REV 1 2009

Large Wind
TERMS & DEFINITIONS TERMS & DEFINITIONS (CONT.) RELATIVE SIZE OF LARGE TURBINES
Blades: Most turbines have 2-3 blades. Wind Repowering: Unique to big wind, entails
blowing over the blades causes the blades to installation of a new turbine on existing towers.
“lift” and rotate.
Rotor: The blades and the hub together are
BOS: Balance of System—typically denoting all called the rotor.
components other than the turbine, tower,
inverters and batteries as applicable. Swept Area: Of the rotor is the area of the circle
“swept” by the blades in square meters or feet.
Brake: A disc brake which can be applied
mechanically, electrically or hydraulically to stop Tower: Towers are made of tubular steel,
the rotor in emergencies. concrete, or steel lattice. Because wind speed
increases with height, taller towers enable
Controller: The controller starts up the machine turbines to capture more energy and generate BLADE GROWTH WITH TURBINE SIZE
at “cut-in” wind speeds (minimum forces for more electricity.
turbine operation) and shuts off the machine at
“cut-out” wind speeds (to prevent damage). Turbine Capacity Factor (CF)—Capacity factor
is the energy conversion efficiency of the turbine.
Conversion Efficiency: The ratio of output It is dependent upon wind speed vs. the optimum
power to input power (e.g. generator) performance characteristics of the turbine (shown
Flagging: Visual indicator of strong sustained on a turbine’s performance curve).
2
winds evidenced by plant deformities. Wind Power Density (W/m ): The amount of
power available from wind at a given speed. With
2
area (m ) denoting the swepted area of the rotor.
Wind Rose Chart: Chart showing direction and %
of time winds blow from each direction.
Developed from wind resource measurements. TURBINE DEVELOPMENT PATH &
GROWTH

Gear Box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to

the high speed shaft and increase the rotational
speed to the generator to produce electricity.
Wind Shear: The change in wind velocity with CA WIND FARM
Generator: Typically induction generator to th
produce 60-cycle AC electricity. Large turbines elevation above ground (see the 1/7 Rule in
complete this step within the nacelle. Calculations).

High-Speed Shaft: Drives the generator. Wind Vane: Measures the wind direction and
communicates with the yaw drive to orient the
kW: kilowatt. Unit of turbine capacity. turbine properly with respect to the wind.
kWh: kilowatt-hour. Unit of energy. Yaw Drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind;
Low-Speed Shaft: The rotor turns the low- the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into
speed shaft the wind as the wind direction changes.
Downwind turbines don’t require a yaw drive, the
Met Tower: A meteorological tower, with wind positions the rotor downwind. Verticle
instrumentation, erected to verify the wind turbines can convert wind from any direction and
resource found within an area. thus do not require a yaw drive. Turbine Market Segments
MW: megawatt. Unit of turbine capacity. Yaw Motor: Powers the yaw drive.
MWh: Megawatt-hour. Unit of energy. FAA SITING REQUIREMENTS Wind Turbine Market Segmentation

Nacelle: The nacelle sits atop the tower and Turbine Size Range Applications Barriers

contains the gear box, low-and high-speed Small (<10 kW) Residential, off-grid Zoning
shafts, generator, controller, and brake. Some
nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land Intermediate (10 kW -
500 kW)
Wind/diesel,
industrial
Zoning

on.
Transmission and access;
Large (500 kW - 5 MW) Grid interconnect
Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the operational impacts

wind to control the rotor speed and keep the Very Large (>5 MW)
Offshore grid Cables to shore, viewshed, new
interconnect regulatory
rotor from turning in winds that are too high or
too low to produce electricity.
 Calculations & Rules of Thumb for System Design

ENERGY PRODUCTION VARIABLES WIND POWER CLASSIFICATION

Wiring Losses & Module Mismatch: Roughly 3-5% loss in system Wind resources are designated in groups called “classes” of wind
performance. ranging from Class 1 – 7. Each class denotes an annual average
2
wind speed range (m/s or mph) and wind power density (Watt/m )
Capacity Factor (CF)—Should choose turbine for a CF range of 20-40% in the
given wind regime. Higher CF values used in application calculations are for rotor swept area at different hub heights for given locations.
suspect and should be checked with manufacturer.
Wind Velocity vs. Power—Power density varies as a cube of the wind velocity:
3 2
Pw = ρ ν /2 watts per m where; ρ = density of wind

