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P NEW EDITION N
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P A TEXT BOOK ON
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ENGINEERING N
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P PHYSICS
P (First Semester B.E. / B.Tech. Students) N
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P N
P ANNA UNIVERSITY N
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P As per the New Syllabus & Question Pattern N
P Regulations - 2017 N
P For the Academic Year - 2017 - 2018 N
P Common to All Branches N
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P Dr. P. MANI, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D. N
P Formerly Dean, School of Sciences & Humanities N
Professor of Physics
P Hindustan University N
P Padur, Chennai - 603 103.
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© Reserved
First Edition : June 2004
Second Edition : June 2005
Third Edition : June 2006
Fourth Edition : June 2007
Fifth Edition : August 2008
Sixth Edition : June 2009
Seventh Edition : June 2010
Eighth Edition : July 2011
Nineth Edition : August 2012
Tenth Edition : July 2013
Eleventh Edition : June 2014
Twelth Edition : April 2015
Thirteenth Edition : April 2016
Sixteenth Edition : July 2017
Copyright Warning : No part of this book may be repreduced or transmited in any
form or by any means electronic or mechanical including photocopying or recording or
by any information storage and retrieval system without permission in writting from the
author and publisher.
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P PREFACE N
P This book on “A TEXT BOOK ON ENGINEERINGN
PPHYSICS” has been written in accordance with the latestN
Psyllabus prescribed by the Anna University in Tamilnadu for theN
Pfirst semester B.E. / B.Tech., degree course under the newN
Pregulations 2017 for the year 2017 - 2018. N
book is attempted with the expectation to meet the needN
Pfor a This
Plearnedgoodandtextlearning.
book that would serve the requirements of both the
N
P Starting with the fundamentals, the various topics in this bookN
Phave been presented systematically and logically in a simple andN
Plucid language. N
P In view of the importance of the SI system of units, the readersN
Pcan find the full - fledged use of the same throughout the text. MoreN
Pstress is laid on fundamentals rather than on mathematical equations.N
P To help the students to have a better grasp of the subject,N
Pathenumber of worked examples have examples have been given in
appropriate places while a good number of well - graded
N
Pquestions have been provided at the end of each chapter. N
P By attempting these questions, the student can ensure aboutN
Phis success in the examination and also get sufficient insight into theN
Psubject. N
P Suggestions and comments for the improvement of the bookN
Pare most welcome. N
P Dr. P. ManiN
P Author
N
P N
P N
P N
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P ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS N
P I am highly indebted to the blessing showered by His HolinessN
PAnmiga Guru Arul Thiru Adigalar in making this attempt a successful.N
P I am always thankful to Late Dr. K.C.G. Verghese, FounderN
PChairman, Hindustan Group of institutions for his valuable
encouragement in writing this book.
N
P I profusely thank Dr. Elizebeth Verghese, Ph.D., Chancellor,N
PDr. Anand Jacob Verghese, M.B.A., (Lon.), Ph.D., Pro-Chancellor,N
PDr. S. Ramachandran, Ph.D., Vice-Chancellor, Mr. Ashok Verghese, N
PM.B.A., and Dr. Abysam, Ph.D. Directors of Hindustan University for
their permission and constant encouragement in bringing out this
N
Pbook. N
P I am thankful to Dr. S. Ganesan, Registrar, Anna University forN
Phis guidance. N
Pand Humanities,
I am grateful to Dr. K. Sivakumar, Chairman, Faculty of Science
Anna University for his encouragement.
N
P I am thankful to Dr. K. Chinnakali, Prof. & Head, Dept. of Physics,N
PAnna University Chennai for his encouragement and support. N
P I thank Dr. R. Jayavel, Director, Centre for Research, AnnaN
PUniversity for his constant support. N
P I am also thankful to Dr. R. Balakrishnan, Former Dean &N
PProfessor of Physics, Madras Christian College, Tambaram for his
kind guidance.
N
P I am extremely grateful to Dr. P. Aruna, (HOD, Department ofN
PMedical Physics), Anna University, Chennai for her kind help, supportN
Pand encouragement. N
PofficerI am grateful to Dr. M. Dharmendirakumar, M.Sc., Ph.D. Zone N
P N
(Zone - III), Anna University Chennai for his help and support.
I sincerely thank Dr. H. Krishnan, (HOD, Valliammai),
PDr. V.N. Nandini Devi (HOD, St. Joseph’s), Dr. Baskar (HOD, Sri
N
PVenketeswara), Dr. Rathinakumari (HOD, Velammal),N
PDr. Manmohan (HOD, Panimalar). Dr. A. Rajalakshmi, (HOD, SSN),N
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PDr. S. Nirmala (HOD, Easwari), Dr. Arjun (HOD, R.M.K.), Dr. Priya N
P(HOD, RMD), Dr. R.K. Natarajan (Dean, Dhanalakshmi), Dr. Prem
Anand (Sri Sairam), Dr. Enashi Das (HOD, Saveetha), Dr.
N
PSanthanakrishnan, (HOD, Jaya), Dr. Caleb (HOD, Loyala Icam), Dr.N
PSusheela (HOD, Tagore), Prof. Chandravathana (HOD, SA), Dr.
S. Suresh (AMET University), Dr. Srinivasan (HOD, SMIT), Prof. Anitha
N
P(HOD, SRR), Prof. Santhi (HOD, Jerusalam), Prof. Sivakumar (HOD,N
PMNM Jain), Prof. Krishnamurthy (HOD, S.K.P.) Prof. Sethuraman (HOD,
TRP), Dr. G. Natarajan, (HOD, PSNA), Dr. S. John Ezhilton (HOD,
N
PVelammal Madurai), Prof. Shiek Fareed (HOD, Mohamed Satak,N
PKilakarai) for their valuable suggestions and support. N
P My thanks due to Prof. Dakshinamurthy (HOD, IRTT), Prof.N
PSaravanan (HOD, AVS), Dr. K.L. Palanisamy (HOD, Senguthar), Prof.
J. Jayaseelan (HOD, Vivekananda) and Prof. Santhi (HOD, Mahendra)
N
Pfor their encouragement and support. N
P My thanks due to Dr. T. Mohamed Ali, (Asst. Professor, Dept. ofN
PPhysics, Poompuhar College,(Autonomous), Melaiyur, Nagapattinam
Dist.) for his kind help, co-operation and fruitful discussion.
N
P I sincerely thank all HOD’s, Professors, Asst. Professors, and staffN
Pmembers of Physics Dept. of various Engg. Colleges & Institutions forN
Ptheir valuable suggestions, encouragement and support. N
P My thanks to my beloved wife Dr. K. Vasuki, M.Com., M.Phil.,N
PM.Ed., Ph.D. (HOD, Department of Commerce, Sir Thegaraya College,
Chennai), sons Dr. M. Venkateswaran M.B.B.S. and Mr. M. Karthikeyan,
N
PB.E. for their moral support and encouragement. N
P I finally thank M/s. Sabanayagam Printers, Chennai in printingN
Pthis book on time. N
P N
Dr. P. Mani
P - Author.
N
P N
P N
P N
P N
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g ANNA UNIVERSITY
For the Academic Year 2017 - 2018
Regulations 2017
Common Syllabus for B.E. / B.Tech. Degree Course
to all the Engineering Colleges in Tamilnadu
Common to all Branches
ENGINEERING PHYSICS L T P C
3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVES
• To enhance the fundamental knowledge in Physics and its
applications relevant to various streams of Engineering and
Technology.
UNIT - I PROPERTIES OF MATTER 9
Elasticity – Stress-strain diagram and its uses - factors affecting
elastic modulus and tensile strength – torsional stress and deformations
– twisting couple - torsion pendulum: Theory and Experiment - bending
of beams - bending moment – cantilever: theory and experiment –
uniform and non-uniform bending: theory and experiment - I-shaped
girders - stress due to bending in beams.
UNIT - II WAVES AND OPTICS 9
Oscillatory motion – Forced and damped oscillation: differential
equation and its solution – Plane progressive waves - wave equation
– Lasers : Population of energy levels, Einstein s A and B coefficients
derivation – resonant cavity, optical amplification (qualitative) –
Nd:YAG laser - Semiconductor lasers: homojunction and
heterojunction – Fiber optics: principle, Numerical aperture and
Acceptance angle - Types of optical fibres (material, refractive index,
mode) – losses associated with optical fibers - fibre optic sensors:
pressure and displacement.
UNIT - III THERMAL PHYSICS 9
Transfer of heat energy – thermal expansion of solids and liquids
– expansion joints - bimetallic strips - thermal conduction, convection
and radiation – heat conductions in solids – Forbe’s and Lee’s disc
method: theory and experiment - conduction through compound
media (series and parallel) – thermal insulation – application – heat
exchangers – refrigrerators, ovens and solar water heaters
i
g
UNIT - IV QUANTUM PHYSICS
Black body radiation – Planck’s theory (derivation) – Compton
9
effect: Theory and experimental verification – Wave particle duality –
Electron diffraction – concept of wave function and its physical
significance - Schrödinger’s wave equation – Time independent and
time dependent equations – Particle in a one-dimensional rigid box –
tunnelling (qualitative) -Scanning tunnelling microscope.
UNIT - V CRYSTAL PHYSICS 9
Single crystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous materials –
Single crystals: unit cell, crystal systems, Bravais lattices, directions
and planes in a crystal, Miller indices - interplanardistances -
coordination number and packing factor for SC, BCC, FCC, HCP
and diamond structures - crystal imperfections: point defects, line
defects – Burger vectors, stacking faults – role of imperfections in
plastic deformation - Growth of single crystals: solution and melt
growth techniques.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
• The students will have knowledge on the basics of physics related
to properties of matter, Optics, waves etc., and they will apply
these fundamental principles to solve practical problems related
to materials used for engineering applications.
i
IMMMMMMMMMMMMMJ
P N
P CONTENTS N
P N
P Unit - I
N
P 1. Properties of Matter N
P 1.1 - 1.66
N
P N
P Unit - II N
P 2. Waves & Oscillation 2.1 - 2.29 N
P 3. Laser 3.1 - 3.56
N
P 4. Fiber Optics 4.1 - 4.52
N
P N
P Unit - III
N
P N
P 5. Thermal Physics 5.1 - 5.68
N
P N
P Unit - IV N
P 6. Quantum Physics 6.1 - 6.79 N
P N
P Unit - V N
P 7. Crystal Physics 7.1 - 7.123
N
P N
P N
P Anna University Model Question Papers MQP1- MQP7 N
P N
P N
P N
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UNIT - I
TORSIONAL STRESS
EXAMPLE FOR CANTILEVER
TORSION PENDULUM
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1. Properties of Matter
Elasticity – Stress – strain diagram and its uses – Factors
affecting elastic modulus and tensile strength – Torsional
stress and deformations – Twisting couple – Torsion
pendulum theory and experiment - Bending of beams –
Bending moment – Cantilever theory and experiment –
Uniform and non-uniform bending theory and experiment
– I – shaped girders - Stress due to bending in beams.
Introduction
Every engineer is concerned with the elastic properties of
material available to him. Whether his product is a bridge, a
power plant or an automobile, he must have a good knowledge
of the elastic properties of the materials he proposes to use.
This will enable him to predict the behaviour of the materials
under the action of deforming forces.
Basic concepts
Load
The external force acting on a body that produces change
in the dimension of the body is called load.
Deformation
It is the change in dimensions or shape of a body when
it is subjected to external forces.
Deforming force
The force which changes or tends to change the shape or size
of a body without moving it as a whole is called deforming force.
Restoring force
When an external force acts on a body to cause
deformation, forces of reaction comes into play internally
and they to restore the body to its original condition. These
internal forces are called restoring forces.
The magnitude of the restoring force is equal to that of
the external force.
1.2 Engineering Physics
1.1 ELASTICITY
A body can be deformed (i.e., change in shape or size)
by applying a suitable force on it. After removing the force,
if the body regains its original shape and size, then it is
an elastic body.
Definition
The property on account of which, the body opposes
the deforming forces and regains it original shape and
size on the removal of the deforming forces is called
elasticity.
Elastic bodies
A body which regains its original shape and size
when the deformation force is removed is called an
elastic body.
The property of elasticity is different in different materials.
In fact, there is no body in nature which is perfectly elastic.
The nearest approach to a perfectly elastic material is the quartz
fibre. Solid substances like rubber, metal crystals are examples
of elastic bodies.
Plasticity
If the body does not regain its original shape and
size, when the applied force is removed, then it is a
plastic body.
The property possessed by a body due to which it
does not regain it orginal shape and size and remains in
the deformed state even after removal of the deforming
forces is called plasticity.
Inelastic or Plastic bodies
A body which cannot regain its original shape and
size when the deformation force is removed is called a
plastic body (or inelastic body).
Properties of Matter 1.3
The bodies like chewing gum, lead solder, putty dough (wet
mida) and wax which get permanently deformed under the
action of forces are called as plastic bodies.
Stress
When an external force F is applied to a body, it gets
deformed. Then, the forces of reaction is set within the body to
restore the body to its original condition.
The restoring force acting per unit area inside the
body is defined as stress.
This restoring force is equal and opposite to the applied
force F. Therefore, stress is also defined as
The deforming force per unit cross sectional area of
the body.
Deforming force F
i.e., Stress
Area A
SI unit for force is newton (N) and that of area is
2 2
metre m
newton N 2 2
SI unit of stress 2 2
N / m or N m .
metre m
Types of stresses
It is found that the deforming forces may change length
or shape or volume of the body. Accordingly, there are three
types of stresses namely
(i) Linear or longitudinal stress
(ii) Shearing or tangential stress
(iii) Volume or Bulk stress
Strain
The change in dimension or shape of a body due to
the deforming force results in strain.
1.4 Engineering Physics
The strain is measured by the ratio of change in dimension
to original dimension. i.e.,
Change in dimension
Strain
Original dimension
The strain has no unit since it is the ratio of same physical
quantities.
Types of strains
According to the changes in length or area (shape) or
volume, there are three types of strains namely,
ii(i) Linear strain (change in length per unit length)
i(ii) Shearing strain (change in area per unit area)
(iii) Volume or bulk strain (change in volume per
unit volume)
Elastic limit
The maximum stress upto which a body exhibits the
property of elasticity is called elastic limit or limit of
elasticity.
Hooke’s Law
Robert Hooke an English Physicist in the year 1679
had given a relation between stress and strain. This
relation is known as Hooke’s law.
Statement
It states that “within the elastic limit, stress in a body
is directly proportional to strain produced on it”.
Stress Strain
Stress Constant Strain
Stress
E Constant
Strain
Properties of Matter 1.5
In other words, the ratio between stress and strain is a
constant. This constant of proportionality is known as
coefficient of elasticity or modulus of elasticity.
E is different for different materials.
1.2 STRESS - STRAIN DIAGRAM AND ITS USES
Consider a wire which is rigidly fixed at one end. It is loaded
at the other end. The strains produced for the different loads are
noted until the wire breaks down.
A graph is drawn between strain along X-axis and stress
along Y-axis. This graph is known as stress - strain diagram
or graph (fig. 1.1).
Fig. 1.1 Stress - Strain diagram for low carbon steel wire
The following useful informations regarding the behaviour
of solid materials is studied from this diagram.
1. Hooke’s law
The portion OA of the curve is a straight line. In this
region, stress is directly proportional to strain. This means that
upto OA, the material obeys Hooke’s law. The wire is perfectly
elastic. The point A is called the limit of proportionality.
1.6 Engineering Physics
2. Elastic limit
The stress is further increased till a point A . The point
A, lying near to A denotes the elastic limit.
Upto this point A, the wire regains its original length if
the stress is removed. If the wire is loaded beyond the elastic
limit, then it will not restore its original length.
3. Yield point
On further increasing the stress beyond the elastic limit,
the curve bends and a point B is reached.
In this region A B, a slight increase in stress produces a
larger strain in the material. The point B is called yield point.
The value of the stress at this point is called yield strength of
the material.
4. Permanent set
In the region A B, if stress is removed, the wire will never
return to its original length. The wire is taken a permanent
set.
5. Plastic range
Beyond B, the strain in the wire increases rapidly without
any increase in the load. This is known as plastic range.
6. Ultimate tensile strength
If the wire is further loaded, a point C is reached after
which the wire begins to neck down. Hence, its cross sectional
area is no longer remains uniform.
At this point C, the wire begins to thin down at some
point and it finally breaks. At the point C, the stress developed
is maximum and it is called ultimate tensile strength or simply
tensile strength of the given material.
Properties of Matter 1.7
7. Breaking point
The point ‘D’ is known as the breaking point where the
wire breaks down completely. The stress at the point D is called
breaking stress.
Other Elasticity related Material Properties
(i) Ductility
A material is said to be ductile if it can be readily drawn
into wires. In terms of stress-strain curve, the materials show
ductility behaviour when they are extended beyond yield limit.
It is the property related to elongation when the material
becomes plastic. Gold, silver, copper, iron etc. are some examples
of ductile materials.
(ii) Malleability
A material is said to be malleable if it can readily be
beaten out in the form of thin sheets. Malleable material should
be soft. It should have large elongation for small stress.
