Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery (2023) 13:11203–11217

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-021-01949-1

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

New numerical simulation of the oscillatory phenomena occurring

in the bioethanol production process
Mohammad Partohaghighi1 · Ali Akgül2 · Esra Karatas Akgül2 · Jihad Asad3 · Rabia Safdar4 · Guangming Yao1

Received: 8 July 2021 / Revised: 1 September 2021 / Accepted: 3 September 2021 / Published online: 6 October 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
The process of bioethanol production has been characterized with a structured and nonsegregated form of yeast growth
dynamics. In this work, a geometric numerical method is applied to obtain the approximate solution of the oscillatory
phenomena transpiring in the process of bioethanol production. This method is called group preserving scheme which is
based on Lie group, proper for solving ordinary differential equations. In this regard, The Minkowski Cayley transformation
is used to create this numerical method to get the approximate solutions of the problems. Moreover, figures are provided to
show the reliability and accuracy of the proposed method.

Keywords Bioethanol production · Numerical method · Group preserving scheme

1 Introduction a significant function in bioethanol production by dissolv-

ing a big part of sugars into ethanol. They are broadly
Nowadays, there are main reasons such as extracting, pro- utilized in manufacturing methods owing to their helpful
cessing, and using fossil fuels for the problems related to features in the configuration of the products, ethanol toler-
the environment and global warming [1]. Due to this matter, ation, and increase on cheap media [4, 5]. The bioethanol
using ethanol is considered another source of fuel [2]. There production process by continuous foaming is extremely
is a generally employed approach in the process of ethanol complicated and nonlinear. Its nonlinearity reveals in the
production called constant fermentation of sugars with the existence of such phenomena as duplicated steady states
aid of wort Saccharomyces cerevisiae [3, 4]. Such yeasts [6], steady boundary circles [7], or even chaotic perfor-
have a significant function in bioethanol production by dis- mance [8]. In the production of bioethanol on an industrial
solving a big part of sugars into ethanol. Such yeasts have measure, these phenomena are the chief root of problems
in the operating of control systems. For this reason, con-
centrated studies on how to kill them are done, and also
on produced oscillations [9]. Oscillations formed in con-
 Jihad Asad stant cultures are independent [10–13], which implies that
[email protected] the outside interference is not needed to make and sustain
the dynamics of the circle. Oscillations formed in constant
1 Department of Mathematics, Clarkson University,
cultures are independent[10–13], which implies that the out-
Potsdam, NY 13699, USA side interference is not needed to make and sustain the
2 dynamics of the circle. There are three types of independent
Department of Mathematics, Art and Science Faculty,
Siirt University, TR-56100 Siirt, Turkey yeast oscillations: glycolytic oscillations [14–16], respira-
3 tory oscillations [17–19] and oscillations associated with
Department of Physics, Faculty of Applied Sciences,
Palestine Technical University-Kadoorie, P.O. Box 7, cell cycle synchronization [19, 20]. Mathematical modeling
Tulkarm, Palestine of cellular metabolism is a necessary, greatly difficult, and
4 Department of Mathematics, Lahore College Women intricate assignment. A proper comprehension of metabolic
University, Jail Road, Lahore, Pakistan manners is crucial to optimize and manage the processes of
11204 Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217

biotechnological [21]. The revealed patterns are composed 2 Governing equations and material
to iterate in an uncomplicated form the operation of the
metabolic model of microorganisms. These models should The connections among these metabolic pathways are
be simplistic in the considered design. Through their for- manifested in Fig. 1.
mulization, There is no need to occupy huge information Below through Eqs. (1)–(3), biomass growth scales with
of the processes of biochemical but we need the capability regard to a delivered metabolic route are reported.
to build the most uncomplicated potential map of reactions Glucose fermentation:
of metabolic [22]. Profoundly special enzymes are used to G
r1 = μ1 e1 (1)
catalyse such reactions. The bearing of regulative processes K1 + G
is an essential character of metabolism, that supplies the Ethanol oxidation:
strength to conduct intracellular variations by measuring the E O
r2 = μ2 e2 · (2)
frequency and motion of enzymes that speed up the metabo- K2 + E Ko2 + O
lic responses. A classification of regulative manners is per- Glucose oxidation:
formed by offering cybernetic variables [23]. Such variables G O
are determined in agreement with the selected standard r3 = μ3 e3 · (3)
K3 + G Ko3 + O
function, which is formed particularly for the supposed
problem. A significant trait of such kind of forms attributed The particular germination rate happening in Eqs. (1)–(3) is
to in the literature as “cybernetic”. A considerable number provided by relation (4).
of studies are available displaying cybernetic systems that μi max + β
μi = μi max (4)
are uncomplicated [24–26]. For more details see [36, 37]. α + α∗
In the studied case, a structured and non-separated cyber- The percentage of intracellular enzyme configuration is
netic kinetic design was adopted to explain the increase of displayed by Eqs. (5)–(7).
Saccharomyces cerevisiae microorganisms. The attendance Enzyme catalyse fermentation of glucose:
of three enzymatically managed metabolic routes: glucose G
fermentation (reaction R1 ), oxidation of ethanol (reaction r4 = α (5)
K1 + G
R2 ), and glucose oxidation (reaction R3 ) [27]. The con-
Enzyme catalyse oxidation of ethanol:
nections among these metabolic pathways are manifested in
Fig. 1. E
r5 = α (6)
K2 + E

