Unit 1 :

1. Define cell
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms. It is the smallest
unit of life and can perform all the necessary functions required for an organism to
survive and function. Cells are the building blocks of tissues, organs, and ultimately, the
entire organism. They vary in size, shape, and function depending on their role in the
body, but all cells share some common characteristics, such as a cell membrane that
separates the cell from its environment

2. Difference between plant and animal cell

Characteristic Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Wall Present, rigid, made of cellulose Absent, no cell wall

Plasma
Present, surrounds the cell Present, surrounds the cell
Membrane

Present, responsible for

Chloroplasts Absent, no chloroplasts
photosynthesis

Present, involved in cell

Centrioles Absent
division
 Smaller or numerous, if
Vacuole Usually large and central
present

Present, involved in
Lysosomes Less common or absent
digestion

Cilia or Flagella Rare or absent May have cilia or flagella

Nucleus Position Typically located near the cell wall Centered in the cell

3. Functions of cell organelles

Plasma membrane – Boundary, Protection and transport
Nucleus - hereditary data essential for multiplication and cell development.
Endoplasmic Reticulum & Golgi apparatus- Protein processing and Lipid biosynthesis
Mitochondria - Energy factories of cells
Lysosomes - digest undesirable materials present in the cell
Chloroplast (only Plant cells) – Photosynthesis
Ribosomes – Protein synthesis

4. Define and explain cell theory, its Postulates and who gave them
Schleiden and Schwann proposed the Cell Theory.
Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of cells.
2. Cells are the smallest living things.
3. Cells arise only from pre-existing cells.
All cells today represent a continuous line of descent from the first
living cells.
Microscopes are required to visualize cells.
Cell size is limited.
-As cell size increases, it takes longer for material to diffuse from the
cell membrane to the interior of the cell.
All cells have certain structures in common.
1. genetic material – in a nucleoid or nucleus
2. cytoplasm – a semifluid matrix
3. plasma membrane – a phospholipid bilayer

5. Diff bet prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Characteristic Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Absent; genetic material is Present, with a well-defined

Nucleus dispersed in the cytoplasm nucleus enclosed by a nuclear

as a nucleoid. membrane.

Mostly absent; no Present, such as mitochondria,

Membrane-bound
membrane-bound endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
Organelles
organelles. apparatus, lysosomes, and more.

Typically smaller, with a Generally larger, with a diameter of

Cell Size
diameter of 0.5 to 5 μm. 10 to 100 μm.
 Single, circular

Chromosomes chromosome (and Multiple linear chromosomes.

sometimes plasmids).

Rarely associated with DNA is associated with histone

Histones
DNA. proteins.

Less complex, without a Contains a cytoskeleton for

Cytoplasm
cytoskeleton. structural support and transport.

Binary fission (asexual)

Mitosis and meiosis (sexual
Reproduction and horizontal gene
reproduction).
transfer.

No mitosis; cell division Mitosis for growth and tissue

Cell Division occurs through binary repair, meiosis for sexual

fission. reproduction.
 Absent; no endoplasmic Present, with the endoplasmic
Endomembrane
reticulum or Golgi reticulum and Golgi apparatus for
System
apparatus. protein processing and transport.

Organelle Limited organelles; simple Numerous organelles; complex

Complexity structure. cellular organization.

Occurs in the cell

Respiration Occurs in mitochondria.
membrane.

Diverse metabolic
Varied metabolic pathways,
pathways; some
Metabolism including specialized functions in
prokaryotes are
organelles.
extremophiles.

Simple in structure;
Complex, with a 9+2 microtubule
Flagella composed of a single
arrangement.
protein.
 Ribosomes Smaller (70S) in size. Larger (80S) in size.

Example Plants, animals, fungi, protists, and

Bacteria and Archaea.
Organisms some algae.