In terms of stress-strain graph, the materials show
malleability when they are compressed beyond, the yield point
for compression. Gold, silver, aluminium are some examples of
malleable materials.
(iii) Brittleness
Most of the materials first pass through elastic region and
then through plastic region before they break.
However, there is a type of materials known as brittle
materials which break even before entering the plastic region.
A brittle material fractures and breaks into pieces under
the influence of large forces but it remains elastic till it breaks.
Glass, ceramics and cast iron are good examples of brittle
materials.
1.8 Engineering Physics
Tensile Strength and Safety Factor
Tensile Strength
It is defined as the maximum value of tensile stress
withstand by the material before fracture under a steady
load.
Maximum tensile load
i.e. Tensile strength
Original crosssectional area
Usually the tensile strength of metals and alloys
increases on cooling and decreases on heating.
Normally the working stress of a body is kept far below
the ultimate tensile stress and it is never allowed to
cross the elastic limit.
The above fact is practiced by all design engineers to
get higher stability and reliability of the structures.
Safety Factor
The ratio between the ultimate tensile stress and the
working stress is called the safety factor.
Ultimate tensile stress
i.e. Safety factor
working stress
Working load or working stress is determined by the
designer on the basis of his experience and knowledge. Thus
the safety factory depends upon the engineering material and
the standard of workmanship.
The good values of safety factor are always adopted to
keep the structure for long life. For dead loads, live loads
and alternating kind of loads, the safety factors are 4,
6 and 9 respectively.
For steel structures, the safety factor is about 4 since
the steel is a very good engineering material. But for
brick structures, it is about 10 since it is not a very
good elastic material.
Properties of Matter 1.9
Uses of stress – strain diagram
1. It is used to measure the elastic strength, yield
strength and tensile strength of metals.
2. It is used to estimate the working stress and safety factor
of an engineering material.
The lower values of safety factor are adopted to keep
the structure for long life. The safety factor helps the
design engineer in determining the degree of safety, the
economy of design, the dependability of material and
the permanency of design.
3. The area under the curve in the elastic region gives
the energy required to deform it elastically. The area
under the curve upto Ultimate Tensile strength (UTS)
gives the energy required to deform it plastically.
4. This diagram is also used to identify the ductile and
brittle materials.
Types of Moduli of Elasticity
There are three types of moduli of elasticity corresponding
to three types of strains. They are
1. Young’s modulus of elasticity corresponding to linear
strain.
2. Rigidity modulus or shear modulus of elasticity
corresponding to shearing strain.
3. Bulk modulus or volume modulus of elasticity
corresponding to volume strain.
Young’s modulus of elasticity Y
Within the elastic limit, the ratio of linear stress to
linear strain is called Young’s modulus of elasticity.
It is denoted by the letter Y.
Linear stress
Young’s modulus of elasticity Y
Linear strain
1.10 Engineering Physics
The linear force F is applied normally to a cross sectional
area ‘a’ of a wire (fig. 1.2)
Fig. 1.2. Young’s modulus of elasticity
Linear force F
Linear stress
Cross sectional area a
If L is the original length and l is the change in length
due to the applied force, then
Change in length l
Linear strain
Original length L
Linear stress
Young’s modulus of elasticity
Linear strain
F
a FL
Y
l al
L
FL
Y
al
2
Unit: SI unit of stress is Nm and strain has no unit.
2
Therefore, SI unit of Young’s modulus of elasticity is Nm .
Properties of Matter 1.11
Rigidity modulus of elasticity n
Within the elastic limit, the ratio of the tangential
stress to shearing strain is called rigidity modulus of
elasticity.
It is denoted by the letter n
Tangential stress
Rigidity modulus n
Shearing strain
Consider a rectangular block fixed at its lower face
EFGH. A force ‘ F ’ is applied tangentially on its upper face
ABCD as shown in fig. 1.3.
Fig. 1.3 Rigidity modulus of elasticity
Tangential force F
Shearing stress
Area of the face ABCD A
A force of reaction of the same magnitude F acts on the
lower face EFGH in the opposite direction.
These two equal and opposite forces form a couple. Due
to this couple, the body gets deformed and its shape changes
as shown in fig 1.3.
1.12 Engineering Physics
All the four vertical sides are twisted (sheared) through
an angle . This angle ‘’ is known as the shearing strain or
angle of shear.
AA l
From the fig, tan
AF L
tan (... is very small)
l
Shearing strain
L
Tangential stress
Rigidity modulus of elasticity n
Shearing strain
F
A FL
l Al
L
FL
n
Al
2
Unit: SI unit of rigidity modulus of elasticity is Nm
Bulk Modulus of elasticity K
“Within the elastic limit, the ratio of the volume stress
to volume strain is called bulk modulus of elasticity”.
It is denoted by the letter K
Volume stress
Bulk modulus K
Volume strain
When a deforming force F acts normally on all the faces
of a solid body, the body undergoes a change in its volume but
not in the shape. The body suffers decrease in volume under
the action of the forces (fig. 1.4).
Properties of Matter 1.13
F
F
F F
Fig. 1.4 Bulk modulus of elasticity
Volume of the body V
Surface area of each face A
subjected to the force
Change in volume v
Normal force F
Volume stress P
area A
where P is the pressure (Force per unit area)
Change in volume v
Volume strain
Original volume V
Volume stress P
Bulk modulus K
Volume strain v
V
PV
K
v
Unit: The unit of bulk modulus of elasticity is
2 2
newton metre Nm
1.14 Engineering Physics
Relation between the three moduli of elasticity Y, n
and K:
Young’s modules of elasticity Y characterizes the ability
of the material to resist the change in length.
Rigidity modulus of elasticity n determines the
ability of a material to resist a change in shape while
maintaining its volume.
Bulk modulus K of elasticity characterizes the
ability of a material to resist change in its volume not
accompanied by a change in shape.
These elastic constants of the materials are dependent on
each other. The expression can be derived by showing the
inter-relations between them.
Three moduli of elasticity Y, n and K are related as
9 3 1
Y n K
Poisson’s Ratio ( )
When a wire is stretched along its length, it is elongated
along in its length and it contracts in its diameter. Thus, the
length of the wire increases in the direction of the force, whereas
a contraction occurs in the perpendicular direction.
The ratio of change in dimension to the original
dimension perpendicular to the direction of applied force
is called lateral strain.
Within elastic limit, the lateral strain is proportional to
the linear strain. i.e., the ratio of the lateral strain and linear
strain is a constant for the given material. This constant is
known as Poisson’s ratio. It is denoted by the symbol .
If and are lateral and linear strains respectively, then
Poisson’s ratio
Properties of Matter 1.15
1.3 FACTORS AFFECTING ELASTIC MODULUS AND
TENSILE STRENGTH
Metals are just an assembly of large number of fine crystals
that is, they are in polycrystalline state.
The elastic nature of a material is linked up with its grain
size. The metal of smaller grains has better elasticity than
the same metal of larger grains.
The following factors affect the elastic modulus and tensile
strength of the materials. They are
1. Effect of stress
2. Effect of change in temperature
3. Effect of impurities
4. Effect of hammering, rolling and annealing
5. Effect of crystalline nature
1. Effect of stress
With a small load (within the elastic limit) is applied on
the body, elongation occurs immediately on loading and goes
back to the original length on removal of the load.
With a higher load, the body continues to stretch, and if
the load is removed, a permanent elongation remains.
Fig. 1.5 Elasticity decreases due to application
of large constant stress
1.16 Engineering Physics
Hence, the application of large constant stress or repeated
number of cycles of stress acting on a body decreases the
elasticity of the body gradually. (Fig.1.5).
2. Effect of change in temperature
A change in temperature affects the elastic properties of
a material. A rise in temperature usually decreases the elasticity
of the material.
This is due to increase of grain size with rise of
temperature. With rise in temperature, the distance between
atoms also increases and so the elastic restoring force
decreases. This in turn decrease the elasticity.
A carbon filament which is highly elastic at normal
temperature becomes plastic at high temperature.
Similarly, a decrease in temperature will increase the
elastic property. Lead is not a very good elastic material. But
at low temperature, it becomes a very good elastic material.
However, in some cases like the invar steel, the elasticity
is not affected by any change in temperature.
3. Effect of impurities
The elastic property of a material is either increased or
decreased due to the addition of impurities (Fig.1.6). It depends
upon the elastic or plastic properties of the impurities added.
Fig. 1.6 Addition of impurities
The addition of impurities to metals binds the crystal grains
better. The impurities either increase or decrease the elastic
properties of the concerned metals.
If the impurity has more elasticity than the material to
which it is added, it increases the elasticity. If the impurity is
less elastic than the material, it decreases the elasticity.
Properties of Matter 1.17
If minute quantities of carbon is added with molten iron,
the elastic properties of iron are increased enormously. If more
carbon is added, its elastic properties are decreased.
Similarly the addition of potassium or copper in gold
increases the elastic properties of gold.
4. Effect of hammering, rolling and annealing
We know that a metal with smaller grains has better
elasticity than the same metal of larger grains.
Fig. 1.6 Hammering
While being hammered or rolled, crystal grains break into
smaller grains resulting in increase of their elastic properties.
Fig. 1.7 Rolling
Effect of annealing
While annealing (that is, heating and then cooling gradually)
constituent crystals are uniformly oriented and form larger
crystal grains. This results in decrease in their elastic properties.
1.18 Engineering Physics
Fig. 1.8 Annealing
5. Effect of crystalline nature
For a given metal, the modulus of elasticity is more when
it is in single crystal form and in polycrystalline state, its
modulus of elasticity is comparatively small.
Moment, Couple and Torque
(i) Moment of a force
The moment of a force about a point is defined as
the product of the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the point to the line of
action of force.
Let ‘F’ be the force acting on a body, at A as shown in
fig 1.9.
Fig : 1.9 Moment of a force
Then, the moment of force ‘F’ about ‘O’ is M F d
where ‘d’ is the perpendicular distance from the point ‘O’
to the line of action of force F.
(ii) Couple
A couple constitutes a pair of two equal and opposite
forces acting on a body, in such a way that the lines of
action of the two forces are not in the same straight line.
Properties of Matter 1.19
Let ‘P’ and ‘Q’ be the two equal and opposite forces acting
on the body AB as shown in fig 1.10.
Fig 1.10 Couple
These two forces form a couple and the moment of the
couple about A is MA and about B is MB, then we can write.
Couple MA MB P d Q d
Torque: of a force with respect to a fixed point
is defined as the product of the force (F) and the
perpendicular distance (d) of the fixed point from the line
of action of the force. It has a tendency to rotate the body
about the axis passing through the fixed point.
Torque F d
Application of elasticity to torsion of wires or
cylinders or shafts
The concepts of elasticity can be applied to the torsion of
wires or cylinders and torsion pendulum.
1.4 TWISTING COUPLE ON A WIRE
Consider a cylindrical wire of length l and radius r fixed
at one end. (fig.1.11a). It is twisted through an angle by
applying couple to its lower end. Now, the wire is said to be
under torsion.
1.20 Engineering Physics
Fig. 1.11 Twisting Couple on a Wire
Due to elastic property of the wire, an internal restoring
couple is set up inside the wire. It is equal and opposite to the
external twisting couple (applied).
The cylinder is imagined to consist of a large number of
thin hollow coaxial cylinders.
Consider one such cylinder of radius x and thickness dx
(fig.1.11b)
AB is a line parallel to PQ on the surface of this cylinder.
As the cylinder is twisted, the line AB is shifted to AC through
an angle BAC
Shearing strain or Angle of shear
Angle of twist at the free end
From the figure (1.11 (b))
BC x l
x
or
l
Properties of Matter 1.21
Shearing stress
Rigidity modulus n
Shearing strain
Shearing stress n Shearing strain n
nx ... (1)
l
Shearing force
But, Shearing stress
Area over which the force acts
Shearing force Shearing stress area over which the force acts
2 2
Area over which the force acts x dx x
2 2 2
x 2xdx dx x
2 2 2
x 2xdx dx x
2
(dx term is neglected since it is very samll)
2xdx
nx
Hence, shearing force F 2 x dx
l
2n 2 ... (2)
x dx
l
Moment of this force about the axis PQ of the cylinder.
Force r distance
2n 2
x dx x
l
2n 3 ...(3)
x dx
l
The moment of the force acting on the entire cylinder of
radius r is obtained by integrating the expression (3) between
the limits x 0 and x r.
1.22 Engineering Physics
r
2n 3
Hence, twisting couple C l
x dx
0
r r
4
2n 3 2nx
l x dx
l
4 0
0
Applying the limits, we have
4 4
2n r 2nr
0
l 4 4l
4 ... (4)
nr
C
2l
In the above expression if 1 radian, then we get.
Twisting couple per unit twist
4
nr ... (5)
C
2l
This twisting couple required to produce a twist of unit
radian in the cylinder is called torsional rigidity for material
of the cylinder.
Hollow cylinder
For a hollow cylinder of the same length l and of inner
radius r1 and outer radius r2
r
2
2 n 2
Twisting couple of the cylinder C l x dx
r
1
n 4 4
r2 r1
2l
Twisting couple per unit twist of the cylinder
n 4 4 . .
C r2 r1 [ . 1 radian]
2l
Properties of Matter 1.23
Shaft
A shaft is a one of the components of the machine. It is
mainly used to transfer the power from the source to a load.
Shaft actually transmits the couple applied at its one end
to its other end without any appreciable twist in it.
It can be rotated on bearings about its own axis with an
arrangement for the application of a couple at one end and with
an arrangement to a load at the other end.
Hence, any rotating member which is transmitting
torque is called shaft.
Example:
1. In the flour and oil mill, the power transmission shaft
transmits the power (torque) developed in the prime
mover (motor) to the load (machine) through a belt.
(Fig. 1.12)
2. In automobiles such as buses, lorries and vans the
driving shaft (axle) transmits the power (torque) to the
wheel.
Fig. 1.12 Shaft
1.5 TORSIONAL STRESS AND DEFORMATIONS
The shear stress set up in the shaft when equal
and opposite torques (twisting moments) are
applied to the ends of a shaft about its axis, is
called torsional stress.
1.24 Engineering Physics
is the shear strain, also tan , thus:
FF R
From fig 1.13
L L
Fig. 1.13
Note that shear strain does not only change with the
amount of twist, but also it varies along the radial direction
such that it is zero at the center and increases linearly towards
the outer periphery.
1.6 TORSION PENDULUM - THEORY AND EXPERIMENT
A circular metallic disc suspended using a thin wire
that executes torsional oscillation is called torsional
pendulum.
It executes torsional oscillations, whereas a simple
pendulum executes linear oscillations.
Description
A torsional pendulum consists of a metal wire suspended
vertically with the upper end fixed. The lower end of the wire
is connected to the centre of a heavy circular disc (fig.1.14).
Properties of Matter 1.25
Fig. 1.14 Torsional Pendulum
When the disc is rotated by applying a twist, the wire is
twisted through an angle . Then, the restoring couple set up
in the wire
C ...(1)
where C couple per unit twist.
If the disc is released, it oscillates with angular velocity
d
in the horizontal plane about the axis of the wire. These
dt
oscillations are known as torsional oscillations.
2
d
If 2
is the angular acceleration produced in the disc
dt
and I its moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of the
wire then,
2
d ...(2)
Applied couple I 2
dt
1.26 Engineering Physics
In equilibrium, applied couple restoring couple
2
d
I 2
C
dt
2
d C ...(3)
dt
2 I
This equation represents simple harmonic motion which
d2
shows that angular acceleration 2
is proportional to
dt
angular displacement and is always directed towards the mean
position.
Hence, the motion of the disc being simple harmonic
motion, the time period of the oscillation is given by
Displacement
T 2
Acceleration
2
C
I
...(4)
I
T2
C
Uses of Torsional Pendulum
Torsional pendulum is used to determine
1. Rigidity modulus of the wire
2. Moment of inertia of the disc and
3. Moment of inertia of an irregular body.
Properties of Matter 1.27
Determination of Rigidity Modulus of the Wire
The rigidity modulus of the wire is determined by the
following equation
I
T 2 ... (1)
C
Experiment
A circular disc is suspended by a thin wire, whose rigidity
modulus is to be determined. The top end of the wire is fixed
firmly in a vertical support.
The disc is then rotated about its centre through a small
angle and set it free. It executes torsional oscillations.
The time taken for 20 complete oscillations is noted. The
experiment is repeated and the mean time period T of
oscillation is determined.
The length l of the wire is measured. This length is then
changed by about 10 cm and then the experiment is repeated.
The readings for five or six different lengths of wire are measured.
The disc is removed and its mass and diameter are
measured.