Fig. 1 Metabolic diagram

representing metabolic systems
in biomass cell, based on which
the kinetic design utilized in this
study was expressed [30]
Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217 11205

Enzyme catalyse oxidation of glucose: dO

= −D · O + KLa · (O ∗ − O)
G dt  
r6 = α (7) r2 v2 r3 v3
K3 + G − ϕ2 + ϕ3 ·X (13)
Y2 Y3
dC 
The feasible metabolic paths are arranged by the cybernetic = γ3 r3 v3 − (γ1 r1 v1 + γ2 r2 v2 )C − (ri vi )C (14)
dt
variables ui and vi . ui is characterized by Eq. (8) plus is  
i
accountable for the integration of intracellular enzymes that de1 
speed up a provided biochemical reaction. The vi described = r4 u1 − (ri vi ) + β e1 + α ∗ (15)
dt
i
by Eq. (8) controls the action of these enzymes.  
de2 
ri = r5 u2 − (ri vi ) + β e2 + α ∗ (16)
ui =  , i = 1, 2, 3, j = 1, 2, 3, (8) dt
i
j rj  
de3 
= r6 u3 − (ri vi ) + β e3 + α ∗ (17)
ri dt
vi = , i = 1, 2, 3, j = 1, 2, 3, (9) i
maxj rj
with the initial conditions
The dynamics of the mixed tank bioreactor, in which the cons- ⎡ ⎤
tant bioethanol fermentation process is taken, represents the G(0) = G0 ,
⎢ X(0) = X0 ⎥
model of eight ordinary differential equations (10–17). Theo- ⎢ ⎥
⎢ E(0) = E0 , ⎥
ries of the process for the expressed model are manifested ⎢ ⎥
⎢ O(0) = O0 , ⎥
in [28]. Values of the parameters used in the process for the ⎢ ⎥
⎢ C(0) = C0 ⎥ . (18)
formed mathematical system are presented in Table 1. ⎢ ⎥
⎢ e1 (0) = e1,0 , ⎥
  ⎢ ⎥
dG r1 v1 r3 v3 ⎣ e2 (0) = e2,0 , ⎦
= D · (Go − G) − + · e3 (0) = e3,0
dt Y1 Y3
 
dX dC
×X − ϕ4 C · +X· (10)
dt dt
3 Methodology
dX 
= −D · X + X · (ri vi ) (11)
dt Group preserving scheme (GPS). This method is a numeri-
i
cal approach developed by Liu [31] to integrate ordinary
 
dE r1 v1 r2 v2 differential equations. Some interesting applications of this
= −D · E + ϕ1 − ·X (12)
dt Y1 Y2 numerical method can be read in [32–35]. The GPS, as a

Table 1 Parameter of the

kinetic model [29] Parameter Unit Value Parameter Unit Value

μ1 max h−1 0.44 K1 g · L−1 0.05

μ2 max h−1 0.19 K2 g · L−1 0.01
μ3 max h−1 0.36 K3 g · L−1 0.001
Y1 g · g −1 0.16 ϕ1 g · g −1 0.403
Y2 g · g −1 0.75 ϕ2 g · g −1 2.087
Y3 g · g −1 0.60 ϕ3 g · g −1 1.067
KO2 mg · L−1 0.01 ϕ4 g · g −1 0.95
KO3 mg · L−1 2.2 α g · g −1 · h−1 0.3
γ1 g · g −1 10.0 β g · g −1 · h−1 0.7
γ2 g · g −1 10.0 α∗ g · g −1 · h−1 0.03
γ3 g · g −1 0.8 kLa h−1 225
11206 Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217