6. What is endomembrane system

-a series of membranes throughout the cytoplasm
-divides cell into compartments where different cellular functions
occur
1. endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi apparatus
3. lysosomes

7.structure and functions of

Mitochondria
-organelles present in all types of eukaryotic cells
-contain oxidative metabolism enzymes for transferring the energy within
macromolecules to ATP
-found in all types of eukaryotic cells
-surrounded by 2 membranes
-smooth outer membrane
-folded inner membrane with layers called cristae
-matrix is within the inner membrane
-intermembrane space is located between the two membranes
-contain their own DNA
Chloroplasts
-organelles present in cells of plants and some other eukaryotes
-contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis
-surrounded by 2 membranes
-thylakoids are membranous sacs within the inner membrane
-grana are stacks of thylakoids
8. Why is e coli used as modular organism for all cell census

• Is easy to isolate present in human fecal matter

• E. coli is able to grow well in the presence of oxygen
• Easy to culture in lab, has high growth rate
• Genome has been sequenced 1997
• It carries plasmids extra-chromosomal DNA which can be manipulated
easily by molecular biology techniques.
• Molecular biology techniques are easy to apply for creation of mutants
• Often, we will have recourse to E. coli because of particular experiments
that have been performed on this organism.
• Further, even when we speak of experiments on other cells or organisms,
often E. coli will be behind the scenes coloring our thinking.

9. What is cytoskeleton
-network of protein fibers found in all eukaryotic cells
-supports the shape of the cell
-keeps organelles in fixed locations
-helps move materials within the cell

10. Cellular crowding and its implications

• The Cellular Interior Is Highly Crowded With Mean Spacings Between Molecules That
Are
Comparable to Molecular Dimensions
• Increase in the effective concentration of macromolecules alters the rates and
equilibrium
constants of their reactions
• Alters dissociation constants by favoring the association of macromolecules, such as
when multiple
proteins come together to form protein complexes, or when DNA-binding proteins bind
to their
targets in the genome
• Crowding may also affect enzyme reactions involving small molecules if the reaction
involves a
large change in the shape of the enzyme.[10]
• The size of the crowding effect depends on both the molecular mass and shape of the
molecule
Involved,
• the increase in the strength of interactions between proteins and DNA[5] is importance
in processes such
as transcription and DNA replication
• involved in processes as diverse as the aggregation of hemoglobin in sickle-cell
disease, and the responses
of cells to changes in their volume.[4]
• the crowding effect can accelerate the folding process,
• crowding can reduce the yield of correctly folded protein by increasing protein
aggregation.[
• increase the effectiveness of chaperone proteins such as GroEL in the cell,[17]
• Crystallins fill the interior of the lens. These proteins have to remain stable and in
solution for the lens to be
transparent; precipitation or aggregation of crystallins causes cataracts
• Crystallins are present in the lens at extremely high concentrations, over 500 mg/ml,
and at these levels
crowding effects are very strong.
• The large crowding effect adds to the thermal stability of the crystallins, increasing
their resistance
to denaturation
• This effect may partly explain the extraordinary resistance shown by the lens to
damage caused by high
temperatures.[22]
• Crowding may also play a role in diseases that involve protein aggregation, such as
sickle cell
anemia alzheimer's disease,

11.
12. Structure of virus and disease caused
A virus is an infectious microbe consisting of a segment of nucleic acid (either DNA or
RNA) surrounded by a protein coat.
• A virus cannot replicate alone; instead, it must infect cells and use components of
the host cell to make copies of itself.
• Often, a virus ends up killing the host cell in the process, causing damage to the
host organism.
• Well-known examples of viruses causing human disease include AIDS, COVID-19,
measles and smallpox.

13. Diff bet dna and rna

 Characteristic DNA RNA

Full Name Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Adenine (A), Uracil (U), Cytosine (C),
Bases
Cytosine (C), Guanine (G) Guanine (G)

Double-stranded helix
Structure Single-stranded (typically)
(usually)

Usually one strand (single-stranded),

Number of Two strands, forming a
but can be double-stranded in some
Strands double helix
types

Base Pairing A pairs with T (in DNA) A pairs with U (in RNA)
 C pairs with G C pairs with G

Carries genetic Acts in various cellular processes,

information and including protein synthesis (mRNA),

Function
instructions for protein genetic regulation (miRNA, siRNA), and

synthesis as an enzyme (ribozymes)

Primarily found in the cell

Found in the cell nucleus, cytoplasm,
Location in Cells nucleus and
and various organelles
mitochondria

Relatively stable and less Generally less stable and more

Stability
prone to degradation susceptible to degradation

Several types, including messenger

RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA),

RNA Types NA ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and various

small RNAs (e.g., microRNA, small

interfering RNA)
Polymerization
DNA polymerase RNA polymerase
Enzymes

Semi-conservative
Replication Single-stranded and synthesized as
replication during cell
Method needed
division

Encodes genetic Acts as a template for protein synthesis

Genetic Code
information in genes and is involved in genetic regulation

Transports amino acids and helps in

Role in Protein Serves as a template for
the assembly of proteins at the
Synthesis mRNA synthesis
ribosome

14. “Proteases” is responsible for protein degradation

15. What is sickle cell anemia
Sickle cell anemia is a hereditary genetic disorder that affects the structure of
hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the
body. This condition is one of several forms of sickle cell disease, and it is the most
common and often the most severe.