The time period of oscillation is
C
I
T 2 ... (2)
Squaring on both sides, we have
2
2 2 2 I
T 2 ... (3)
C
2
2 4 I
T ... (4)
C
1.28 Engineering Physics
4
nr
Substituting couple per unit twist C in eqn (4),
2l
2 2
2 4 I 2l 4 I
We have T 4
4
...(5)
nr nr
2l
rearranging the equation (5),
The rigidity modulus of the material of the wire
8I l
n 4 2
r T
2
MR
I moment of inertia of circular disc
2
where M Mass of the circular disc
R Radius of the disc
Problem 1.1
A wire of length 1 metre and diameter 1 mm is fixed
at one end and a couple is applied at the other end so
that the wire twists by 2 radians. Calculate the
moment of the couple required if rigidity modulus of
10 2
the material 2.8 10 N/m . (A.U. May 2014)
Given data
10 2
Rigidity modulus of the material n 2.8 10 N/m
Angle twisted by wire radians
2
Length of the wire l 1 metre
3
Diameter of the wire d 1 mm 1 10 metre
3
d 1 10 3
Radius of the wire r 0.5 10 metres
2 2
Properties of Matter 1.29
Solution
4
nr
Required couple
2l
Substituting the given values, we have
10 3 4
3.14 2.8 10 0.5 3.14 0.5 10
21
3
4.3 10 Nm
Rigidity modulus by Torsion pendulum (Dynamic
torsion method)
The torsion pendulum consists of a steel or brass wire with
one end fixed in an adjustable chuck and the other end to the
centre of a circular disc as shown in figure (1.15)
Fig. 1.15 Torsion Pendulum
The experiment consists of three parts.
First the disc is set into torsional oscillations without any
cylindrical masses on the disc. The mean period of oscillation
‘To’ is found out.
Io
Now, To 2
C
where Io moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of the wire.
1.30 Engineering Physics
2 2 Io ... (1)
To 4
C
Two equal cylindrical masses (each mass m equal to 200
gm) are placed symmetrically along a diameter of the disc at
equal distance d1 on the two sides of the centre of the disc.
(fig.1.14.(b)) (very nearer to the axis of wire)
Mean time period of oscillation T1 is found.
I1
Then, T1 2
C
2
2 4 I1 ... (2)
or T1
C
Here, I1 Moment of inertia of the whole system (disc and
symmetrical masses at closest positions) about the
axis of the wire.
C Couple per unit twist.
i Moment of inertia of each mass about an axis
passing through its centre.
Then, by the parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia
of the whole system is given by
2
I1 Io 2i 2m d1 ... (3)
Substituting the value of I1 in eqn. (2)
2
2 4 2 ... (4)
T1 Io 2i 2m d1
C
Now, two cylindrical masses are placed symmetrically at
equal distances d2 from the axis of the wire as shown in
fig.1.14(c) (at the edges of the disc)
Properties of Matter 1.31
Mean time period of oscillation ‘T2’ is found out in this
case also.
I2
T2 2
C
2
2 4 I2
T2
C
2 2
4 [Io 2i 2m d2] ... (5)
2
T2
C
. . 2
[ . I2 Io 2i 2m d2]
2 2 2 2
Now, I2 I1 Io 2i 2md2 Io 2i 2md1 2m d2 d1
Subtracting (4) from (5)
We have
2 2
2 2 4 2 2 4 2 2
T2 T1 [Io 2i 2md2 Io 2i 2md1] 2m d2 d1
C C
2
2 2 4
T2 T1 I2 I1 ... (6)
C
Dividing eqn. (1) by eqn. (6)
2
T0 I0
... (7)
2 2 I2 I1
T2 T1
Substituting the value of I2 I1 in this equation (7), we
have
2
T0 I0
2 2
2 2
T2 T1 2m d2 d1
1.32 Engineering Physics
2 2 2
2m d2 d1 T0
I0 2 2
T2 T1
Thus, the moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of
rotation is calculated substituting the values of T0, T1, T2, d1 and
d2 in the above formula.
Calculation of rigidity modulus of the wire
We know that restoring couple per unit twist
4
nr ... (8)
C
2l
Substituting the value of C in expression (6) we have
2
2 2 4 2 2
T2 T1 4
2m d2 d1
nr
2l
2
4 2l 2 2
4
2m d2 d1
nr
2 2
2 2 16 ml d2 d1
T2 T1 4
nr
2 2
16 l md2 d1 2 ... (9)
or n 2 2 4
Nm
T2 T1 r
Using the above relation, the rigidity modulus of wire is
determined.
Properties of Matter 1.33
Application of Elasticity to Bending of Beams
A beam is a rod of uniform cross section which is used to
support heavy loads. Depending on the shape of the cross
section, beams are called rectangular, circular, I-beams etc.
Based on the type of support on the ends, beams are
classified as the cantilever type, simply supported type, fixed
ends type etc., Figure 1.16 (a) and (b) show simply supported
beam and cantilever beam respectively.
Fig 1.16
When beams are loaded, they bend and consequently,
bending moments and bending stresses are set up in them.
Using the concepts of elasticity, bending moments and deflection
of beams can be correlated.
1.7 BENDING OF BEAM
Consider a beam which is bent into an arc by the
application of a load. This beam is made up of a large number
of thin plane layers one above the other.
Taking a longitudinal section ABCD of the bent beam, the
layers in the upper half are elongated while those in the lower
half are compressed. (Fig. 1.17)
1.34 Engineering Physics
Fig. 1.17 Bending of a beam
In the middle, there is a layer MN which is not elongated
or compressed due to bending of the beam. This layer is called
‘neutral surface’ and the line MN at which the neutral layer
intersects the plane of bending is called ‘neutral axis’.
Neutral surface of the beam is defined as the surface
in the bent beam at which there is no elongation or
compression due to tensile or compressive stress
respectively and it is at the centre of the bent beam.
The plane in which bending takes place is known as
plane of bending and obviously it is the vertical plane
when the beam is placed horizontally.
The line obtained by the intersection of neutral surface
and plane of bending is called neutral axis.
It is found that the length of the layers increases or
decreases in proportion to its distance away from the neutral
axis MN.
Properties of Matter 1.35
The layers below MN are compressed and those above
MN are elongated. There are a pairs of layers one above MN
and one below MN experiencing same forces of elongation and
compression due to bending. Each pair of layers forms a couple.
This couple is known as internal couple.
The resultant of the moments of all these internal
couples are called ‘internal bending moment’.
In equilibrium condition, internal bending moment is equal
to external bending moment.
1.8 BENDING MOMENT OF A BEAM
Consider a portion ABCD of a bent beam as shown in
fig. 1.16.
Fig. 1.18 Bending moment of a beam
P and Q are two points on the neutral axis MN. R is the
radius of curvature of the neutral axis and is the angle
subtended by the bent beam at its centre of curvature O.
i.e., OQ
P
Consider two corresponding points P1 and Q1 on a parallel
layer at a distance x from the neutral axis.
1.36 Engineering Physics
From the figure, 1.16
PQ R ...(1)
Corresponding length on the parallel layer
P1 Q1 R x
Increase in length of P1 Q1
P1 Q1 PQ
R x R
R x R x ...(2)
Increase in length
Linear strain produced
Original length
x x
... (3)
R R
If Y is Young’s modulus of the material, then
Linear stress
Y
Linear strain
or Linear stress Y Linear strain
Yx ...(4)
R
If A is the area of cross-section of the layer, then
Force acting on the area A stress area
.. Force
. stress Area
YxA
R
Moment of this force about the neutral axis MN
Force r distance
YxA
x
R
Properties of Matter 1.37
The sum of the moments of forces acting on all the layers
2
YA x
R
2
Y A . x
R
YI
R
2
A . x I is called geometrical moment of inertia of the
cross-section of the beam.
The sum of moments of forces acting on all the
layers is the internal bending moment and which comes
into play due to elasticity.
YI
Thus, internal bending moment of the beam
R
Note:
For a rectangular beam of breadth b and thickness d, the
geometrical moment of inertia is given by
3
bd
I
12
Similarly, for a beam of circular cross section,
4
r
I
4
where r is the radius of the rod.
1.9 STRESS DUE TO BENDING IN BEAMS
Figure 1.19 shows a beam under the action of a bending
moment M. In a particular segment of the beam, bending occurs
with the center of curvature at O, radius of curvature R,
included angle and neutral surface MN.
1.38 Engineering Physics
If the longitudinal stress at a filament AB at distance x
from the neutral surface MN is , then the strain in AB is
given as
Change in length P1 Q1 PQ
Strain
Original length PQ
R x R
R
R x R x x
R R R
Stress
But
Y Young’s modulus
x
Thus
Y R
or
x
or Y
R
Here x/R is constant for a particular cross section of the
beam. Thus, the bending stress () at a particular cross section
is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis (x).
For filaments above neutral axis (i.e. negative values of x),
bending stress is compressive (i.e., is negative). For filaments
below neutral axis (for positive values of x), bending stress is
tensile (i.e., is positive)
1.10 CANTILEVER-THEORY AND EXPERIMENT
Definition
It is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded
at the other end.
Properties of Matter 1.39
Expression for depression produced in the cantilever:
Consider a cantilever of length l fixed at the end A and
loaded at the free end B by a weight W. The end B is depressed
to B (Fig. 1.20). AB is the neutral axis.
BB represents the vertical depression at the free end.
Fig. 1.20 Depression at the free end of the cantilever.
Consider the section of the cantilever P at a distance x
from the fixed end A. It is at a distance l x from the loaded
end B.
Considering the equilibrium of the portion PB, there is a
force of reaction W at P.
External bending moment W PB W l x
YI
Internal bending moment
R
where
Y Young’s modulus of the cantilever.
I Geometrical moment of inertia of its cross-section.
R Radius of the curvature of the neutral axis at P.
1.40 Engineering Physics
In the equilibrium position,
External bending moment = Internal bending moment
YI ...(1)
W l x
R
Q is another point at a distance dx from P
ie., PQ dx
‘O’ is the centre of curvature of the arc PQ
PO R and POQ d
Then, dx R d ...(2)
The tangents are drawn at P and Q meeting the line
BB at C and D.
Vertical depression CD dy l x d ...(3)
From the eqns (2) and (3), we have
dx R d R
dy l x d l x
l x dx ...(4)
R
dy
Substituting for R in eqn. (1), we have
YI
W l x
l x dx
dy
YI dy ...(5)
W l x
l x dx
Rearranging eqn (5), we have
W
dy l x l x dx
YI
W 2 ...(6)
dy l x dx
YI
Properties of Matter 1.41
Total depression y BB at the free end is
l
dy W
YI
2
l x dx ...(7)
0
y
W
YI l x dx 2
y
W
YI l 2 2
x 2 l x dx
0
l
3 2
W 2 x 2lx
or y l x
YI 3 2
0
3 3
W 3 l 3 W l
y l l
YI 3 YI 3
3
Wl ...(8)
y
3YI
Determination of Young’s modulus of the cantilever
Young’s modulus of the cantilever is determined using the
depression produced in the cantilever.
Depression at the free end of the cantilever
3
Wl
y
3YI
Young’s modulus of the cantilever
3 ...(9)
Wl
Y
3Iy
1.42 Engineering Physics
For a beam of rectangular cross-section,
3
bd
I where b is breadth and d thickness of the beam.
12
The weight W Mg where M is the mass suspended at the
free end and g is acceleration due to gravity.
Substituting for W and I in eqn (9), we have
3
Mg l
Y 3
bd y
3
12
3
Mg l
3
bd y
4
3
4 Mg l
Young’s modulus Y 3
bd y
From the above expression, Y is determined.
Experimental determination of Young’s modulus of a
cantilever
The given bar is fixed rigidly at one end and a weight
hanger is suspended at the other end (Fig. 1.21)
A pin is fixed vertically (using wax) at the free end of the
beam. A travelling microscope (T) is focussed on the pin.
The microscope is adjusted such that the horizontal cross-wire
coincides with the tip of the pin. The initial reading in the
microscope on the vertical scale is noted.
A suitable mass M is placed on the hanger. The reading
in the microscope is again noted. The difference between two
readings of the microscope gives the depression y corresponding
to load M
Properties of Matter 1.43
C a n tile ver (be a m )
T
P in
G
L oa d W
Fig. 1.21 Experiment to find Young’s modulus of the
cantilever using depression.
The experiment is repeated by increasing the values of
M in steps of 50 gm. Then, the experiment is also repeated by
decreasing the weights.
The observations are tabulated as follows:
Microscope readings for
depression (y) Mean depression ‘y’
Load
Load Load for a load of M kg.
Mean
increasing decreasing
gm cm cm cm cm
W
W 50
W 100
W 150
W 200
W 250
Mean y
1.44 Engineering Physics
From these observations, mean depression y corresponding
to each value of M is obtained.
The length l of the beam, its breadth b (by vernier calipers)
and thickness d (by screw gauge) are measured.
Young’s modulus of the beam is determined by using the
relation.
3
4 Mg l 2
Y 3
Nm
bd y
Problem 1.2
A cantilever of rectangular cross-section has a length of
50 cm. Its breadth is 3 cm and thickness 0.6 cm. A weight
of 1 kg is attached at the free end. The depression
produced is 4.2 cm. Calculate Young’s modulus of the
2
material of the bar. Given g 9.8 m/sec
(A.U. Jan 2010)
Given data
2
Length of the cantilever l 50 cm 50 10 m
2
Breadth of the cantilever b 3 cm 3 10 m
2
Thickness of the cantilever d 0.6 cm 0.6 10 m
2
Depression produced y 4.2 cm 4.2 10 m
Mass attached M 1 kg
2
Acceleration due to gravity g 9.8 ms
Solution
Young’s modulus of the beam
3
4Mgl
Y 3
bd y
Properties of Matter 1.45
substituting the given values, we have
2 3
4 1 9.8 50 10
Y 2 2 3 2
3 10 0.6 10 4.2 10
10 2
Y 1.8 10 Nm
1.11 UNIFORM BENDING (THEORY AND EXPERIMENT)
Definition:
If the beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends,
bending of the beam forms an arc of a circle. The
elevation is produced in the beam. This type of bending
is known as uniform bending
Theory of uniform bending
Consider a beam AB arranged horizontally on two knife-
edges C and D symmetrically so that AC BD a (Fig. 1.22)
Fig. 1.22 Uniform bending
The beam is loaded with equal weights W at each ends
A and B.
The reactions on the knife edges at C and D are equal to
W and they are acting vertically upward.
External bending moment on the part AF of the beam
about the F is
W AF W CF W AF CF
W AC W a W a ... (1)
1.46 Engineering Physics
YI ...(2)
Internal bending moment
R
Y Young’s modulus of the beam
I Geometrical moment of inertia of the cross
section of beam.
R Radius of curvature of the beam at F
In the equilibrium position,
External bending moment Internal bending moment
YI ...(3)
Wa
R
Since for a given value of W, the values of a, Y and I are
constant. R is constant so that the beam bends uniformly into
an arc of a circle of radius R as shown in the fig. 1.23.
CD l and y is the elevation of the midpoint E of the
beam so that y EF
Fig. 1.23 Intersecting chord theorem of a circle
Then, from the property of a circle (fig. 1.23).
EF EG CE ED ...(4)
Properties of Matter 1.47
2
EF 2R EF CE
... CE ED and EG 2R EF
2
l .. l
y 2R y . EF y and CE 2
2
2 2
2 l l
2yRy
2
2 4
2
l . .
y2R ( . y 2 is negligible).
4
2
l
y
8R
8y 1
l
2 R
1 8y ... (5)
or 2
R l
Substituting the eqn (5) in (3), we get,
8y
Wa 2
YI
l
2
W al
y
8IY
2
W al
Y
8Iy
Intersecting cord theorem of a circle
Note: When two chords intersect each other inside a circle,
the products of their segments are equal.
1.48 Engineering Physics
3
bd
If the beam is of rectangular cross-section, then I ,
12
where b is breath and d is thickness of beam.
If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W Mg,
2
Mgal
then, Y 3
bd
8 y
12
2
3 M gal
Y
2 b d3 y
from which Young’s modulus of the beam is determined.
Experiment
A rectangular beam AB of uniform-section is supported
horizontally on two knife-edges A and B (fig. 1.24)
Two weight hangers of equal masses are suspended from
the ends of the beam. A pin is fixed vertically at the mid-point
of the beam. A microscope is focussed on the tip of the pin.
Fig. 1.24 Young’s modulus - Uniform bending
Initial reading in the microscope in the vertical scale is
noted. Equal weights are added to both hangers simultaneously
and the reading in the microscope on the vertical scale is noted.
Properties of Matter 1.49
The experiment is repeated for decreasing order of the
equal masses.
The observations are tabulated and mean elevation y at
the mid point of the bar is determined.
The length of the bar between the knife edges ‘l’ is
measured. The distance of the one of the weight hangers from
the nearest knife edge ‘a’ is measured.
The breadth b and thickness d of the bar are measured
by using vernier calipers and screw gauge.
Microscope reading for elevation Mean
elevation y
Load
Load Load for a load
Mean
increasing decreasing of M kg.
gm cm cm cm cm
W 50
W 100
W 150
W 200
W 250
Mean y
Young’s modulus of the beam is determined by the relation
2
3 Mg a l 2
Y Nm
2 b d3 y
1.50 Engineering Physics
Problem 1.3
Uniform rectangular bar 1 m long, 2 cm broad and 0.5
cm thick is supported on its flat face symmetrically on
two knife edges 70 cm apart. If loads of 200 g are hung
from the two ends the elevation of the centre of the bar
is 48 mm. Find Young’s modulus of the bar.