Fig. 2 Graphical representation 0.1 0.1

of approximate solutions for
X(t), G(t), E(t) and O(t)
0.05

G(t)

X(t)
0.05
-0.05

-0.1
0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
t t
10 -3
1
0.1
0.5
0.05

O(t)
E(t)

0
0

-0.05 -0.5

-0.1 -1
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
t t
Fig. 3 Graphical representation
of approximate solutions for
0
0.01
C(t), e1 (t), e2 (t) and e3 (t)
-0.1
0
e 1(t)
C(t)

-0.2

-0.01
-0.3

-0.4 -0.02
0 500 1000 0 200 400 600
t t

0
0.2

0.1 -2
e 2(t)

e 3(t)

0
-4
-0.1

-0.2 -6
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
t t
Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217 11207

Fig. 4 2D Graphical 0.1

representation of approximate
solutions 0.1

0.05

X(t)

E(t)
0.05
0

-0.05

0 -0.1
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
G(t) G(t)
-3
10
1 0

0.5 -0.1
O(t)

C(t)
0 -0.2

-0.5 -0.3

-1 -0.4
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
G(t) G(t)
Fig. 5 2D Graphical
representation of approximate 0.01 0.2
solutions

0.1
0
e 1(t)

e 2(t)

0
-0.01
-0.1

-0.02 -0.2
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
G(t) G(t)

0
0.1

-2 0.05
e 3(t)

E(t)

0
-4
-0.05

-6 -0.1
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0 0.05 0.1
G(t) X(t)
11208 Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217

geometric scheme, is made in the Minkowski space, where- Moreover, using Eqs. (19) and (20), results:
as the traditional numerical methods (non-geometric meth-
d d √
ods) are all formed directly in the usual Euclidean space . u = u · u = u̇ · n =  (u, ξ ) · n. (22)
dξ dξ
Avoiding spurious solutions and ghost-fixed points is one of
the advantages of applying the augmented Minkowski space
From Eqs. (21) and (22) it follows:
as a Lie group. Suppose dynamical system matching to a
   
(u,ξ )  
differential equation as follows d u 0N×N u u
=  T (u,ξ ) . (23)

dξ u u 0 u
u =  (u, t), u ∈ R , t ∈ R,
N
(19)
Clearly, the first equation in Eq. (23) is equal to the one
Next, by applying a description for a vector of the
Eq. (19), but the later equation shows us a Minkowskian
familiarization of the state vector y for Eq. (19), we have
structure of the enlarged state variables of U := (uT , u)T
u ∈ MN+1 (R) which describes an inner product on RN+1
n := , (20) presented as:
u
√ U, E = U T E = u1 e1 + · · · + ul el − uN+1 eN+1 , (24)
where u = u · u > 0 is norm for Euclidean u. From
Eqs. (19) and (20) we can write
where
   
 (u, ξ )  (u, ξ ) IN 0N×1
ṅ := − · n n. (21) = , (25)
u u 01×N −1

Fig. 6 2D Graphical
representation of approximate 10 -3
1 0
solutions

0.5 -0.1
O(t)

C(t)

0 -0.2

-0.5 -0.3

-1 -0.4
0 0.05 0.1 0 0.05 0.1
X(t) X(t)

0.01 0.2

0.1
0
e 1(t)

e 2(t)

0
-0.01
-0.1

-0.02 -0.2
0 0.05 0.1 0 0.05 0.1
X(t) X(t)
Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217 11209

and In the Minkowskian system, the expanded variable U is a

negative vector and from the Lorentz interior product, meet
U T = (u1 , . . . , uN , uN+1 )T , E T = (e1 , . . . , eN , eN+1 )T . the cone condition:

the Lorentz inner product on RN+1 is the another name of U, U = UT U = 0. (26)
this definition.
Applying novel enlarged variable, Eq. (23) can be formula-
Definition 3.1 Indeed, a null vector in MN+1 (R) contents in ted in the form:

HN,1 (0) = {Y ∈ RN+1 : Y = 0, Y, Y = x · x − t 2 = 0}. U = ϒU, U ∈ HN,1 (0), (27)

where
For N > 1, HN,1 (0) has a couple of route relevant   (u,ξ )

components 0N×N u
ϒ :=  T (u,ξ ) . (28)
+ u 0
HN,1 (0) = {Y ∈ HN,1 (0) : t > 0},
−
HN,1 (0) = {Y ∈ HN,1 (0) : t < 0}. Definition 3.2 Allow B to be a real square matrix. Next
SN Syml (MN (R)) = {B : B T  + B = 0},
The two earlier spaces are normally referred to as the
positive or future pointing light cone and the negative or past is the sense of skew-symmetric matrices’ space in the
pointing cone, sequentially. Minkowskian system.