Because not all wind power density is available for useful work; the maximum
power that can be extracted from a wind stream is:

0.593 Pw = the Betz limit

th
Wind Shear—The 1/7 Rule (Wind Velocity vs. Elevation Above Ground)— WIND SPEED & TOPOGRAPHY
Turbine height is the most important factor in the economic viability of a small
wind turbine The increase of wind velocity with elevation (wind shear) is a
function of surface roughness, wind speed, and atmospheric stability. It can be
approximated by:
1/7
v(h2) = v(h1) x (h2/h1)
For more precise calculations:
α
v(h2) = v(h1) x (h2/h1) where α= wind shear coefficient

WIND DISTURBANCE AREA

ENERGY CALCULATIONS
Annual Energy Output (AEO)
AEO = Power Density X Swept Area X CF X 8760 h/yr
2 2
= 253 W/m X 38.5 m X 20% X 8760 h/yr
= 17,000 kWh/yr
APPLICABLE ELECTRICAL CODES
 IEEE 1547
 UL 1741

ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES OF BIRD MORTALITY (PER 10,000 MAJOR TURBINE COMPONENTS

DEATHS)
 Calculations & Rules of Thumb for System Design

MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS CRITICAL FACTORS

 Tighten bolts to specific tightness on hub, generator suspension and nacelle.  Having good “bankable” wind resource data.
 Inspect airfoils for cracks & report any immediately, noting type & severity.  Access to transmission. Large wind farms often need to build
 Check brake pads, replace if necessary. transmission due to their remote location.
 Change oil filters, lubricate hub axle, yawing mechanism, generator &  Siting and height of turbine for the least impact to flow & lowest
transmission. turbulence
 Check oil level in transmission, take oil sample and send for analysis.  Turbine selection, size, height & location for local wind regime
 Check starting current of generator.  Verification of energy calculations.
 Check overspeed safeguards (aerodynamic brakes & mechanical breaks).  Soil studies for adequate foundation/installation design.
 Check cables, sensors, generator cooling fan.  Utility interconnection requirements & agreements
 Clean area within nacelle thoroughly. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
LARGE WIND ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW  Visual Impacts—siting critical to mitigate
 Noise—location of turbines key
 Bird/Bat Impacts—biological surveys needed prior to siting large
turbines.
 Telecommunication Interference—localized, siting mitigation
MARKET STATUS
Commercially available turbines and BOS.
RULES OF THUMB
Wind Resource Date—Energy output is very sensitive to average
wind speeds at the site. A 10% reduction in wind speed can mean a
30% drop in energy output.
Turbine Height—The bottom of the turbine rotor should clear the
highest wind obstacle (e.g. roof, tree) within a 500 ft radius by 30
feet minimum. Economics require wind farms to be sited much
higher and where there are NO obstacles for maximum output.
How Many Turbines—Approximately 10MW can be placed on a
Section of land. Wind turbines are usually spaced 5-10 rotor
diameters apart.
Independent Structural Analysis—Independent analysis of the
tower and its foundation are available from the manufacturer.
EXAMPLE LARGE TURBINE SPEC SHEET INFORMATION Additional studies are required for the foundation design based
upon soil/site conditions. Turbines are engineered to withstand
hurricane force winds (110-120 mph).
Aesthetics—Aesthetic impacts of turbines may be unacceptable in
population view shed areas. Be sure proof of public notices and
meetings are part of the application package.
Utility Outages—Turbines are designed to shut down automatically
during utility outages and will not energize a dead power line.
Over-Speed Protection—Turbines are equipped with manual and
automatic over-speed protection devices to keep the turbine
operating within a controlled range of speeds.
Electrical Safety/Permitting—The applicant must submit a line
diagram of the electrical components, with sufficient detail, to the
local zoning board for determination of whether the proposed
installation method conforms to code requirements. This is required
for utility interconnect agreements.