(A.U. Jan 2010)
Given data
The distance between nearer knife edge and point of
2
suspension of load a 15 10 m
3
Mass attached M 200 g 200 10 kg
2
Thickness of the beam d 0.5 cm 0.5 10 m
2
Distance between knife edge l 70 cm 70 10 m
2
Breadth of the beam b 2 cm 2 10 m
3
Elevation of the centre y 48 mm 48 10 m
Solution
Young’s modulus of the bar
2
3 Mg al
Y
2 bd 3 y
Substituting the given values, we have
3 2 2 2
3 200 10 9.8 15 10 70 10
2 2 3 3
2 2 10 0.5 10 48 10
10 2
Y 1.8 10 Nm
Properties of Matter 1.51
1.12 NON - UNIFORM BENDING
If the beam is loaded at its mid-point, the depression
produced does not form an arc of a circle. This type of
bending is called non-uniform bending.
Consider a uniform cross sectional beam (rod or bar) AB
of length l arranged horizontally on two knife edges K1 and K2
near the ends A and B (fig.1.25)
Fig.1.25 Non-uniform bending
A weight W is applied at the midpoint ‘O’ of the beam.
W
The reaction force at each knife edge is equal to in the
2
upward direction. y is the depression at the midpoint O.
The bent beam is considered to be equivalent to two
l
inverted cantilevers, fixed at O each of length and each
2
W
loaded at K1 and K2 with a weight .
2
In the case of a cantilever of length l and load W, the
3
Wl
depression
3 Iy
l W
Hence, for cantilever of length and load ,
2 2
depression is
3 3
W l W l 3
Wl
2 2 3
2 2 2 8
y
3I Y 3I Y 3IY
3
Wl
or y
48 IY
1.52 Engineering Physics
3
Wl
Y
48Iy
If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W is
W Mg
3
bd
If the beam is a rectangular, I , where b is the
12
breadth and d is the thickness of the beam.
3
M gl
Hence, Y 3
bd
48 y
12
3
M gl 12
Y 3
48 bd y
3
Mgl 2
or Y 3
Nm
4 bd y
The value of Y can be determined by the above equation.
Experiment
The given beam AB of rectangular cross section is arranged
horizontally on two knife edges K1 and K2 near the ends
A and B (fig.1.26).
Fig. 1.26 Non-uniform bending
A weight hanger is suspended and a pin is fixed vertically
at mid-point O. A microscope is focussed on the tip of the pin.
Properties of Matter 1.53
The initial reading on the vertical scale of the microscope
is taken. A suitable mass M is added to the hanger. The beam
is depressed. The cross wire is adjusted to coincide with the tip
of the pin. The reading of the microscope is noted.
The depression corresponding to the mass M is found.
The experiment is repeated by increasing and decreasing
the mass step by step. The corresponding readings are tabulated.
The average value of depression y is found from the observation.
Microscope reading for depression y Mean
depression
Load in kg Load Load y for a
Mean
increasing decreasing load of M
cm
cm cm kg.cm
W
W 50 gm
W 100 gm
W 150 gm
W 200 gm
W 250 gm
Mean (y)
The breadth b, thickness d and length l of the beam are
measured. The value of Young’s modulus of the beam is found
by the relation.
3
M gl
Y 3
4 bd y
1.13 I - SHAPE GIRDER
Definition
The girders with upper and lower section broadened
and the middle section tapered, so that it can withstand
heavy loads over it is called as I shape girders. Since the
cross section of girder looks like letter I, it is named as
I shape girder.
1.54 Engineering Physics
A girder is a metallic beam supported at its two ends by
pillars or on opposite walls. It should be so designed that it should
not bend too much or break under its own weight. (Fig. 2.27)
Fig. 1.27 I - shape girder
The depression y at the centre of a beam of length l
breadth b and thickness d under a given load Mg at its
mid-point is given as
3
M gl
y 3
4bd Y
Hence to reduce the bending for a given load, Y of the
beam should be large, b and d of the beam must also be large.
The length l should be as small as possible.
3
Since the depression y is inversely proportional to d , the
depression can be reduced more effectively by increasing the
Properties of Matter 1.55
thickness d rather than increasing the breadth b of the beam
(Fig. 1.24 (b))
But on increasing the thickness, unless the load is at the
centre, the beam may bend as shown in fig. 1.24 (c). This is
called buckling of the beam. To prevent buckling, a large
load-bearing surface is required.
Hence, the beam is designed to have a large thickness to
minimise bending and a large load bearing surface to prevent
buckling. Therefore, the cross-sectional view of the beam as
shown in fig. 1.24 (d) is preferred.
It is known as I section beam or girder. The cross sectional
view is in the shape of I as shown in fig. 1.28.
Fig. 1.28 I shape girder
Advantages
1. As the layers of the beam at top and bottom are
subjected to maximum stress more material must be
needed only at these layers to withstand the strain.
As the stress around the neutral layer is small,
material in these regions can be removed without loss
of efficiency. This would save economy (cost of material
of the girder).
2. This type of cross-section provides a high bending
moment.
1.56 Engineering Physics
3. I form of girders are made of steel as it has high
Young’s modulus.
Applications
Iron girders used in buildings are made of I-section.
It is also used in I-section of railway tracks.
Conclusion
The study of elastic nature of materials is very important
not only for big and heavy structures but also for micro
structures such as integrated circuits.
Elastic mismatch of the materials used for fabrication of
ICs may result in micro cracks and thus failure of ICs.
Hence, good understanding of this subject is essential for
all branches of engineering.
Problem 1.4
A cantilever of steel fixed horizontally is subjected to a
load of 225 gm at its free end. The geometric moment
11 4
of inertia of the cantilever is 4.5 10 m . If the length
of cantilever and Young’s modulus of steel are 1 m and
9
200 10 Pa respectively. Calculate the depression at the
loaded end. [A.U. May, 2010]
Given data
3
Load given to cantilever W 225 gm 225 10 kg
Geometric moment of inertia of the cantilever
11 4
I 4.5 10 m
Length of cantilever l 1m
9
Youngs modulus of steel Y 200 10 Pa
Properties of Matter 1.57
Solution
3 3
Wl Mg l . .
We know that Y . W Mg
3Iy 3I y
3
Mg l
y
3I Y
Substituting the given values, we have
3 3
225 10 9.8 1
y 11 9
3 4.5 10 200 10
y 0.0816 m
Problem 1.5
A circular and a square cantilever are made of same
material and have equal area of cross-section and
length. Find the ratio of their depression for a given
load. (A.U. Dec 2008)
Given data
4
r
Geometric moment of inertia for circular section IC
4
3
bd
Geometric moment of inertia for square section IS
12
4
a
12
(b d a for a square section)
Solution
Depression for a given load
3
Mg l
y
3Y I
1.58 Engineering Physics
Depression in circular cantilever for a given load
3 ... (1)
Mg l
yc
3Y IC
Depression in square cantilever for a given load
3 ... (2)
Mg l
ys
3Y IS
Dividing (1) by (2)
4
a
yC IS 4
12 a
yS IC r
4
3r
4
Since cross sectional areas of circular and square
cantilevers are equal, we have
2 2
r a
2
a
or 2
r
2
4 2 2
yC 1 a 1 a
4 2
yS 3 r 3 r 3 3
ANNA UNIVERSITY PART - A
‘2’ Marks Q & A
1. What is elasticity? (A.U. Jan 2010)
The property of the body to regain its original shape and
size, after the removal of deforming force is called elasticity.
2. What are elastic bodies? (A.U. Dec 2011)
Bodies which regain its original shape and size after the
removal of deforming force are called elastic bodies.
Properties of Matter 1.59
3. Define stress and its unit. (A.U. Nov 2008)
The restoring force acting per unit area of the body is
called the stress.
This restoring force is equal and opposite to the applied
force F. Therefore, stress is also defined as the applied deforming
force per unit area of the body.
Deforming force F
i.e., Stress
Area A
newton N 2 2
SI unit of stress 2 2
N/m or Nm
metre m
4. What are types of stresses? (A.U Nov 2008)
It is found that a deforming force may change length or
shape or volume of the body. Accordingly, there are three types
of stresses namely (i) Linear stress (ii) Shearing stress (iii)
Volume stress.
5. Define strain and its unit. [A.U. Jan 2012]
The change in dimension or shape of a body due to the
deforming force results in strain.
It is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to the
original dimension. i.e.,
Change in dimension
Strain
Original dimension
Strain has no unit.
6. What are types of strains? (A.U Jan 2012)
According to the changes take place in length, area (shape)
and volume, there are three types of strains namely,
(a) Linear strain (change in length per unit length)
(b) Shearing strain (change in area per unit area)
(c) Volume strain (change in volume per unit volume)
1.60 Engineering Physics
7. State Hooke’s law. [A.U. May 2010]
It states that “within elastic limit, the stress developed in
the body is directly proportional to the strain produced in it”.
Stress Strain
Stress Constant Strain
Stress
E constant
Strain
In other words, the ratio between stress and strain is a
constant.
8. What are types of Moduli of elasticity? (A.U. Dec 2011)
(i) Young’s modulus corresponding to linear strain.
(ii) Rigidity modulus corresponding to shearing strain.
(iii) Bulk modulus corresponding to volume strain.
9. Define Young’s modulus of elasticity and mention its
unit. (A.U. Dec 2013)
Within the elastic limit, the ratio of linear stress to linear
strain is called Young’s modulus of elasticity.
It is denoted by the letter Y.
Linear stress
Young’s modulus of elasticity Y
Linear strain
2
Unit: SI unit of stress is Nm and strain has no unit.
2
Therefore, SI unit of Young’s modulus is Nm .
10. Define rigidity modulus and mention its unit.
(A.U. Dec 2012)
With in the elastic limit, the ratio of the tangential stress
to shearing strain is called rigidity modulus.
It is denoted by the letter n,
Properties of Matter 1.61
Tangential stress
Rigidity modulus n
Shearing strain
2
Unit: SI unit of rigidity modulus is Nm
11. Define Bulk modulus and mention its unit.
(A.U. April 2012)
With in the elastic limit of a body, the ratio of volume
stress to volume strain is called bulk modulus of elasticity.
It is denoted by the letter K
Volume stress
Bulk modulus K
Volume strain
2
Unit: SI unit of bulk modulus is Nm
12. What is stress-strain diagram? [A.U. Jan 2011]
A graph plotted between strain along the X-axis and stress
along the Y-axis is known as stress-strain diagram.
Stress - Strain diagram for low carbon steel wire
13. What is the use of stress-strain diagram?
[A.U. Jan 2012]
The elastic behaviour of solid materials is studied by using
this stress-strain diagram.
1.62 Engineering Physics
14. What are effects of change in temperature in elastic
bodies? [A.U Dec. 2009]
A change in the temperature affects the elastic properties of
a material. A rise in temperature usually decreases the elasticity
of the material. A carbon filament which is highly elastic at normal
temperature becomes plastic at high temperature.
Similarly, decrease in temperature increases the elastic
property. Lead is not a very good elastic material. But at low
temperature, it becomes an elastic material.
However, in some cases like the invar steel, the elasticity
is not affected by any change in temperature.
15. Define bending moment of a beam. [A.U. May 2011]
The moment of the couple due to the static reactions
(restoring couple) which balances the external couple due to the
applied load is called bending moment.
16. What is uniform bending? [A.U. Jan 2011]
The beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the bent
beam forms an arc of a circle. The radius of curvature of the
bent beam is constant for give load. This type of bending is
called uniform bending.
17. What is non-uniform bending? (A.U. April 2010)
If the beam is loaded at its mid-point, the depression is
produced does not form an are of a circle. This type of bending
is called non-uniform bending.
18. What is I Shape Girder? [A.U. Dec 2009]
A girder is a metallic beam supported at its two ends by
pillars or on opposite walls. It should be so designed that it
should not bend too much or break under its own weight. The
cross section of beam is in the form of letter I.
Properties of Matter 1.63
19. What are advantages of I shape girder? [A.U, Dec. 2016]
(i) As the layers of the beam at the upper and bottom
are subjected to maximum stress more material must
be needed there to withstand the strain.
As the stress around the neutral layer is small,
material in these regions can be removed without loss
of efficiency. This would save economy (cost of material
of the girder).
(ii) This type of cross-section provides a high bending
moment and a lot of material is saved.
(iii) I form of girders are made of steel as they have high
young modulus.
ADDITIONAL PART - ‘A’ Q & A
1. What is a beam?
A beam is a rod or bar of uniform cross-section (circular or
rectangular) whose length is very much greater than its thickness.
2.. Define neutral surface and neutral axis.
In the middle of the beam along the thickness, there is a
layer which is neither elongated nor compressed due to bending
of the beam. This layer is called the ‘neutral surface’ and the
line at which the neutral layer intersects the plane of bending
is called the ‘neutral axis’.
3. What is cantilever?
A cantilever is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and
loaded at the other end.
4. Define torsional stress.
The shear stress set up in the shaft when equal and
opposite torques (twisting moments) are applied to the ends of
a shaft about its axis, is called torsional stress.
1.64 Engineering Physics
5. What is a torsional pendulum?
A circular metallic disc suspended using a thin wire that
executes torsional oscillation is called torsional pendulum.
6. What are the uses of torsional pendulum?
It is used to determine
1. Rigidity modulus of the wire
2. Moment of inertia of the disc and
3. Moment of inertia of an irregular body.
ANNA UNIVERSITY PART - B
‘16’ Marks Questions
1. Deduce an expression for the couple to produce a unit twist
in a long cylindrical wire fixed at one end. How is it used
in the determination of modulus of rigidity of a wire.
2. Describe how the rigidity modulus of the material in the
form of a wire may be determined by symmetrical mass
and a torsional pendulum.
3. Describe with relevant theory, how the moment of inertia of
the disc of the torsional pendulum is experimentally
determined, using two equal symmetrical masses. Also indicate
how the rigidity modulus of the suspension wire is found.
4. Derive an expression for the internal bending moment of a
beam in terms of radius of curvature. (A.U. Jan 2013)
5. What is cantilever? Obtain an expression for the depression
at the loaded end of a cantilever whose other end is fixed
assuming that its own weight is not effective in bending.
(A.U. Jan 2012)
6. Describe with relevant theory how a cantilever may be used
to determine the Young’s modulus of the material of bar.
(A.U. May 2012)
7. Derive an expression for depression at the free end of a
cantilever due to load.
Properties of Matter 1.65
Describe an experiment to determine the Young’s modulus
of the cantilever material using this expression.
(A.U. April 2011, Jan 2014, June 2014)
8. Derive an expression for the elevation at the centre of a
beam which is loaded at both ends. Describe an experiment
to determine Young’s modulus of a beam by uniform
bending. (A.U. Jan 2011)
9. Describe with necessary theory, the method of determining
the Young’s modulus of the material of the beam of
rectangular cross-section by bending it non-uniformly.
(A.U. Jan 2010)
10. Give an account of I-shape girders. (A.U Jan 2009, Jan 2014)
ADDITIONAL ‘PART - B’ ‘16’ Marks Questions
1. Write a note on stress strain diagram.
2. Explain the factors affecting the elasticity.
3. How will you classify three types of elastic moduli? Explain.
4. What is meant by bending of beams? Derive the expression
for bending moment for rectangular and circular cross
sections.
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. A copper wire of 3 metre length and 1 mm diameter is
subjected to a tension of 5 kg weight. Calculate the
elongation produced in the wire if the Young’s modulus of
elasticity of copper is 120 GPa. (Ans. 1.56 mm)
2. A circular cantilever of radius 1.2 cm and length 1.5 m is
fixed at one end. In the other end, a load of 2 kg is applied.
10 2
The Young’s modulus of the cantilever is 19.5 10 Nm .
Find the depression produced.
(Ans. 6.946 10 3 m)
1.66 Engineering Physics
3. A bar, one metre long with square cross section (side of
square being 5 mm) is supported horizontally at its ends
and is loaded at the middle point. It is depressed by 1.96
mm by a load of 100 gm. Calculate the Young’s Modulus
of the material of the bar. [Hint: It is non uniform bending,
3
mgl
Y 3
where b d ]
4bd y (Ans. 200 GPa)
4. In an experiment a bar of length 1.5 m is clamped
horizontally at one end and a load of 0.1 kg attached at
its free end. Calculate the depression at the loaded end if
10 2
Y 9.78 10 Nm and the bar is of breadth 0.024 m and
thickness 0.005 m. (Ans. 0.0451 m)
5. Determine Young’s modulus of the material of a rod, if it
is bent uniformly over two knives separated by a distance
of 0.6 m and loads of 2.5 kg are hung at 0.18 m away
from the knife edges. The breadth and thickness of the rod
is 0.025 m and 0.005 m respectively. The elevation at the
middle of the rod is 0.007 m (Ans. Y 1.088 1011 Nm 2)
6. A uniform rectangular bar of 1 m long, 0.02 m broad and
0.003 m thick is supported on two knife edges 0.7 m apart.