Fig. 7 2D Graphical
representation of approximate 10 -3
solutions
0 1

0.5
-2
e 3(t)

O(t)
0
-4
-0.5

-6 -1
0 0.05 0.1 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
X(t) E(t)

0
0.01

-0.1
0
e 1(t)
C(t)

-0.2

-0.01
-0.3

-0.4 -0.02
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
E(t) E(t)
11210 Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217

In Eq. (27), we can write ϒ ∈ SN SymN+1 (MN+1 (R)). Also, we own so(N, 1) = SN SymN+1 (MN+1 (R)).
Now set a global group for a group of square matrices: Therefore, in Eq. (27), ϒ ∈ so(N, 1) and alike discretized
G ∈ SO0 (N, 1), obtained from the exponential map (29)
GLk (R) = {G ∈ MN,N : det (G) = 0}. preserve following features:
GT G = , det (Q) = 1. (30)
Admittedly, a subgroup as
Hence, we can offer the numerical scheme as follows:
O(N, 1) = {G ∈ GLN+1 (R) : G G = }.
T
Un+1 = G(n)Un , (31)

So O(N, 1) bears collection of the Lorentzian isometries where Un represents the numerical amount of U at tn ,
RN+1 . Admittedly, for G ∈ O(N, 1) we can express and the group component G(n) is reached from a Cayley
det (G) = ±1. transform:
There is another applicable subgroup of O(N, 1) is
G(n) = [IN − t ϒ(n)]−1 [IN + t ϒ(n)]
⎡ ⎤
2 t 2  T
SO0 (N, 1) = {G ∈ O(N, 1) : det (G) = 1}, IN + u 2 − tn2 n 2 u 22t−utn2 n
n  ⎦
=⎣
2
n n n
2 t u  T
, (32)
n
2
n
2 un  + t n 
2
un 2 − t 2 n 2 un 2 − t 2 n 2
which is known as the orthochronous Lorentz group. For
so(N, 1) as a Lie algebra of SO0 (N, 1), an exponential map
Replacing Eq. (32) into Eq. (31) and using first row, we get
can produce the Lie group:
un 2 + t n · un
un+1 = un + 2 t n , (33)
exp : so(N, 1) → SO0 (N, 1). (29) un 2 − t 2 n 2

Fig. 8 2D Graphical
0
representation of approximate
solutions 0.2

0.1 -2
e 2(t)

e 3(t)

0
-4
-0.1

-0.2 -6
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
E(t) E(t)

0
0.01

-0.1
0
e 1(t)
C(t)

-0.2

-0.01
-0.3

-0.4 -0.02
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
O(t) -3 O(t) -3
10 10
Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217 11211

or and

un+1 = un + ηn n . (34) ⎡ ⎤
G(t)
So, we can apply the proposed to solve Eq. (10) along ⎢ X(t) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
with initial conditions (18). Regarding Eq. (19), we can ⎢ E(t) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
formulate: ⎢ O(t) ⎥
⎢
u=⎢ ⎥. (36)
⎥
⎢ C(t) ⎥
⎡    ⎤ ⎢ e1 (t) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ e2 (t) ⎦
r1 v1 r3 v3
⎢D · (Go −G)− Y1 + Y3 · X−ϕ4 C · dt +X · dt ⎥
dX dC
⎢ ⎥
⎢  ⎥ e3 (t)
⎢ −D · X + X · i (ri vi ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢   ⎥
⎢ r1 v1 r2 v2 ⎥
⎢ −D · E + ϕ1 Y1 − Y2 · X ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢   ⎥ The next section is devoted to showing the performance of
⎢ ∗ r v r3 v3 ⎥
⎢ −D · O + KLa · (O − O) − ϕ2 Y2 + ϕ3 Y3 · X ⎥ 2 2
the presented method.
 (u, t)= ⎢
⎢
⎥.
⎥
⎢  ⎥
⎢ γ r v
3 3 3 − (γ r v
1 1 1 + γ r
2 2 2v )C − (r v
i i i )C ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢   ⎥
⎢ r u − (r v ) + β e + α ∗ ⎥
⎢ 4 1 i i i 1 ⎥ 4 Numerical results and discussion
⎢ ⎥
⎢   ⎥
⎢ r u − (r v ) + β e + α ∗ ⎥
⎢ 5 2 i i i 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ Now, we use the proposed method to obtain the numerical
  ∗
r6 u3 − i (ri vi ) + β e3 + α solutions of the studied model by under choosing the
(35) following initial conditions:

Fig. 9 2D Graphical
representation of approximate
0
solutions 0.2

-2 0.1
e 3(t)

e 2(t)

0
-4
-0.1

-6 -0.2
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01
C(t) e 1(t)

0 0

-2 -2
e 3(t)

e 3(t)

-4 -4

-6 -6
-0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2
e 1(t) e 2(t)
11212 Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217

Fig. 10 Behaviour of solutions

10 -3
1
0.1
0.05

O(t)
E(t)
0
0
-0.05 -1
0.1 0.1
0.1 0.1
0.05 0 0.05 0
0 -0.1 0 -0.1
X(t) G(t) X(t) G(t)

0 0.01
-0.1
0

e 1(t)
C(t)

-0.2
-0.01
-0.3
-0.02
0.1 0.1
0.1 0.1
0.05 0 0.05 0
0 -0.1 0 -0.1
X(t) G(t) X(t) G(t)

Fig. 11 Behaviour of solutions

0
0.2
0.1 -2
e 2(t)

e 3(t)

0
-4
-0.1

0.1 0.1
0.1 0.1
0.05 0 0.05 0
0 -0.1 0 -0.1
X(t) G(t) X(t) G(t)

10 -3
1 0
-0.1
O(t)

C(t)

0
-0.2
-0.3
-1
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.05 0 0.05 0
0 0
-0.05 -0.1 -0.05 -0.1
E(t) G(t) E(t) G(t)
Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217 11213

Fig. 12 Behaviour of solutions

0.01 0.2
0 0.1

e 1(t)

e 2(t)
0
-0.01
-0.1
-0.02
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.05 0 0.05 0
0 0
-0.05 -0.1 -0.05 -0.1
E(t) G(t) E(t) G(t)

0 0

-2 -0.1
e 3(t)

C(t)
-0.2
-4
-0.3
1
0.1 0.1 0.1
0.05 0 0 0
0 -3
-0.1 10 -0.1
-0.05 -1
E(t) G(t) O(t) G(t)

Fig. 13 Behaviour of solutions

0.01 0.2
0 0.1
e 1(t)

e 2(t)

0
-0.01
-0.1
-0.02
1 1
0.1 0.1
-3 0 0 -3 0 0
10 -0.1 10 -0.1
-1 -1
O(t) G(t) O(t) G(t)

0
0.01
-2 0
e 3(t)

e 1(t)

-4 -0.01

-0.02
1 0
0.1 -0.1 0.1
-3 0 0 -0.2 0
10 -0.1 -0.3 -0.1
-1
O(t) G(t) C(t) G(t)
11214 Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217

Fig. 14 Behaviour of solutions

0
0.2
0.1 -2

e 2(t)

e 3(t)
0
-4
-0.1

0 0
-0.1 0.1 -0.1 0.1
-0.2 0 -0.2 0
-0.3 -0.1 -0.3 -0.1
C(t) G(t) C(t) G(t)

0
0.2
0.1 -2
e 2(t)

e 3(t)
0
-4
-0.1

0.01 0.01
0 0.1 0 0.1
-0.01 0 -0.01 0
-0.02 -0.1 -0.02 -0.1
e 1(t) G(t) e 1(t) G(t)

Fig. 15 Behaviour of solutions

10 -3
0 1

-2
e 3(t)

O(t)

0
-4
-1
0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.1 0.05
0 0 0 0.05
-0.1 -0.1 -0.05 0
e 2(t) G(t) E(t) X(t)

0 0.01
-0.1
0
e 1(t)
C(t)

-0.2
-0.01
-0.3
-0.02
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0.05 0 0.05
-0.05 0 -0.05 0
E(t) X(t) E(t) X(t)
Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217 11215

