science is not
axioms); satisfied with superficial criteria. It demands the detailed
d) Suggest the prediction of facts; and examination of a phenomenon. A phenomenon is considered
e) Highlight gaps in existing knowledge. known only when it is described and explained with high
accuracy, so that it can be predicted and, if possible,
The idea is common that science deals only with “facts” and controlled. In improving knowledge, science pursues four
that its basic function is to research and reveal the “truth”. successive objectives: description, explanation, prediction
This view underestimates the role of science. The notion of and control.
truth has preoccupied epistemologists and philosophers for
many centuries. The difficulty of defining the term “truth” The first objective of science is description, that is, the
stems from the assumption that something is inherently or representation of the phenomenon in order to identify its
necessarily true, or it is not. However, the history of human essential characteristics. Scientific knowledge begins with
experience has shown very clearly that what is at one time description. Only after acquiring knowledge of the relevant
held to be unquestionably true may later turn out to be characteristics of the phenomenon does the explanation of its
unquestionably false (e.g., the sun revolves around the origins begin. The second objective is explanation, that is, the
earth). Furthermore, at any given time, different groups can characterization of the reason for the existence of the
define the same (or apparently, the same) phenomenon very phenomenon or its cause. Explanation requires identifying
differently. For example, for some people it is the conditions that result in the phenomen on occurring. The
unquestionably true that criminals are born bad, or that scientist is cautious and conservative. He recognizes that
Orientals are naturally skilled, while for others such notions most phenomena have many causes and that new evidence
have no substantial evidence to support them. This difficulty may require replacing an older explanation with a more
in defining “truth”, due to the inherent notion of truth or appropriate one. As the scientific research process evolves,
falsehood, is avoided in science. knowledge regarding the causes of phenomena grows and
improves. With this growing knowledge comes the ability to
A scientific fact is a reliable statement or proposition of truth predict and possibly control phenomena.
because it is supported by objective empirical evidence. Not
a certain truth statement or proposition. Truth in science is The third objective of science is prediction, that is, the
never final or absolute. The reliability of a scientific fact is anticipation of knowledge of the phenomenon before its
related to the amount and type of evidence that substantiates occurrence. The establishment of predictions requires
it. The reason why all factual knowledge in science is knowledge of the antecedent conditions of the phenomenon.
relative rather than absolute is a consequence of its Weather forecasting, for example, requires knowledge of the
experiential character. Facts derived from experience lead to weather conditions that influence it, such as wind direction,
probable truths, never to certain truths, because experience is temperature, humidity and atmospheric pressure. The
infinite, and future experience may require a new advance in knowledge of the relationship of meteorological
interpretation of a phenomenon. Thus, the reliability of a events allows that, nowadays, predictions of meteorological
scientific fact depends on the acceptability of the evidence occurrences can be made with high accuracy. The
offered. Some scientific facts are supported by undisputed impossibility of accurately predicting a phenomenon is
objective and empirical evidence, while others are supported indicative of a failure in its understanding. The fourth and
by less convincing evidence. most advanced objective of science is control, that is, the
manipulation of the conditions that produce a phenomenon.
Science seeks to establish conceptual reconstructions of Control, in this sense, means knowledge of the antecedent
reality through facts. A scientific law is a conceptual causes or conditions of the phenomenon. If the antecedent
reconstruction of an objective structure; a scientific theory is conditions are known, they can be manipulated to produce
a system of such statements. More than that, science aims at a the phenomenon as desired.
conceptual reconstruction of the objective structures of
phenomena, both current and possible, which allows for their 8. Role of Logic in Science
exact understanding and, therefore, their technological
control. At every step, science performs partial Scientific facts are the essential elements that build science.
reconstructions, which are problematic and not However, they must be arranged and organized into useful
demonstrable. With the progress of science, these partial interrelated structures. The most essential tool of science,
reconstructions are getting closer to reality. along with the verified fact, is the system of valid logical
reasoning about scientific facts that allows the derivation of
This process of rebuilding the world through ideas and reliable conclusions from them. These conclusions are
checking every partial reconstruction is infinite. proposes a propositions about interrelationships of facts that explain a
definite and final objective, such as the complete construction given phenomenon, which constitute scientific principles,
of knowledge without failure. The aim of science is rather the theories and laws.
continuous improvement of its main products - the theories,
and means - the techniques. At the heart of logical reasoning about facts is a system of
rules and prescriptions that have been established over the
Thus, scientific knowledge is not a simple accumulation of course of twenty-five centuries. The correct use of these
facts, but a permanent conceptual revision. Its progress is due rules is fundamental to every scientific effort. The rules of
to a process of continuous correction. Scientific activity can deductive and inductive reasoning, the correct use of
be considered as a permanent attempt to decrease the degree definitions, sampling procedures, etc. are essential parts of
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any scientist's intellectual tools. systems are compelled to prove basic facts. As these basic
facts cannot be proved, they must be admitted as
One of the biggest logical problems involved in scientific fundamental conventions, necessary to any logical or
reasoning is the distinction between veracity and validity. epistemological system. These fundamental facts are often
This issue is addressed here to illustrate the very significant accepted as indisputable (dogmas) or self-evident. This kind
interrelationship between scientific facts (that is, statements of evidence is, however, a dubious and often unrealistic basis
of truth) and the logical arrangement between those facts for establishing valid knowledge. Science rests on basic
(that is, valid reasoning) that comprise the theoretical core of assumptions supported by logical consistency with
the scientific framework. experience, which scientists employ to interpret the evidence
needed to produce verified facts, that is, to derive scientific
Most reasoning errors stem from the common tendency to knowledge.