When the loads of 0.2 kg are hung from the ends, the
elevation of the bar above its normal position is found to
be 0.0022 m. Find the Young’s modulus of the material of
the bar. (Ans. 1.819 1011 Nm 2)
UNIT - II
OSCILLATORY MOTION
Nd - YAG LASER
FIBER OPTICS
WAVES AND OPTICS
2. Waves and Oscillations
Oscillatory motion – Forced and damped oscillations
differential equation and its solution – Plane
progressive waves – Wave equation.
Introduction
The vibrations or oscillations of any system constitutes one
of the most important fields of study in engineering physics.
Examples of such oscillations are pendulum of a clock, loaded
spring and LC circuit. The knowledge about the resonant
behaviour of mechanical and electrical systems is very much
essential for all engineers.
2.1 OSCILLATORY MOTION
Basic concepts
Motion
When the position of a body (object) in the space changes
with times, the body is said to be in motion.
These motions are classified into four broad categories.
(i) Translational motion
(ii) Rotational motion
(iii) Periodic motion
(iv) Vibrational or Oscillatory motion
(i) Translational motion
If the position of a body varies linearly with time, then
the motion is said to be translational motion. A car/train moving
on a straight road, a ball moving on the ground are examples
of translational motion.
2.2 Engineering Physics
(ii) Rotational motion
If the position of a body as a whole does not change linearly
with time but it rotates at the same position about an axis,
then the motion is said to be rotational motion.
The examples of rotational motion are the motion of earth
about its axis, the rotation of a flywheel on its ball bearings.
(iii) Periodic motion
If a body repeats its movement at regular intervals of time,
its motion is said to be periodic.
Motion of planets round the sun, rotational motion of the
earth about its own axis, motion of a pendulum, oscillations of
a loaded spring etc are examples of periodic motion.
(iv) Oscillatory motion
An oscillatory motion is one in which a body moves to and
fro repeatedly about a mean position.
Motion of a pendulum, oscillations of a loaded spring, to
and fro motion of the prongs of tuning fork are examples of
oscillatory motion.
Oscillatory motion is a special case of periodic motion in which
a body vibrates to and fro about its mean position. While all oscillatory
motions are periodic, all periodic motions are not oscillatory.
Simple Harmonic Motion
An oscillatory motion is harmonic if the displacement can
be expressed in terms of sine or cosine function. An oscillator
executing harmonic motion is called a harmonic oscillator.
Definition
If the periodic motion is such that the acceleration of
particle is always directly proportional to its displacement from
its equilibrium position and it is always directed towards
equilibrium position, then the motion of the particle is said to
be simple harmonic motion.
Waves and Oscillations 2.3
Characteristics of simple harmonic motion
A particle executing simple harmonic motion must satisfy
the following conditions:
1. The motion must be periodic.
2. The motion is oscillatory ie., to and fro along a straight
line or along a curved path about a mean position.
3. The body executing simple harmonic motion is acted
upon by a restoring force whose magnitude is
proportional to the displacement and its direction is
always towards the mean position.
4. If there is no air resistance or friction, the motion once
started will continue indefinitely.
Example
1. Oscillations of a simple pendulum. (Fig. 2.1)
2. Vibrations of a tuning fork.
3. Vertical oscillations of a loaded spring.
4. Vibrations of a sonometer wire.
5. Vertical oscillations of the liquid column in a U-tube.
6. Angular oscillations of a torsion pendulum.
Fig. 2.1 Oscillatory motion
2.4 Engineering Physics
Types of Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M)
The simple harmonic motions are of two types:
(i) Linear Simple Harmonic Motion
If the displacement of a particle executing S.H.M. is linear,
the motion is said to be linear S.H.M. The examples of linear
S.H.M. are motion of simple pendulum, the motion of prongs of
vibrating tuning fork, the motion of a point mass attached to a
spring.
(ii) Angular Simple Harmonic Motion
If the displacement of a particle executing S.H.M. is
angular, the motion is said to be angular S.H.M. The example
of angular S.H.M. is torsional oscillations of a solid.
Essential conditions for S.H.M
If a is linear acceleration and y is displacement from
equilibrium position, then essential condition for linear S.H.M. is
a y
If is angular acceleration and angular displacement
from equilibrium position, then essential condition for angular
S.H.M. is
Some definition concerning S.H.M
Let a particle execute S.H.M along
straight line QOP, about O. (Fig. 2.2)
1. Amplitude Fig. 2.2
The maximum displacement of a particle from mean
position is called the amplitude. It is denoted by A. Then,
OP OQ A.
Waves and Oscillations 2.5
2. Oscillation
When particle moves from mean position O to P, returns
from P to Q via O and then comes back from Q to O; then
particle is said to complete one-oscillation i.e.,
1 oscillation = motion from O to P from P to Q from
Q to O or motion (from P to Q from Q to P)
3. Period
The time taken by the particle executing SHM to complete
one oscillation is called the period or periodic time. It is
denoted by T.
4. Frequency
The number of oscillations completed by particle in one
second is called its frequency. It is denoted by n
1
Frequency n
Period T
5. Phase
The position and direction of motion of a vibrating particle
is different at different instants. The instantaneous position and
direction of motion of a vibrating particle is expressed by a
physical quantity called the phase.
If S.H.M is expressed as y A sin t ; then the
quantity t is the phase of vibrating particle.
Differential Equation of S.H.M
A particle executing S.H.M is called a harmonic
oscillator. Suppose a particle of mass m execute S.H.M. along
a straight line. (Fig. 2.3) and if y is the displacement of particle
from mean position at any time t, then from basic condition of
SHM.
Fig. 2.3
2.6 Engineering Physics
The restoring force F is proportional to displacement y and
oppositively directed i.e.,
F y
or F ky ...(1)
where k is a constant of proportionality and is called spring
factor or force constant. Its unit is newton/metre (N/m).
2
d y
If a 2
is acceleration at any instant t, then by
dt
Newton’s second law of motion F mass acceleration ma
2
d y ...(2)
Fm 2
dt
From the eqns. (1) and (2), we have
2
d y
m 2
ky,
dt
2
d y
m 2
ky 0
dt
2
d y k
y 0
dt
2 m
2
dy 2 ... (3)
i.e., 2
y 0
dt
2 k
where is a constant.
m
The eqn. (3) represents the differential equation of SHM.
A general solution of the differential equation for SHM is
given by
y A sin t ... (4)
Waves and Oscillations 2.7
where A is the amplitude of the SHM.
is called the initial phase.
Angular harmonic motion
Now consider a particle executing angular harmonic
motion. At any instant t, let be the angular displacement
measured from the equilibrium position of the particle. Then,
similar to equation (3) for the linear case, we have
2
d 2 ... (5)
2
0
dt
2
is a constant,
Torsional oscillations of a stretched wire, oscillations of
a freely suspended bar magnet in a magnetic field etc.
are examples of angular harmonic motion.
Velocity and Acceleration
We have displacement y A sin t
Differentiating with respect to time t, we get
dy ...(6)
v A cos t
dt
v A
2
1 sin t
. .
v
A A sin t . sin t cos t 1
2 2 2 2 2
...(7)
or v
2 2
A y
This equation (7) gives velocity of particle at any
displacement y. Maximum velocity is obtained by putting y 0.
vmax A (at mean position)
2.8 Engineering Physics
Thus velocity is maximum and equal to A at mean
position and velocity is zero at y A (extreme positions).
Acceleration
Differentiating the eqn 6 with respect to time t,
dv 2
acceleration a A sin t
dt
2 ...(8)
or a y
This equation gives acceleration of oscillating particle at
any displacement y from the mean position. This equation is
the standard equation of S.H.M.
For maximum acceleration at y A (extreme position)
2
Maximum acceleration, amax A (at extreme position)
Minimum acceleration is obtained by putting y 0
amin 0 (at mean position).
Period of SHM
The time taken by the particle to make one complete to and
fro motion is called the time period of the SHM. It is also equal
to the time required by the particle to trace an angle 2.
Since is the uniform angular velocity.
2
T
2 ... (9)
or, Period, T
From the eqn (8), we have
2 a
y
Waves and Oscillations 2.9
a
y
1
a
y
Using this in eqn. (9), we have
2 ...(10)
y
Time period, T 2
a
displacement
T 2
acceleration
Let n be the frequency of the SHM, i.e., number of
oscillation made by the particle in one second. But, period =
Time taken for one oscillation.
1 ... (11)
ie., T
n
From the eqns. (10) and (11), we have
2 1
n
or, 2n ... (12)
Types of oscillations
There are three main types of oscillations. They are
1. Free oscillations
2. Damped oscillations
3. Forced oscillations
2.10 Engineering Physics
(i) Free oscillations
When a body vibrates with its natural frequency, it
is said to execute free oscillations. The frequency of
oscillations depends on the inertial factor and spring factor k.
It is given by
m
1 k
n
2
Examples for free oscillations
(i) Vibrations of tuning fork
(ii) Vibrations in a stretched string
(iii) Oscillations of simple pendulum
(iv) Air blown gently across the mouth of a bottle.
2.2 DAMPED OSCILLATIONS
Most of the oscillations in air or in any medium are
damped. When an oscillation occurs, some kind of damping force
may arise due to friction of air resistance offered by the medium.
So, a part of the energy is dissipated in overcoming the
resistive force. Consequently, the amplitude of oscillations
decrease with time and finally becomes zero. Such oscillations
are called damped oscillations.
Examples for damped oscillations
(i) The oscillations of a pendulum
(ii) Electromagnetic damping in galvanometer (oscillations
of a coil in galvanometer).
(iii) Electromagnetic oscillations in tank circuits.
Waves and Oscillations 2.11
2.3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND ITS SOLUTION
TO DAMPED OSCILLATIONS
Let us consider a particle of mass m attached to a spring
executing damped simple harmonic motion under a resisting
force. Let y, be its displacement at any instant t (Fig. 2.4).
Fig. 2.4 Damped oscillating system
This damped system is subjected to :
(i) The restoring force which is proportional to the
displacement y but it is acting in the opposite direction. It is
given by k y, where k is a constant of proportionality.
(ii) The frictional (or damping) force which is proportional
to velocity but opposite to the direction of the motion. It is given
dy
by r where r is a constant.
dt
Hence, the total instantaneous force acting on the body is
therefore
dy
F ky r ...(1)
dt
But by Newton’s second law of motion, the resultant force,
2.12 Engineering Physics
2
d y ...(2)
F mass acceleration ma m 2
dt
From the eqns (1) and (2), we have
2
d y dy ...(3)
m ky r
dt
2 dt
2
d y r dy k
or y0
dt
2 m dt m
2
d y dy 2
...(4)
or 2b y 0
dt
2 dt
r k 2
where 2b and
m m
Here b is known as damping factor or damping coefficient
Eq. (4) is a differential equation of damped harmonic
motion.
Let the solution of eqn (4) be
t ... (5)
y Ae
where A and are arbitrary constants to be determined
from initial conditions.
Differentiating eq. (5) with respect to t, we get
2 ...(6)
dy at d y 2 t
Ae and A e
dt dt
2
On substituting these values in eq. (4), we get
2 t t 2 t
A e 2bA e Ae 0
or Ae
t 2
2b 0
2 ...(7)
t 2 2
As Ae 0, 2b 0
Waves and Oscillations 2.13
2 2 2 2
2b 2b 4 4b 4
b
2 4 4
b ...(8)
b
2 2
The general solution of eq. (5) is given by
... (9)
2 2 2 2
[ b b ] t [ b b ] t
y A1 e A 2
e
where A1 and A2 are the arbitrary constants, whose values
are determined from the boundary conditions.
Note:
Solution of the quadratic equation
2
ax bx c 0
b 4
2
b ac
x
2a
2
Here, a 1, b 2b, c .
Depending upon the relative values of b and following
three cases are possible.
Case i. Heavy Damping
2 2
b
2 2
When b , in this case is real and less than
b. Now, the powers
[ b
b ] and [ b
b ]
2 2 2 2
in eq. (9) are both negative. Thus, the displacement y consists
of two terms, both decreasing of exponentially to zero without
performing any oscillations as shown in fig. 2.5. This type of
motion is known as over-damped or dead beat.
2.14 Engineering Physics
Fig. 2.5
Examples for such motions are pendulum moving in a
thick oil or in a dead beat moving coil galvanometer.
Case ii. Critical Damping
2 2 2 2
When b , b 0, Hence, the eqn (9) reduces to
bt ...(10)
y A1 A2 e
which does not satisfy eqn (4). The eqn (10) breaks down,
because in this case two of the coefficients become infinite
2 2
Hence, we consider that b is not zero but this is
b
2 2
equal to a very small quantity ie., h 0.
Now eq. (10) reduces to
b h t b h t
y A1 e A2 e
bt ht bt ht
y A1 e A2 e
bt ht bt ht
y A1 e A1 e A2 e A2 e
bt ht ht
ye [A1 e A2 e ]
bt
ye [A1 1 ht A2 1 ht ]
Waves and Oscillations 2.15
bt (square and higher
y e [A1 A2 ht A1 A2 ]
order terms are
neglected)
bt
ye [p qt] ... (11)
where p A1 A2 and q h A1 A2
Eq. (11) represents a possible form of solution. It is clear
that as t increases, the factor p qt increases but the factor
bt
e decreases.
In this way the displacement y first increases due to the
factor p qt but at the same time reversal occurs due to the
bt
exponential term e and the displacement approaches zero as
t increases.
Such a motion is called critically damped motion.
This type of motion is exhibited by many pointer
instruments such as voltmeter, ammeter etc.
Case III. Low Damping
2 2
b
2 2
When b , then is negative and imaginary. Let
us write.
b i
b i
2 2 2 2
where
b
2 2
and i
1
Eq. (9) now becomes
b i t b i t
y A1 e A2 e ...(12)
bt i t bt i t
y A1 e A2 e
2.16 Engineering Physics
bt it bt it
y A1 e A1 e A2 e A2 e
bt it it
y e [A1 e A2 e ]
bt
y e [A1 cos t i sin t A2 cos t i sin t]
bt
y e [A1 A2] cos t i A1 A2 sin t]
bt
y e [a sin cos t a cos sin t]
where a sin A1 A2 and a cos i A1 A2
bt
y e a sin t
sin [ ... (13)
bt
2 2
y ae b t ]
. .
.
b
2 2
The eqn (13) is the equation of a damped simple harmonic
bt
motion with amplitude ae which goes on decreasing with time
and angular frequency
b
2 2
as shown by curve in the
fig. 2.3.
Hence, the motion is called under damped motion. Its
period is given by
2 2
T
b
2 2
The example of this type of motion is the motion of a
pendulum in air, the motion of the coil of ballistic galvanometer
or the electric oscillations of L-C-R circuit.
2.4 FORCED OSCILLATIONS
When a oscillating body is maintained in the state of
oscillations by a periodic force of frequency (n) other than its
natural frequency of the body, the osillations are called forced
oscillations.
Waves and Oscillations 2.17
The external force is driver and body is driven.
The body is forced to vibrate with an external periodic
force. The amplitude of forced vibration is determined by the
difference between the frequencies of the driver and the driven.
The larger the frequency difference, smaller will be the
amplitude of the forced oscillations.
Examples:
(i) Sound boards of stringed instruments execute forced
vibration.
(ii) By keeping the vibrating tuning fork on a table, it
suffers forced vibration.
2.5 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND ITS SOLUTION
OF FORCED OSCILLATIONS
Consider a particle of mass m connected to a spring
(Fig. 2.6). The particle is driven by a periodic force.
Fig. 2.6 Mechanical forced oscillator with force F sin pt
The oscillations are started and the forces acting on the
particles are
(i) a restoring force proportional to the displacement acting
in the opposite direction. It is given by ky where k
is known as the restoring force constant.
(ii) a frictional force proportional to velocity but acting on
dy
the opposite direction. It is given by r where r is
dt
the frictional force constant.
2.18 Engineering Physics
(iii) the external periodic force, F sin pt where F is the
maximum value of the force and p is its angular
frequency. This force opposes the restoring force as well
as the frictional force and helps in motion.
Therefore, net force F acting on the particle
dy ...(1)
F ky r F sin pt
dt
By Newton’s second law of motion, the resultant force
acting on the particle
F mass acceleration ma
2
d y ...(2)
F m 2
dt
From the eqns (1) & (2), we have
2
d y dy
m ky r F sin pt
dt
2 dt
2
d y dy ...(3)
or m r ky F sin pt
dt
2 dt
2
d y r dy k F
y sin pt
dt
2 m dt m m
2
d y dy 2 ... (4)
2b y f sin pt
dt
2 dt
r k 2 F
where 2b, and f
m m m
The eqn. (4) is the differential equation of the motion
of the forced oscillation of the particle.
The solution of differential eq. (4)
y A sin pt ... (5)
where A is the steady amplitude of vibrations
Waves and Oscillations 2.19
is the angle by which the displacement y lags behind
the applied force F sin pt.
Differentiating eqn.(5), w.r.t. t, we get
dy
A p cos pt
dt
2
d y 2
and 2
A p sin pt
dt
2
dy d y
Substituting y, and in eqn.(4), we have
dt dt
2
2 2
Ap sin pt 2bA p cos pt A sin pt
f sin pt f sin {pt } ...(6)
or
2 2
A p sin pt 2 bA p cos pt
f sin pt cos f cos pt sin ...(7)
This relation holds good for all values of t. The coefficients
of sin pt and cos pt terms on both sides of this equation
must be equal.