Fig. 16 Behaviour of solutions

0
0.2
0.1 -2

e 2(t)

e 3(t)
0
-4
-0.1

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
0 0.05 0 0.05
-0.05 0 -0.05 0
E(t) X(t) E(t) X(t)

0 0.01
-0.1
0

e 1(t)
C(t)

-0.2
-0.01
-0.3
-0.02
1 1
0 0.1 0 0.1
-3 0.05 -3 0.05
10 0 10 0
-1 -0.05 -1 -0.05
O(t) E(t) O(t) E(t)

Fig. 17 Behaviour of solutions

0
0.2
0.1 -2
e 2(t)

e 3(t)

0
-4
-0.1

1 1
0 0.1 0 0.1
0.05 0.05
10 -3 0 10 -3 0
-1 -0.05 -1 -0.05
O(t) E(t) O(t) E(t)

0.01 0.2
0 0.1
e 1(t)

e 2(t)

0
-0.01
-0.1
-0.02
0 0
-0.1 1 -0.1 1
-0.2 0 -0.2 0
-0.3
-1 10 -3 -0.3
-1 10 -3
C(t) O(t) C(t) O(t)
11216 Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217

Fig. 18 Behaviour of solutions

0
0.2
-2 0.1

e 2(t)
e 3 (t)
0
-4
-0.1

0.2 0.01
0.1 0.01 0 0
0 0 -0.1
-0.1 -0.01 -0.01 -0.2
-0.02 -0.02 -0.3
e 2 (t) e 1 (t) e 1(t) C(t)

0 0

-2 -2
e 3(t)

e 3(t)
-4 -4

0.01 0.2
0 0 0.1 0
-0.1 0 -0.1
-0.01 -0.2 -0.1 -0.2
-0.02 -0.3 -0.3
e 1(t) C(t) e 2(t) C(t)

with the initial conditions 5 Conclusion

⎡ ⎤ During the current work,  a geometric strategy based on

G(0) = 1e − 1,
Lie group is applied to get the approximate behaviour of the
⎢ X(0) = 1e − 1, ⎥
⎢ ⎥ oscillatory phenomena occurring in the process of bioetha-
⎢ E(0) = 1e − 2, ⎥
⎢ ⎥ nol production. To generate this method Cayley transfor-
⎢ O(0) = 1e − 3, ⎥
⎢ ⎥ mation is used in the Minkowski space. Avoiding spurious
⎢ C(0) = 1e − 3, ⎥ . (37)
⎢ ⎥ solutions is the big advantage of this method compared to
⎢ e1 (0) = 1e − 2, ⎥
⎢ ⎥ other methods. Solutions using GPS under selecting initial
⎣ e2 (0) = 1e − 1, ⎦
conditions which are shown by figures. Also, result revealed
e3 (0) = 1e − 2,
that the used approach is accurate, and efficient for solving
systems of ordinary differential equations.
Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
Abbreviations G , glucose; E , ethanol; 0 , oxygen; X , biomass; C
17 and 18 are provided to show the approximate solutions , intracellular carbohydrate; e1 , enzyme catalysing reaction R; e2 ,
for the considered problem using the numerical scheme enzyme catalysing reaction R2 ; e3 , enzyme catalysing reaction R; R1
(34). Values of used parameters are selected from Table 1. , fermentation of glucose; R2 , oxidation of ethanol; R1 , oxidation
Also, we set the values of D = 16.60 and G0 = 8.35 for of glucose; r1 − , reaction rate of R1 ; r2 , reaction rate of R2 ; r3 ,
reaction rate of R3 ; r4 , formation rate of e1 ; r5 , formation rate of e2 ;
solving this problem. 18 figures are responsible to show the r6 , formation rate of e3 .
behaviours of the numerical results of the studied system.
Numerical results for the state variables can be seen in Figs. Acknowledgements The authors would like to express profound
1 and 2 for a considerable time. Moreover, 2D graphical gratitude to referees for deeper review of this paper and the referee’s
useful suggestions that led to an improved presentation of the paper.
representation of approximate solutions can be found in
The second author would like to thank 2020-SÍÜFEB-022.
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Also, we have provided the
3D graphical representation of the numerical solution by Authors’ statement The authors state that they have read the
Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18. manuscript and equally contributed.
Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2023) 13:11203–11217 11217

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