16. How steroids work and what is its role(not found)

17. Different types of cell signaling(not found)
18. Structure and function of cell membrane
The cell membrane has a complex structure, which is often described as the fluid
mosaic model.

​ Selective Permeability: The cell membrane is selectively permeable, allowing

certain substances to pass through while restricting the passage of others. This
regulation is essential for maintaining the internal environment of the cell.
​
​ Barrier and Protection: The membrane acts as a barrier that protects the cell's
contents from the external environment. It prevents harmful substances from
entering the cell and retains essential molecules inside.
​
​ Cell Recognition: The presence of specific carbohydrates on the membrane's
surface allows cells to recognize and interact with one another. This is vital for
processes like immune response and cell signaling.
​
​ Transport: Integral membrane proteins facilitate the transport of ions, nutrients,
and other molecules across the membrane. This includes passive processes like
diffusion and active processes like active transport.
​
​ Receptor Function: Certain membrane proteins serve as receptors, which bind to
signaling molecules (ligands) and initiate cellular responses, such as initiating
cell signaling pathways.
​
​ Cell Adhesion: Membrane proteins play a role in cell adhesion, which is crucial for
maintaining tissue structure and function. For example, in multicellular
organisms, cell adhesion is critical for maintaining tissue integrity.
​
​ Communication: The cell membrane is involved in cellular communication,
allowing cells to send and receive signals from their environment and other cells.
​ Cytoskeleton Attachment: The cell membrane can anchor to the cytoskeleton,
helping maintain cell shape and stability.

Unit 2 :
1. Laws of thermodynamics
First Law Of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed
Second Law Of Thermodynamics
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy(disorder)of the universe

2. Gibbs free energy –G

The amount of energy capable of doing work during a reaction at constant
temperature and pressure. When a reaction proceeds with release of free energy,
the free energy change is Δ G has a negative value and the reaction is exergonic
reaction. In the endergonic reactions the system gains free energy and Δ G is
positive

3. Difference between Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions in Metabolism

•An exergonic reaction proceeds with a net release of free energy and is
spontaneous
•An endergonic reaction absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is
nonspontaneous

4. Why cell is called chemical factory

Cells are often referred to as "chemical factories" because they are dynamic and
highly complex entities that continuously perform an array of chemical reactions
and processes. These processes involve the transformation of molecules and the
production of various substances essential for the cell's growth, maintenance,
and function.

5. 3 forms of biological energy

(A) Energy for chemical synthesis and for force generation is stored in the form
of
ATP, which can be converted to ADP + Pi
(B)Reducing potential is carried in the form of transferrable high-energy electrons
in NADH
(C)Transmembrane ion gradients,particularly in the forn of h+gradients ,are also
used to store energy.

6. Protein degradation process

Protein degradation is a crucial process in cells that involves the breakdown of
proteins, which are no longer needed or have become damaged or misfolded.
This process helps maintain cellular homeostasis and ensures the recycling of
amino acids for the synthesis of new proteins. Protein degradation can occur
through several mechanisms, with the two primary pathways being the
ubiquitin-proteasome system and lysosomal degradation.
7. Phases of cell cycle
A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase,
G1 involves cell growth and protein synthesis ,the S phase involves DNA
replication and the replication of the centrosome ,and G2 involves further growth
and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear
division during which duplicated chromosomes are segregated and distributed
into daughternuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis in a process called
cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells formed.

8. Protein synthesis
The process by which DNA directs protein synthesis, gene expression
•Includes two stages, called transcription and translation

9. Channel proteins
One group of channel proteins discussed earlier is the porins, which permit the
free passage of ions and small polar molecules through the outer membranes of
bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. Gap junctions, contain channel proteins
that permit the passage of molecules between connected cells.