2 2 ... (8)
A p f cos
2 bA p f sin ... (9)
squarring the eqns. (8) and (9) and then adding, we have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A p 2 b A p f cos f sin
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A p 4b A p f sin cos
. . 2 2
. sin cos 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A p 4b A p f
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
or A [ p 4 b p ] f
2.20 Engineering Physics
2
2 f
A 2 2 2 2 2
[ p 4 b p ]
Taking square root, we have
f ... (10)
A
[ p 4 b
2 2 2 2 2
p]
on dividing eqn. (9) by eqn. (8), we get
2 bAp 2bp
tan 2 2
2 2
A p p
1 2bp ... (11)
or tan 2 2
p
The equation (10) gives the amplitude of forced vibration
while eqn (11) its phase.
It is clear that the amplitude and phase of the forced
2 2
oscillations depend upon p , ie., they depend upon the driving
frequency p and the natural frequency of the oscillator .
Depending upon the relative values of p and , the
following three cases are possible.
Case i: When driving frequency is very low i.e., p . In this
case, the amplitude of vibration is given by
f f f (put p 0)
A 4
w
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
[ p 4 b p ] 0 0
f
2
constant
1 2bp 1
and tan 2 2
tan 0 0
p
This shows that the amplitude of vibration is independent
of frequency of force. This amplitude depends on the magnitude
of the applied force and force constant k.
Waves and Oscillations 2.21
Therefore, under this situation the driving force and
displacement are always in phase.
Case ii: When p i.e., frequency of the force is equal to the
frequency of the body then this frequency is called resonant
frequency. In this case, the amplitude of vibration is given by
f f F . . F r
A . f m , 2b m and p
2bp r
2 2
0 4b p
Hence, the amplitude of vibrations depends upon the
damping and applied force.
1 2bp
tan 2 2
p
1 2bp 1
tan 0 tan 2
2
Thus, displacement lags behind the force by a phase of /2.
Case iii: When p i.e., the frequency of driving force is
greater than the natural frequency of the body.
Here, the amplitude of vibrations
f
A
[p 4 b
4 2 2
p]
f
p
4
f F
A 2
2 (. . . p 2b
p mp
1 2bp 2b
and tan 0
2 2 p
p
1 2b 1
tan p tan 0
2.22 Engineering Physics
It shows that amplitude depends upon the mass,
continuously decreases as the driving frequency p is further
increased.
Therefore, under the situation p , the displacement
lags behind the force by a phase of
Wave Motion
An important type of motion that occurs in nature is wave
motion.
A wave motion is a disturbance of some kind which
moves from one place to another by means of a medium,
such that the medium itself is not transported.
The disturbance transmits both energy and momentum to
distant regions with a velocity that depends upon characteristics
of the medium.
Types of Wave Motion
There are two types of wave motion
They are
1. Longitudinal wave motion
2. Transverse wave motion
Longitudinal Wave Motion: Wave motion in which the
particles of the medium vibrate about their mean position along
the same line as propagation of wave.
e.g. sound waves.
Transverse Wave Motion: Wave motion in which particles of
the medium vibrate about their mean position at right angle to
the direction of propagation.
e.g. waves on the surface of water.
Waves and Oscillations 2.23
Progressive wave
A progressive wave is defined as the vibratory
motion of a body which is transmitted continuously in
the same direction from one particle to the successive
particle of the medium and travel forward through the
medium due to its elastic property.
2.6 PLANE PROGRESSIVE WAVE
Progressive wave originating from a point source
and propagating through an isotropic medium travel with
equal velocity in all directions.
At any instant, the wavefront (locus of all particles
vibrating with the same phase) will be spherical in
nature. If the sphere of very large radius is considered,
the spherical wave will approximate to a plane surface
and the waves are called plane progressive waves.
Relation between Frequency, Wave-Speed and
Wavelength
By definition, the distance travelled by the wave in one
time-period T of vibration of particle wave length
Distance travelled in one second
T
But, distance travelled in one second = wave speed v.
... (1)
v or vT
T
substituting value of T from the relation between frequency
n and time period T
1 v
i.e., T in 1, we get
n n
v n
2.24 Engineering Physics
ie., speed of the wave v frequency n wavelength
This relation holds for all types of waves.
2.7 WAVE EQUATION OF A PLANE - PROGRESSIVE WAVE
On propagation of wave in a medium, the particles of
medium execute simple harmonic motion.
Suppose a plane progressive wave is propagating in a
medium along positive X axis. (i.e. from left to right) (fig. 2.7).
In fig. 2.7 the positions of particles O, A, B, C, D are
shown. As the wave propagates, all the particles of the medium
begin to vibrate to and fro about their mean positions.
In fig. 2.7 the instantaneous positions of these particles
are shown. The curve joining these positions represents
the progressive wave.
Fig. 2.7
Let the particle begin to vibrate from origin O at time
t 0. If y is the displacement of the particle at time t, then
equation of particle executing simple harmonic motion about
O is
y A sin t ... (1)
where A is amplitude and is angular velocity.
If n is frequency of wave, then 2 n.
Waves and Oscillations 2.25
As the advancing wave reaches the other particles
A, B, C (beyond particle at O), these particles begin to vibrate.
If v is the speed of wave and C is a particle at a distance
x
x from O, then the time taken by wave to reach point C is
v
x
seconds, therefore the particle will start vibrating seconds
v
after particle at O.
Therefore, the displacement of particle C at any time t will
x
be the same which was of particle O at time t .
v
x
The displacement of particle O at time t can be
v
x
obtained by substituting t in place of t in equation (1).
v
Thus the displacement of particle C at a distance x from
origin O at any time t is given by
x
y A sin t
v ... (2)
If T is time-period and the wavelength of wave, then
2
T
2 x
y Asin t
T v
t x
A sin 2
T vT
But, vT
t x ... (3)
y A sin 2
T
2.26 Engineering Physics
This equation may also be expressed as
2 t
y A sin x
T
2 ...(4)
y A sin vt x
. .
. T v
2vt 2x
y sin
vt x
y sin
v v
Equation (2) may also be expressed as
y A sin t x
v
2
But propagation constant k
v
y A sin t kx ... (5)
Any of the equations (2), (3), (4), (5), represents the equation
of a plane progressive wave propagating along positive direction
of X axis. Out of these, the equation (5) is often used.
If the wave be propagating along negative X axis, then
the equation of plane progressive wave may be obtained by
substituting x for x, so that equation (5) takes the form
y A sin t kx ... (6)
If be the phase difference between this wave travelling
along positive X axis and another wave, then the equation of
the wave may be expressed as
y A sin t kx ... (7)
Waves and Oscillations 2.27
This is the most general equation of a plane
progressive wave travelling along positive direction of
X axis.
Differential equation of wave motion
2
We have y A sin vt x
dy 2vA 2 ... (8)
Then, cos vt x
dt
dy 2 A 2 ... (9)
Also, cos vt x
dx
Particle velocity
dy dy ... (10)
v
dt dx
From the eqn. (9)
2 2 ... (11)
d y 2 2
2
A sin vt x
dx
From the eqn. (8)
2 2 ... (12)
d y 2 2 2
2
A v sin vt x
dt
This is the particle, acceleration.
Comparing (11) and (12)
2 2 ... (13)
d y 2 d y
2
v 2
dt dt
This is the differential equation of wave motion. It
can be shown that in case of progressive waves, if, t is increased
by t and x by v t
2.28 Engineering Physics
2
then y a sin [v t t x v t]
2
y a sin [vt v t x v t]
2 ... (14)
a sin vt x y
Thus, in a time t, the wave advances through v t.
Hence, v is the velocity of the wave.
PART - ‘A’ Q & A
1. Define damped oscillation.
Most of the oscillations in air or in any medium are
damped. When an oscillation occurs, some kind of damping force
may arise due to friction of air resistance offered by the medium.
So, a part of the energy is dissipated in overcoming the
resistive force.
Consequently, the amplitude of oscillations decrease with
time and finally becomes zero. Such oscillations are called
damped oscillations.
2. What is forced oscillation?
When a vibrating body is maintained in the state of
oscillations by a periodic force of frequency n other than its
natural frequency of the body, the oscillations are called forced
oscillations.
3. Define progressive wave.
A progressive wave is defined as the vibratory motion of
a body which is transmitted continuously in the same direction
from one particle to the successive particle of the medium and
travel forward through the medium due to its elastic property.
Waves and Oscillations 2.29
4. Define plane progressive wave.
Progressive wave originating from a point source and
propagating through an isotropic medium travel with equal
velocity in all directions.
At any instant, the wavefront will be spherical in nature.
If the sphere of very large radius is considered, the spherical
wave will approximate to a plane surface and the waves are
called plane progressive waves.
PART - B ‘16’ MARKS
1. Form the equation of damped oscillation. Solve the equation
and discuss its general and particular solutions.
2. Develop the general theory of damped oscillations and
discuss on the following cases, (i) motion is dead-beat, (ii)
motion is critically damped, and (iii) motion is oscillatory.
3. Develop the theory of forced harmonic motion. Find the
amplitude of motion at resonant frequency.
4. What are forced vibrations? Give the theory of forced
vibrations and discuss on the conditions of resonance.
5. Derive the expression for the wave equation of a plane
progressive wave.
3. Lasers
Lasers – Population of energy levels, Einstein’s A and B
coefficients derivation – resonant cavity, optical
amplification (qualitative) – Nd - YAG laser –
Semiconductor lasers homojunction and heterojunction.
Introduction
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
Laser is a device which emits a powerful,
monochromatic, collimated beam of light. The emitted
light waves from laser source are coherent in nature.
It is an artificial light source which exhibits so many
superior features than the conventional light source.
Laser light emerges as a narrow beam which can travel
long distance without much loss of intensity and energy.
Actually, the laser amplifies the light waves.
The first laser, ruby laser was invented by Dr. T.H.
Maiman in the year 1960. Since then, the development of lasers
is extremely rapid. The laser action is being demonstrated in
many solids, liquids, gases and semiconductors.
The discovery of laser made an enormous impact on
scientific and engineering applications particularly in the fields
of communication, metrology, biology, medicine and computers.
3.1 LASER - BASIC CONCEPTS
Interaction of light radiation with materials
Consider an assembly of atoms in a material which is
exposed to light radiation (a stream of photons with energy
h).
3.2 Engineering Physics
In general, three different processes occur when light
radiation interacts with a material. They are
1. Stimulated absorption
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission
Process - 1 Stimulated absorption
An atom in ground state with energy E1 absorbs an
incident photon of energy h and is excited to higher energy
state with energy E2 (fig. 3.1).
This process is known as stimulated or induced
absorption.
Fig. 3.1 Stimulated absorption
It occurs only when the incident photon energy h is equal
to the energy difference between excited state and ground state
E2 E1.
For each such a transition, a certain amount of energy
h is absorbed from the incident light beam.
The excited atoms do not stay in the higher energy state
for a longer time. It is the tendency of atoms in excited state
to come to the lower energy state.
Thus, the atoms in excited state quickly return to ground
state by emitting a photon of energy h.
Lasers 3.3
The emission of photons takes place in two ways, namely
(a) spontaneous emission
(b) stimulated emission
Process - 2 Spontaneous emission
The atom in the excited state E2 (higher energy state)
returns to ground state E1 (lower energy state) by emitting a
photon of energy h (E E2 E1) without the influence of any
external agency (fig. 3.2).
Fig. 3.2 Spontaneous emission
Such emission of light radiation which is not
triggered by any external influence is called spontaneous
emission.
It is a random and also uncontrollable process.
Process - 3 Stimulated emission
Einstein suggested that there must be another mechanism
by which an atom in excited state can return to ground state.
He found that there is an interaction between the atom
in excited state and a photon. During this interaction, the photon
triggers the excited atom to make transition to ground state
E1 (fig. 3.3).
3.4 Engineering Physics
Fig. 3.3 Stimulated emission
This transition produces a second photon which is similar
to triggering photon with respect to frequency, phase and
propagation direction.
Such kind of forced emission of photons by the incident
photons is called stimulated emission. It is also known as
induced emission. It plays a key factor for the working of a laser.
3.2 EINSTEIN’S A and B COEFFICIENTS (Derivation)
Consider an assembly of atoms with different energy states
at an absolute temperature T.
When light radiation is incident on these atoms, three
different processes take place. They are
(a) stimulated absorption
(b) spontaneous emission
(c) stimulated emission
Stimulated absorption
The atom in the lower energy state E1 absorbs radiation
and is excited to the higher energy level E2. This process is
called stimulated or induced absorption (Fig. 3.4).
Fig. 3.4
Lasers 3.5
The rate of stimulated absorption is directly proportional
to number of atoms (N1) in lower energy state E1 and the energy
density (Q) of incident radiation (number of photons incident
per unit area per unit time).
Nab N1Q
Therefore, the number of stimulated absorption transitions
occuring per unit time is given by
Nab B12 N1Q ... (1)
where B12 is a proportionality constant.
This process is an upward transition. (Fig 3.4)
The atoms in excited state return to lower energy state
E1 (ground state) by emitting a photon of energy h in two ways.
(i) Spontaneous emission
(ii) Stimulated emission
Spontaneous emission
The atoms in the excited state E2 return to lower energy
state E1 by emitting a photon of energy energy h without the
influence of any external agency. This emission of light radiation
is known spontaneous emission. (Fig. 3.4)
The rate of spontaneous emission is directly proportional
to the number of atoms in the excited energy state (N2).
Nsp N2
Hence, the number of transitions per second is given by
Nsp A21 N2 ... (2)
Here, A21 is a proportionality constant.
This process is a downward transition. (Fig. 3.4)
3.6 Engineering Physics
Stimulated emission
If the light photon is incident on the atom in the excited
energy state, the photon triggers the excited atom to make
transition to lower energy energy E1 along with emission of
photons. This kind of emission of light radiation is stimulated
emission. (Fig. 3.4)
The rate of transition is directly proportional to the number
of atoms in the excited energy level (N2) and the energy density
of incident radiation (Q).
Nst N2Q
The number of transitions per second.
Nst B21 N2 Q ... (3)
where B21 is a proportionality constant.
This process is also downward transition.
The proportionality constants A12, B12 and B21 are known
as Einstein’s coefficients A and B.
Under equilibrium condition, the number of downward and
upward transitions per second are equal.
i.e., Nsp Nst Nab ...(4)
Substituting from the eqns (1), (2) and (3), in eqn (4), we
have
A21 N2 B21 N2 Q B12 N1 Q ... (5)
Rearranging the eqn (5), we have
B12 N1 Q B21 N2 Q A21 N2
Q B12 N1 B21 N2 A21 N2
Lasers 3.7
A21 N2
Q ... (6)
B12 N1 B21 N2
Dividing numerator and denominator by B21 N2, we have
A21 N2
B21N2
Q
B12 N1 B21 N2
B21 N2 B21 N2
A21 1
Q ... (7)
B21 B12 N1
B N 1
21 2
N1 h/kT
On substituting e (from Boltzmann distribution
N2
equation) in eqn (7), we have
A21 1
Q ... (8)
B21 B12 h / kT
B e 1
21
Planck’s radiation formula for energy distribution is given by
3
8 h 1
Q 3 h / kT
... (9)
c e 1
Comparing the eqns (8) and (9), we have
B12
1
B21
B12 B21 ... (10)
3 ... (11)
A21 8 h 8 h
and or
B21 c
3
3
Since B12 B21, Einstein’s coefficients are termed as A and
B coefficients.
3.8 Engineering Physics
Conclusion
The spontaneous emission is more predominant than the
stimulated emission. The laser light is due to stimulated
emission. Therefore, stimulated emission should be
greater than spontaneous emission. To achive this,
population inversion is required.
The equation (11) gives the relation between spontaneous
emission and stimulated emission coefficients. Since this
3
ratio is proportional to , the probability of spontaneous
emission increases with the energy difference between
the two states.
If N0 is the number of atoms in ground state, then, the
number of atoms in the excited energy state E is given by
Maxwell - Boltzmann’s distribution law,
E/kT
N N0 e
where k - Boltzmann’s constant.
If N1 and N2 are the number of atoms in the states of
energies E1 and E2, then from Maxwell - Boltzmann’s law,
we have
E1/kT
N1 N0 e E2 E1/kT
e
N2 E2/kT
N0 e
N1
[ ... E2 E1 h ]
h/kT
e
N2
Note: The students are not expected to write the informations
given in the box in the examination.
Concept of Laser
The photon emitted during stimulated emission has the
same energy, phase, frequency and direction as that of the
incident photon.
Lasers 3.9
Thus, we have two coherent photons. Now, these two
photons incident on two other atoms in the state E2. This results
in induced emission of two more photons.
Now, there are four coherent photons of same energy.
These four photons induce further transitions with four other
atoms in the energy state E2. This gives stimulated emission of
light coherent photons of same energy (fig 3.5).
Fig. 3.5. Amplification due to stimulated
emission of radiation
If the process continues in a chain, ultimately, this gives
rise to increase in intensity of coherent radiation enormously.