Turbine Noise Levels Project Development Process

Sound decreases 4-fold with every doubling of distance from the turbine hub to the listener (direct
diagonal distance).
 Calculations/Engineering Review

SYSTEM DESIGN REVIEW CALCULATIONS ENGINEERING REVIEW

WIND FARM ARRAY EFFICIENCIES REVIEW STEPS
 Check commercial availability of key system
components (vendor specification sheets
must be supplied)
 Verify total system generation capacity
(Watts)
 Confirm wind resource measurements &
analysis. Average annual wind speed and
power density. Actual site measurements
and analysis for 12 months minimum
required. Use NREL data to confirm general
wind regime.
 Verify the system design contains all key
components and that they are adequately
WIND FARMERS DISCUSSION FORUMS
sized for the generation capacity (turbine,
The Wind Farmers Network is a discussion forum
conductors (wire sizing), overcurrent
for those interested in wind power to exchange
protection, disconnects, grounding, safety
ideas and information about wind power
signage). An independent engineering
resources, economics, technology, and how to POWER OUTPUT VS. WIND SPEED CURVE analysis will do this and is required for
develop a wind project.
projects of this size.
http://www.windustry.com/networks/wind-farmers-
 Verify energy production calculations and
network/wind-farmers-network
derating factors. Include adjustments for
NREL GIS DATA array size.
Data for GIS software for wind, solar, biomass and  Review system installation and mounting
transmission line resource assessments. methods.
http://www.nrel.gov/gis/data_analysis.html  Confirm adequacy of O&M and
decommissioning procedures.
STATE WIND ACTIVITIES  Confirm system installed cost ($/kW) is
Information on state activities for wind
within a reasonable range.
development.
 Calculate simple payback using stated utility
http://www.nrel.gov/gis/data_analysis.html
rate, system costs minus any stated
NREL ATLAS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY incentives/tax rebates, and calculated
Wind resource data mapping. ENGINEERING REVIEW energy production.
http://mapserve2.nrel.gov/website/Resource_Atlas  Confirm zoning allows for turbine of height
/viewer.htm REVIEW STEPS (CONT.)
specified with indicated setbacks & noise
 Confirm zoning allows for turbine of height restrictions.
AWS TRUEWIND INTERACTIVE MAP specified with indicated setbacks & noise  Check that the installer confirmed local soil
Wind resource data mapping. restrictions. conditions meet the minimum requirements
http://navigator.awstruewind.com/
 Confirm turbine meets FAA requirements for of the turbine/tower manufacturer for the
height & lighting if near airports or air strips. foundation design specified. For turbines
STATE ANEMOMETER LOAN PROGRAMS >20 kW, require a soil analysis & engineers
Wind Powering America supports state and Native stamp.
American anemometer loan programs.
Anemometer data can help businesses,
developers, farmers, ranchers, and homeowners
determine if there is enough wind energy at their
site to invest in a wind turbine. The developer will
typically want to do their own data collection.
Large wind data collection must be “bankable”.
http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/anemometer
_loans.asp Costs/Financials
http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/na_anemom COSTBREAKDOWN (ROUGH RATIOS)
eter_loan.asp
Installation = 10% of cost
WIRE SIZING Roads & Elect = 10% of cost
Minimum wire sizing calculator Turbine & Tower = 75% of cost Decommissioning Cost--$20-$50/kW
http://www.elec- Engineering = 5% of cost New Transmission = $1MM/Mile
toolbox.com/calculators/voltdrop.htm O&M = $15 - $30/MWh/yr
Total Installed Cost = $1,000 – 2,500/kWatt (Utility/Community Scale)
TYPES OF REPAIRS ON TURBINES
LIFE CYCLE
15-20 years (last longer but often “repowered” at this point.
SIMPLE PAYBACK
(Total Installed System cost) + (Annual O&M X Equip Life)
(Annual System kWh generation) X (Utility Rate $/kWh)
UNPLANNED REPAIR AND O&M COSTS

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