confound truthfulness with validity. A scientific fact is a
certain or probable truth because there is substantial These basic assumptions are the postulates of science. These
objective evidence to support it. On the other hand, an postulates should not be confused with scientific
argument is valid when the conclusion necessarily follows discoveries.. They are just functional tools useful for their
from initial propositions or premises, that is, from purposes, while scientific discoveries are confirmed by
presuppositions or assumptions. A person can derive a objective empirical evidence. The postulates can be changed
wrong conclusion from verified facts if he reasons over time, if the evolution of scientific knowledge demands
incorrectly. He can also derive an incorrect conclusion by new forms of reference, as new knowledge frequently
correct reasoning if he employs incorrect propositions as changes the state of previous scientific discoveries.
premises. The solution to this problem of logical inference is
the valid argument's mode of operation. There is only one An examination of the literature reveals that there is no
form of argument accepted in logic as correct (“strong”): one agreement regarding the number and designation of
in which the presuppositions or premises are (certainly or postulates, as there is still no uniform or typical treatment of
probably) true facts and the inferences drawn from them are the scientific method. The list of eight postulates that follows
valid. However, there are three forms of incorrect (“weak”) is just an attempt to concretize and add what seems to be
argument. generally accepted by competent authorities as essential
presuppositions of the scientific method.
This may explain why so many people draw incorrect 1) Every event has a natural antecedent ("cause").
conclusions from scientific facts, and why trustworthy Explanations of events must be sought in natural causes
knowledge grows so slowly in so many fields. The four or antecedents, that is, objectively and empirically
argument forms, one correct and three incorrect, are demonstrable phenomena. This postulate is employed in
illustrated below. science in the analysis of causality. Its main function is
to direct the search to explain phenomena to the
Correct argument: the presuppositions or premises are regularities they apparently obey.
(certainly or probably) true facts and the inferences 2) Nature is orderly, regular and uniform. The belief
(conclusions) drawn from them are valid; that the universe operates according to certain rules of
regularity ("natural laws") is inherent in the scientific
Incorrect argument: 1) the conclusion is valid, but the analysis of natural phenomena. In practice this belief
premises are false, 2) the premises are correct (scientific takes the form of explanations expressed in terms of
facts), but the conclusion is not valid, and 3) the premises inferred probabilities from the particular to the general,
are false and the conclusion is not valid. or from past experience to the present and hence to the
future. According to this postulate, every phenomenon
Many examples could be used to illustrate the fundamental has an antecedent, and while many phenomena may
role of scientific facts and reliable reasoning in the structure appear to be unique (for example, no two storms have
of science. In physics prior to Galileo it was held that heavy identical characteristics), underlying such unique or
objects fall faster than light objects. This statement is a false inexplicable events are certain models of forces that,
fact and is invalid in form. Heavy objects fall faster than when understood, will allow for better prediction than
light objects only when they have a higher density, that is, a would be possible by mere guesswork. Therefore, direct
lower ratio of resistance to the medium per unit of volume. attention must be given to the search for qualitative and
A 1 kg lead ball falls faster than a 10 kg pack of quantitative relationships that apparently exist between
uncompressed feathers because its density is greater. In this natural phenomena. This postulate also expresses the
argument not only is one of the assumptions a false fact apparent fact that nature is not infinitely complex. Thus,
(density rather than absolute weight determines the rate of the ordering of scientific knowledge allows the scientist
fall), but also the shape is invalid because it does not to develop theories regarding the interrelationships of
necessarily follow that just because it is lighter an object phenomena and then proceed to a broader analysis of
must fall faster. the universe as a whole. The implications of this
postulate form the basis of scientific logic applied to
9. Bases of Science natural phenomena. It allows for generalizations and
classifications regarding phenomena and supports the
Interpretations (descriptions or explanations) of phenomena probabilistic basis of inference in science; particularly it
are usually based on some presumed prior knowledge. Since is indispensable for sampling. It also suggests the
some facts are required to prove other facts, all knowledge possibility of ever-increasing scope for a more highly
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 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
SJIF (2022): 7.942
integrated general theory, which is the main aim of all analysis of phenomena must be based on empirical
scientific endeavor. evidence interpreted according to rules of logical
3) Nature is permanent. Although apparently everything reasoning.
changes over time, many phenomena change slowly
enough to allow a reliable body of knowledge to build References
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7) All perceptions are acquired by the senses. That is, all
knowledge is acquired from sensory impressions. The
elements and instruments of reasoning (that is, ideas,
concepts, constructions, images, etc.) are shaped by the
impressions received by the senses. This postulate also
ensures that the only reliable knowledge is that which is
objectively and empirically verifiable. This postulate
originated from the influence of Galileo regarding the
demonstrability of theoretical predictions. The empirical
demonstration became the essential test of the validity of
all theoretical speculation concerning phenomena and
resulting predictions.
8) Man can believe in his perceptions, memory and
reason as a means of acquiring facts. This postulate
supports the entire rational and empirical basis of
scientific knowledge. It does not imply that any or all
perceptions, memories and reasons are trustworthy.
What this postulate asserts is that the final resolution of
any dispute over phenomena must be based on accepted
rules of reasoning and on sense-perceived data; not
about mere notions and ideas. The ultimate belief in the
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