Stimulated emission is multiplied through a chain
reaction. This multiplication of photons through
stimulated emission leads to coherent, powerful,
monochromatic, collimated beam of light. This light is
known as laser light.
Thus for laser action, stimulated emission is most
important. It is achieved by population inversion.
3.3 POPULATION OF ENERGY LEVELS
Population
The number of atoms per unit volume in an energy
level is known as population of that energy level.
3.10 Engineering Physics
If N is number of atoms per unit volume in an energy
state E, then expression for population (according to Boltzmann’s
distribution law) is written as
E
N No exp
KT
Where
No is the population in the gound state, K is the
Boltzmann’s constant and T is the temperature.
From the equation of population, population is maximum
in the gound state and decreases exponentially as energy level
increases as shown in fig.3.6.
Fig. 3.6 Population of energy levels
Population Inversion
It is a situation in which the number of atoms in
higher energy state is more than that in lower energy state.
Usually at thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms N2
(population of atoms) at higher energy state is much less than
the number of atoms (population of atoms) at lower energy state
N1. i.e., N1 N2. (fig. 3.7)
Lasers 3.11
Fig. 3.7 Normal condition (Before population inversion)
The state of achieving more number of atoms in
higher energy state than the that of lower energy state
(i.e., N2 N1) is known as population inversion (fig. 3.8).
Fig. 3.8 After population inversion
Consider three level system in which three active energy
levels E1, E2 and E3 are present and population in those energy
level are N1, N2 and N3 respectively. In normal conditions
E1 E2 E3 and N1 N2 N3
E1 is the ground state; its lifetime is unlimited. E3 is
highest energy state; its lifetime is very less and it is the most
unstable state. Where as E2 is an excited state and has more
lifetime. Hence, E2 is metastable state.
When suitable form of energy is supplied to the system
then the atoms are excited from ground state E1 to excited
states E2 and E3.
Due to unstability, excited atoms will come back to ground
state after the lifetime of the respective energy states
E2 and E3.
If this process is continued then atoms will excite
continously to E2 and E3.
3.12 Engineering Physics
Because E3 is the most unstable state atoms will fall into
E2 immediately. At a stage the population in E2 will become
more than the population in ground state. This situation is
called population inversion and it is as shown in fig.3.9.
Fig. 3.9 Population Inversion
Conditions for population inversion
There must be atleast two energy levels E1 and E2.
There must be a source to supply the energy to the
medium.
The atoms must be continuously raised to the excited state.
Active Medium
Atoms are in general characterized by a large number of
energy levels. However, all types of atoms are not suitable for
laser operation.
Even in a medium consisting of different species of atoms,
only a small fraction of atoms of a particular type have energy
level system suitable for achieving population inversion.
Such atoms can produce more stimulated emission than
spontaneous emission and cause amplification of light. Those
atoms, which cause laser action, are called active centers.
The rest of the medium acts as host and supports active
centers. The medium hosting the active centers is called the
active medium. It is also called laser medium.
Lasers 3.13
An active medium is a medium which when can be excited
to reach the state of population inversion. It promotes
stimulated emissions leading to light amplification.
Pumping Action
In order to achieve the condition of population inversion,
the atoms in the lower energy level should be raised
continuously to the upper energy level. It requires energy to be
supplied to the system.
Pumping Action is the process of supplying energy to the
laser medium to achieve a state of population inversion.
Because N1 is originally very much larger than N2, a large
amount of input energy is required to momentarily increase
N2 to a value comparable to N1.
Pumping action is an essential requirement for
producing the laser beam.
Methods for pumping action
The methods commonly used for pumping action are
(i) Optical pumping (excitation by photons)
(ii) Electrical discharge (excitation by electrons)
(iii) Direct conversion
(iv) Inelastic collision between atoms.
(i) Optical pumping
When the atoms are exposed to suitable light radiation of
energy h, atoms in the lower energy state absorb these
radiation and go to an excited state (fig. 3.10). This is known
as optical pumping.
3.14 Engineering Physics
E2 > E1
Fig. 3.10 Optical pumping
This type of pumping is used in solid state lasers like ruby
laser and Nd-YAG laser.
(ii) Electrical discharge (excitation by electrons)
In this method, the electrons are produced in an electrical
discharge tube. These electrons are accelerated to high velocities
by a strong electrical field. Now, accelerated electrons collide
with the gas atoms.
During the collision, the energy of the electrons is
transferred to gas atoms. Thereby atoms gain energy and go to
excited state (fig. 3.11). This results in population inversion.
This is known as electrical discharge.
Fig. 3.11 Electrical discharge method
The energy transfer is represented by the equation
A e A e
where A – Gas atom (or molecule) in ground state
A – Same gas atom in excited energy state
e – Electron with more kinetic energy
e – Same electron with less energy.
This method of pumping is used in gas lasers like argon
laser and CO2 laser.
Lasers 3.15
(iii) Direct conversion
In this method, the electrical energy is applied to a direct
band gap semiconductor like GaAs. The recombination of
electrons and holes takes place. During the recombination
process, the electrical energy is directly converted into light
energy (fig. 3.12).
Fig. 3.12 Direct conversion
This method of pumping is used in semiconductor diode
laser (e.g. GaAs laser).
(iv) Inelastic collision between atoms
In this method, a combination of two gases (say A and B)
is used. The excited energy levels of gases of A and B nearly
coincides each other. (fig. 3.13).
Atom A Atom B
Fig. 3.13 Inelastic atom–atom collision
During the electrical discharge, atoms of gas A are excited
to higher energy states A due to collision with the electrons.
A e A e
e – Electron with more kinetic energy
e – Same electron with less energy.
3.16 Engineering Physics
Now A atoms at higher energy state collide with B atoms
in lower energy state. Due to this inelastic collision, B atoms
gain energy and excited to higher state B . Hence, A atoms lose
energy and return to lower energy state.
A B A B
Thus, population inversion in the energy states of B is
achieved. This method is used in He - Ne laser.
3.4 RESONANT CAVITY
A resonator consists of a pair of mirrors, plane or spherical,
having a common principal axis. Figure 3.14(a) shows how a
light beam (photon) passing through an active medium with
population inversion is amplified.
At the right end of the medium, we have the amplified
light beam which is ready to be transmitted as laser.
Fig. 3.14 Use of resonator
Lasers 3.17
But the intensity, and power, of this beam is weak. If the
power is to be increased, we need an extremely large active
medium, which is impractical. The resonator, or optical
resonator, indirectly meets this requirement. This makes the
laser an oscillator.
In order to construct an oscillator that can supply light
energy and act as a source of light, part of the light output
has to be sent back into the active medium.
This can be achieved by placing the active medium between
two mirrors (resonator) which reflect part of the output energy
back to active medium. This is shown in figure 3.14(b).
The reflected part of the output beam as it progresses
towards the mirror at the other end, stimulates the excited
atoms to make a transition to the ground state by emitting
photons. The intensity of the light beam therefore, increases.
3.5 OPTICAL AMPLIFICATION
The build-up of a laser beam is explained as follows.
(i) On switching on the pumping source (xenon flash lamp
in the case of ruby laser), part of the light energy is
absorbed by the active medium, and the reminder is
dissipated in the form of heat.
The absorbed energy excites the atoms, which are raised
to a higher energy level (metastable state). Thus the
absorbed energy is stored at this higher energy level.
(ii) If the pumping radiation is adequate, population
inversion occurs i.e., the number of excited atoms N2
(atoms residing in the metastable state) becomes
greater (more than 50 per cent) than the number of
ground state atoms N1.
This condition results in the probability that rather
than being absorbed, a photon of the correct frequency
will induce a stimulated photon.
3.18 Engineering Physics
(iii) Laser beam build-up due to stimulated emission is
shown in figure 3.15. As shown in figure 3.15(a),
initially spontaneous transitions occur. Those photons
whose direction of travel is along the axis of the active
medium, have the longest path length and they are
more likely to stimulate further emission.
This in turn is amplified by the mirrors at either end
of the active medium (figures 3.15(b) and (c)). The
photons traveling in all other directions are lost and
do not contribute to build up of the laser beam.
(iv) Of the two mirrors of the resonator, one is made totally
reflecting (90% reflecting mirror) and the other partially
reflecting, so that a part of the build-up laser beam is
transmitted for the external use.
Fig. 3.15 Laser beam build-up
Lasers 3.19
Characteristics of laser
Laser is basically a light source. Laser light has the
following important characteristics
(i) High directionality
(ii) High intensity
(iii) Highly monochromatic
(iv) Highly coherent
(i) High directionality
An ordinary light source emits the light in all directions.
But, a laser source emits light in only one direction. The
divergence of laser beam is very small (fig. 3.16). So, laser light
has high directionality.
Fig. 3.16. High directionality
(ii) High Intensity
Laser source emits light as a narrow beam and its energy
is concentrated in a small region (spot). This concentration of
energy gives a high intensity to the laser light (fig. 3.17).
Fig. 3.17. High intensity
3.20 Engineering Physics
(iii) Highly monochromatic
Ordinary light spreads over a wavelength range of the
order of 100 nm.
But a laser beam has very little wavelength spreading of
the order of 1 nm. (fig. 3.18). Thus, laser beam is highly
monochromatic. ie., it emits only one colour of light.
Fig. 3.19 Spectral width of laser
(iv) Highly Coherent
The light emitted from a laser source consists of wave
trains. These wave trains have same frquency, phase and
direction. So, they are coherent (fig. 3.19).
Fig. 3.19. Coherence
Lasers 3.21
Laser light has a high degree of coherence. The coherence
of laser emission results in extremely high intensity and hence
more power.
These important properties make the laser light
superior to other conventional light sources such as
flame, Sunlight, ordinary electric bulbs, CFL, etc.
Table 3.1
Differences between ordinary light and Laser light
S.No. Ordinary Light Laser Light
1. Light emitted is not Light emitted is highly
monochromatic. monochromatic.
2. Light emitted does not Light emitted has high
have high degree of degree of coherence.
coherence
3. Emitted light spreads in all Emitted light spreads only
directions (not directional) in one direction
(directional)
4. Light is less intense and Laser light is more intense
bright and bright.
Basic components of a laser system
A basic laser system has three important components
(Fig.3.20)
Fig. 3.20 Components of a Laser
3.22 Engineering Physics
(i) Active medium
(ii) Pumping source
(iii) Optical resonator
(i) There must be an active medium (solid, liquid or gas)
with suitable energy levels for laser transition to occur.
(ii) Population inversion is to be achieved through proper
excitation (such as optical pumping using flash lamp,
electric discharge through gas, high injection current
through semiconductor junction etc.)
(iii) There must be optical feedback mechanism forming
resonant cavity for true laser oscillation. Normally
feedback is provided with the help of glass mirrors or
polished and coated ends of a crystal rod or cleaved
crystal face, depending on the system.
Types of lasers
Based on the type of active medium, the laser systems are
broadly classified into the following types.
Sl.No. Type of Laser Examples
1. Solid state laser Ruby, Nd:YAG lasers
2. Gas laser He - Ne, CO2, Argon lasers
3. Liquid laser SeOCl2, Europium chelate lasers
4. Dye laser Rhodamine 6G , Coumarin dye
lasers
5. Semiconductor laser GaAs, GaAsP, GaAlAs, InP lasers.
3.6 Nd - YAG LASER
Nd - YAG laser is Neodymium based laser. Nd stands for
Neodymium (rare earth element) and YAG for Yttrium
Aluminium Garnet Y3 Al5O12.
It is a four - level solid state laser.
Lasers 3.23
Principle
The active medium Nd-YAG rod is optically pumped by
3
krypton flash tube. The neodymium ions Nd are raised to
excited energy levels. During transition from metastable state
to ground state, a laser beam of wavelength 1.064 m is emitted.
Construction
The construction of Nd-YAG laser is shown in fig. 3.21.
Fig. 3.21 Nd-YAG Laser
3
A small amount of yttrium ions Y is replaced with
3
neodymium ions Nd in the active medium of Nd-YAG rod.
The active medium Nd-YAG crystal is cut into a cylindrical
rod. The ends of this rod are highly polished and optically flat
and parallel. The cylindrical rod (laser rod) and a pumping
source (krypton flash tube) are kept in an elliptical reflector
cavity in order to focus most of the light into Nd YAG rod.
The optical resonator is formed by using two external
reflecting mirrors. One mirror M1 is fully reflecting while the
other mirror M2 is partially reflecting.
Working
3
The energy level of Nd ion in Nd - YAG laser is shown
in fig 3.12.
3.24 Engineering Physics
When krypton flash tube is switched on, the neodymium
ions are excited from ground state Eo to upper energy
levels E3 and E4 (pump bands) due to absorption of light
radiation of wavelengths 0.73 m and 0.80 m.
Fig. 3.22 Energy level of Nd 3 in Nd - YAG laser
The neodymium ions from these excited energy levels
make a transition to energy level E2 by non-radiative
transition. E2 is a metastable state.
Now, the neodymium ions are collected in this energy
level E2. Thus, the population inversion is achieved
between E2 and E1.
A neodymium ion makes a spontaneous transition from
E2 to E1 by emitting a photon of energy h. This emitted
photon triggers a chain of stimulated photons between
E2 and E1.
The photons thus generated travel back and forth
between two mirrors and grow in strength due to induced
emission. Hence, the photon number multiplies more
rapidly.
Lasers 3.25
After enough strength is attained, an intense laser light
of wavelength 1.06 m 10600 Å is emitted and pass
through the partially reflecting mirror M2. This
corresponds to transition of ions from E2 to E1.
Characteristics
Type: It is a four-level solid state laser.
E1, E2, E3 and E4
Active medium: Nd-YAG rod.
Pumping method: Optical pumping.
Pumping source: Krypton flash tube.
Optical resonator: Two ends of Nd-YAG rod polished
with silver (one end is fully silvered and other is
partially silvered).
Power output: 20 kW.
Nature of output: Pulsed or continuous beam of light.
Wavelength of output: 1.06 m (infra-red).
Advantages
This laser has high energy output.
It is much easier to achieve population inversion.
Disadvantages
3
The electron energy level structure of Nd in Nd - YAG
is complicated.
Applications
Nd-YAG laser is used in range finders and illuminators.
It is widely used in resistor trimming, scribing,
micro-machining operations such as welding, drilling etc.
It finds many medical applications such as endoscopy,
urology, neurosurgery.
3.26 Engineering Physics
Solid-state Diode lasers (Semiconductor diode laser)
Laser light can also be produced in semiconductors. The
most compact of all lasers is semiconductor diode laser.
It is also called injection laser.
Types of semiconductor diode lasers
Broadly there are two types of semiconductor diode lasers.
They are
1. Homojunction semiconductor diode lasers
2. Heterojunction semiconductor diode lasers.
Homojunction Semiconductor Laser
A diode laser which makes use of the same type of
semiconductor material on both sides of the junction is known
as a homojunction diode laser.
Example: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) laser
Heterojunction Semiconductor Laser
A diode laser which makes use of different semiconductor
materials on the two sides of the junction is known as
hetrojunction diode laser.
Example: A junction laser having GaAs on one side and
GaAlAs on the other side.
Direct band gap semiconductor
In this type of semiconductor during the recombination of
hole and electron, a photon of light is released.
Example: Ga As
It is used in the fabrication of light emitting diodes (LEDs)
and lasers.
Indirect band gap semiconductor.
During the recombination of hole and electron, heat energy
is released.
Example: Germanium and silicon.
Lasers 3.27
3.7 SEMICONDUCTOR LASER HOMO - JUNCTION
Definition
It is a specially fabricated p - n junction diode.
This diode emits laser light when it is forward - biased.
Principle
When the p-n junction diode is forward-biased (fig. 3.23(a)),
the electrons from n-region and holes from p-region cross the
junction and recombine with each other.
During the recombination process, the light radiation
(photons) is released from a certain specified direct band gap
semiconductors like Ga-As. This light radiation is known as
recombination radiation (fig. 3.23(b)).
The photon emitted during recombination stimulates other
electrons and holes to recombine. As a result, stimulated
emission takes place and laser light is produced.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.23 Semiconductor diode laser principle
Construction
The construction of homo-junction semiconductor laser is
shown in fig 3.24.
3.28 Engineering Physics
The active medium is a p - n junction diode made from a
single crystal of gallium arsenide. This crystal is cut in the form
of a platelet having a thickness of 0.5 mm.
Fig. 3.24 Semiconductor diode laser (Homojunction)
This platelet consists of two regions n type and ptype.
The metal electrodes are connected to both upper
(p-region) and lower (n-region) surfaces of the
semiconductor diode. The forward bias voltage is applied
through metal electrodes.
Now the photon emission is stimulated in a very thin
layer of pn junction.
The end faces of the pn junction are well polished and
parallel to each other. They act as an optical resonator
through which the emitted light comes out.
Working
The energy level diagram of homojunction semiconductor
laser is shown in fig 3.25.
When the pn junction is forward-biased, the electrons
and holes are injected into junction region.
Lasers 3.29
The region around junction contains a large number of
electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valance
band.
P N
Fig. 3.25 Energy level diagram of a semiconductor laser
Now the electrons and holes recombine with each other.
During recombination, light photons are produced.
When the forward - biased voltage is increased, more
light photons are emitted. These photons trigger a chain
of stimulated recombinations resulting in the emission
of more light photons in phase.
These photons moving at the plane of the junction travel
back and forth by reflection between two polished surfaces of
the junction. Thus, the light photons grow in strength
After gaining enough strength, laser beam of wavelength
8400 Å is emitted from the junction.
The wavelength of laser light is given by
hc
Eg h
hc . . c
.
Eg
where Eg band gap energy in joule
3.30 Engineering Physics
Characteristics
Type : Solid state semiconductor laser.
Active medium : A pn junction diode made from a
single crystal of gallium arsenide.
Pumping method : Direct conversion method.
Power output : a few mW.
Nature of output : Continuous wave or pulsed output.
Wavelength of output : 8300 Å to 8500 Å.
Advantages
This laser is very small in size and compact.
It has high efficiency.
The laser output can be easily increased by increasing
the junction current.
It is operated with less power than ruby and CO2 lasers.
It requires very little additional equipment.
It emits a continuous wave output or pulsed output.
Disadvantages
Laser output beam has large divergence.
The purity and monochromacity are poor.
It has poor coherence and stability.
Application
This laser is widely used in fibre optic communication.
It is used in laser printers and CD players.
It is used to heal the wounds by infrared radiation.
It is also used as a pain killer.
Lasers 3.31
3.8 SEMICONDUCTOR LASER (HETERO-JUNCTION)
A diode laser with a pn junction made up of different
semiconductor materials in two regions ie., n - type and
p - type is known as heterojunction semiconductor laser.
Example
Diode laser having a junction of GaAs and GaAlAs
Principle
When the pn junction diode is forward biased, the
electrons from n-region and the holes from p-region
recombine with each other at the junction. During
recombination process, light photon is released.
Construction
Generally, this laser consists of five layers as shown in
fig. 3.26. A layer of GaAs p-type (3rd layer) acts as active region.
This layer is kept between two layers having wider band gap
Ga Al As - p - type (2nd layer) and Ga Al As n - type (4th layer).
r
se
La
+
N ty ty e
- n s - - p - P ty p
p e ty p p e p e
IA s s - p
a A a A A IA A s
Bt
e
G a a
G G
1
2
ty
er 3
G
La s
s
aA
4
G
1 G aAs - p type contact layer
2 G aAIAs - P type w ide band gap confinem ent
3 G aAs - p type narrow band gap active layer
4 G aAIAs - N type w ide band gap confinem ent
5 G aAs - n type substrate
Fig. 3.26 Semiconductor laser - Heterojunction
3.32 Engineering Physics
The bias voltage is applied through the metal electrodes fixed
on top and bottom layers of hetero junction semiconductor laser.
rd th
The end faces of the junctions of 3 and 4 layers are
well polished and parallel to each other. They act as an optical
resonator.
Working
The energy band diagram is shown in fig. 3.27.
Fig. 3.27 Energy diagram of
semiconductor laser heterjunction
When the pn junction is forward biased, the electrons and
holes are injected into the junction region. The region around
the junction contains large number of electrons in the conduction
band and holes in the valence band.
Now some of the injected charge carriers recombine and
produce light radiation.
When the forward biased voltage is increased, more light
photons are emitted and hence, the light intensity is more. These
light photons trigger a chain of stimulated recombinations
resulting in the release of photons in phase.
These photons moving at the plane of the junction travel
back and forth by reflection between two sides and grow in its
strength. A coherent beam of laser having wavelength nearly
8000 Å emerges out from the junction region.
Lasers 3.33
Characteristics
Type : Heterojunction semiconductor laser.
Active medium : pn junction made from different type
of semiconductors (layers).
Pumping method : Direct conversion method
Power output : 1 mW
Nature of the output : Continuous waves
Wavelength of : nearly 8000 Å
the output
Advantages
It produces continuous wave output.
The power output is very high.
Disadvantages
It is very difficult to grow different layers of pn junction.
The cost of this laser is very high.
Applications
This type of laser is mostly used in optical communications.
It is widely used in computers, especially on CD-ROMs
.
Table 3.2
Differences between homojunction and
heterojunction lasers
S.No. Homojunction laser Heterojunction laser
1. Homojunction laser is made Heterojunction laser is
with a single crystalline made with different
material. crystalline materials.
2. Power output is low. Power output is high.
3.34 Engineering Physics
S.No. Homojunction laser Heterojunction laser
3. Pulsed output (sometimes Continuous output.
continuous).
4. Cost is less. Cost is more.
5. Life time is less. Life time is more.
6. Examples: Examples:
(i) GaAs (i) GaAs / GaAlAs
(ii) InP (ii) InP / InAlP
Table 3.3
Comparison of Nd-YAG and semiconductor laser
S.
Characteristics Nd-YAG laser Semiconductor laser
No.
1. Type Solid state laser Semiconductor laser
2. Active medium Yitrium Aluminium pn junction diode.
Garnet (Y3 Al5 O12)
3. Pumping method Optical pumping Director conversion
4. Optical resonator Ends of the polished rods End faces of the junction
in silver diode.
5. Power output 2 104 W 1 mW
6. Nature of Pulsed Pulsed or
output continuous wave form
7. Wavelength 1.06 m 8300 8500 Å
Industrial and Engineering Applications of Lasers
Material processing
Material processing involves cutting, welding, drilling and
surface treatment.
Lasers 3.35
When the material is exposed to laser light, then light
energy is converted into heat energy. Due to heating effect, the
material is heated then melted and vapourised.
The different types of laser heat treatment processes are
Laser annealing, Laser hardening, Laser surface alloying,
Laser cladding
Laser welding
For welding of two metal plates, the metal plates are held
in contact at their edges and laser beam is allowed to move
along the line of contact of the plates.
The laser beam heats the edges of the two plates to their
melting points. Metals fuse together where they are in contact.
(Fig. 3.28)
Fig. 3.28 Laser Welding
Laser cutting
The principle of laser cutting is the vaporization of
the material at point of focus of the laser beam.
The laser cutting setup is shown in fig. 3.29. When laser
beam is incident on the material, due to heating effect the
material is melted and vapourised at the point of incidence. The
vaporized material is removed with the help of a gas jet.
3.36 Engineering Physics
The gas jet is also used to cool the adjacent edges of the
cut metal.
Fig. 3.29 Laser Cutting or Drilling
Surface Defect Detection
High intensity laser beam is used to study the surface
defects in materials such as ICs, aircrafts, etc.
The laser beam reflected from the surface of the material
under investigation and also directly obtained from the source
as a reference are used to produce interference between the two
laser beams. Information about the material is obtained by
forming the interference pattern.
This is one of the important industrial and engineering
applications of Laser.
Types of laser for material processing
In most of the material processing applications, the
following lasers are used
(a) High power CO2 - laser with continuous waves or
pulsed waves.
(b) Nd - YAG laser.
Lasers 3.37
Applications of Laser in Communication
1. Since laser beam has enormous bandwidth and it
permits 10 million telephone conversation or 8000 TV
programmes simultaneously.
2. Narrow angular spread and directionality of laser beam
makes it a very useful tool for communications with
satellites and rockets to the moon and other planets
i.e., inter planetary communications.
3. Since the laser light is not absorbed by water, it is
possible to establish underwater communication
between sub-marines.
4. Fibre Guides: The optical fibers are increasingly used in
communications, where these are termed as fibre guide.
Here, laser light is used as a source.
Fig. 3.30 Laser Communication System Block diagram
Applications of Laser in Military:
Since large quantity of coherent energy can be concentrated
at a point with laser it finds applications in defence.
1. Death Ray: Since laser beam is highly energitic, a powerful
laser beam is used to destroy very big objects like aircrafts,
missiles etc. in a few seconds by directing the laser beam on
the objects. For this reason it is called as death ray or war
weapon. (Fig 3.31)
Fig. 3.31 Laser as a Death Ray
3.38 Engineering Physics
2. Laser Gun: In a laser gun, a highly convergent beam is
focussed on the enemy at a short range, which can vapourise
the governing part of the weapon system or sensitive part of
enemy body.
3. LIDAR: Laser beam can exactly determine the size, form,
distance, velocity and direction of any distant objects (enemy
plane, miscible, etc.) by receiving the reflected laser beam on a
cathode screen as in RADARS (Radio Detection And Ranging
(Fig.3.32).
Fig. 3.32 LIDAR
4. Laser can be used for automatically guiding rocket and
satellites.
Laser Applications in Computers
Laser has several important applications in computers.
1. The laser is used to transmit an entire memory banks
from one computer to another using optical fibres.
2. Computer print outs are done with laser prints.
3. With the help of computer software, 3D profiling can
be done.
4. Large amount of data can be stored in CD-ROM.
Medical Applications.
Laser are presently used successfully for a variety of
applications in the medical field.
Lasers 3.39
1. Ophthamology
(i) Treatment of detached retina.
(ii) coagulation in diabetic retinopathy
2. Neurosurgery
Treatment of nerves in skull and spine.
3. Gastroenterology
Treatment by coagulation of lower gastro intestinal fat.
4. Dermatology
Removal of skin imperfections by laser irradiation.
5. Gynecology
(i) Fertility microsurgery
(ii) Fallopian tube reconstruction
6. ENT
Ear, nose and throat surgery.
7. Burn Therapy, Urology, Thoracic surgery and orthopedics.
Laser Surgery
As laser light can be concentrated into spots, laser has
found applications not only in diagnosis but also in surgery and
other forms of treatment.
The schematic diagram of beam delivery system used in
surgery with CO2 laser is shown in fig 3.33.
Fig. 3.33 Schematic diagram for CO2 laser beam delivery
system in surgery
3.40 Engineering Physics
Advantages of laser surgery
It is a painless and bloodless surgery.
There is no side effects.
The surgery is highly sterile, localised and precise.
It gives prompt and faster healing.
It requires only short periods of surgical time.
Disadvantages of laser surgery
It is highly expensive.
Laser treatment for coronary artery blockages
Since laser beam can be sent down readily through optical
fibres and fibres can be introduced into arteries using catheters,
it becomes possible to treat coronary artery blockages using
lasers.
Laser - Acupuncture
In laser acupuncture, silver and gold needles are replaced
by fine, micro laser beams.
Laser - Dental application
In root canal therapy, fibre is inserted into the root canals.
The laser passed through fibre removes the infected tissue by
vaporising it.
Recently,
lasers have been attempted to cure skin cancers.
Lasers 3.41
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 3.1
Calculate the relative population of sodium atoms in
sodium lamp in the first excited state and the ground
state at a temperature of 250C. [ 590 nm]
[ A.U. Jan 2012]
Given data:
34
Planck’s constant h 6.625 10 Js
8 1
Velocity of light c 3 10 ms
23 1
Boltzmann’s constant k 1.38 10 JK
Temperature T 250C 250 273 523 K
9
Wavelength 590 nm 590 10 m
Solution:
Let N2 be the population of the first excited state and
N1 be the population of the ground state.
We know that
N2 E2 kT
e E2 E1 kT h kT hc kT
E1 kT
e e e
N1 e
Substituting the given values,
34 8
6.625 10 3 10
7 23
N2 5.9 10 1.38 10
523
e
N1
[ 46.674] 21
e 5.37 10
3.42 Engineering Physics
N2 21
5.367 10
N1
The ratio between the atoms in the first excited state and
21
the ground state is 5.367 10 .
Problem 3.2
Laser action occurs by transition from an excited state
E2 to the ground state E1 0. If the transition
produces a light of wavelength 6930 Å, find the energy
level of the excited state. (A.U. Dec 2012)
Given data
10
6930 Å 6930 10 m
34
h 6.625 10 Js
8 1
c 3 10 ms
E1 0. ground state
Solution
hc
E2 E1 h .
Substituting the given values, we have
34 8
6.625 10 3 10
10
6930 10
Energy of the excited state
19
E2 2.868 10 J 1.79 eV.
Lasers 3.43
Problem 3.3
Find the relative population of the two states in a
Nd-YAG laser that produces a light beam of wavelength
6943 Å at 300 K. (A.U. May 2012)
Given data
10
6943 Å 6943 10 m
T 300 K
Solution
The population ratio is given by
N2
exp [ E2 E1/kT ]
N1
hc
E2 E1 h
34 8
6.625 10 3 10
10
6943 10 m
19
2.863 10 J
N2 2.863 10 19
exp exp 69.2
N1 23
1.38 10 300
N2 31
8 10
N1
3.44 Engineering Physics
Problem 3.4
In a laser action the energy of the stimulated photon is
20
39.62 10 J. What is the wavelength of the stimulated
photon? (A.U. Jan 2011)
Given data
20
Energy of the stimulated photon E 39.62 10 J
34
Planck’s constant h 6.625 10 Js
Solution
We know that E h
E
h
20
39.62 10 14
34
5.98 10
6.625 10
We know that c
c
8
3 10
14
5.98 10
6
0.50 10
7
5 10 m
Problem 3.5
Determine the wavelength of radiation given out by a
laser with an energy of 3 eV, given that
34 8 1
h 6.63 10 Js and c 3 10 ms . (A.U. May 2012)
Given data
19
Energy E 3 eV 3 1.6 10 J
Lasers 3.45
34
h 6.63 10 Js
8 1
c 3 10 ms
Solution
We know that E h and
c
c or
hc
E h
hc
E
Substituting the given values, we have
34 8
hc 6.63 10 3 10
19
E 3 1.6 10
7
4.14 10 m
9
414 10 m 414 nm
414 nm
Problem 3.6
Calculate the wavelength of light emission from GaAs
whose band gap is 1.44 eV (A.U. Jan. 2008)
Given data
19
Band gap Eg 1.44 eV 1.44 1.6 10 J
34
h 6.625 10
8 1
c 3 10 ms
3.46 Engineering Physics
Solution
hc
Wavelength
Eg
Substituting given values,
34 8
6.625 10 3 10
19
1.44 1.6 10
7
8.626 10 m
10
8626 10 m
Wavelength 8626 Å
ANNA UNIVERSITY PART - A ‘2’ Marks Q & A
1. What is stimulated emission? (A.U. Jan. 2012)
The process of induced emissions of photons caused by the
incident photons is called stimulated emission. This process is
a key factor for the operation of a laser.
2. What are the conditions necessary for stimulated
emission of radiation? (A.U. April 2010)
(i) The atoms must be in the excited state.
(ii) The photon of light radiation must strike the atoms in
the excited state.
3. Write the differences between spontaneous emission
and stimulated emission (A.U. Dec. 2011)
Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
1. Emission of light radiation is Induced emissions of light
not triggered by external radiations caused by incident
influence photons
Lasers 3.47
Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
2. Emitted photon travels in Emitted photon travels in
random direction particular direction
3. Emitted photons cannot be Emitted photons can be
controlled controlled.
4. This process is a key factor This process is a key factor
for ordinary light. for laser operation
4. What is meant by population inversion and how is it
achieved? (A.U. Jan. 2009)
The establishment of a situation in which the number of
atoms in higher energy level is more than that in lower energy
level is called population inversion. It is an essential requirement
for producing a laser beam. It is achieved by pumping action.
5. Explain the need for population inversion in the
production of laser? (A.U. Dec. 2010)
Stimulated emission process is a key factor for the
production of laser. For stimulated emission, more number of
atoms must be in the excited state.
Establishing a situation in which number of atoms in
higher energy state is more than that in lower energy state is
called population inversion. Hence, population inversion is
needed in the production of laser.
6. What is pumping action? (A.U. May 2013)
The process of creating a population inversion in the atomic
states is known as pumping action. It is essential requirement
for producing a laser beam.
7. What are the methods commonly used for pumping
action? (A.U. Dec 2008)
(i) Optical pumping (excitation by photons)
(ii) Electrical discharge method (excitation by electrons)
3.48 Engineering Physics
(iii) Direct conversion
(iv) Inelastic collision between atoms.
8. What is optical pumping? (A.U. Jan 2009)
When the atoms are exposed to light radiations (of energy
h), atoms in the lower energy state absorb these light radiations
and go to excited state. This method of pumping is called optical
pumping.
It is used in solid state lasers like ruby laser and Nd -
YAG laser.
9. What is meant by active material in laser?
(A.U. Jan 2012)
A material in which population inversion can be achieved
is called as active material.
10. What are the characteristics of the laser? (or) What
are the properties of the laser beam?
(A.U. Jan 2010, May 2011, Jan 12)
Laser light is highly coherent
It is highly powerful and intense.
It is directional and monochromatic.
It is capable of travelling over long distance without any
energy loss.
It is extremely bright.
Laser beam is not easily absorbed by the water.
11. Under which conditions a set of laser beams is said
to be coherent? (A.U. Dec. 2012)
A set of laser beams is said to be coherent if they have
same frequency and constant phase difference among them with
respect to space and time.
Lasers 3.49
12. Compare the characteristics of laser with ordinary
light. (A.U. Jan. 2011, May 2012, Jan 2013)
Ordinary light Source Laser Source
1. Light emitted is not Light emitted is highly
monochromatic. monochromatic.
2. Light emitted does not have It has high degree of
high degree of coherence coherence.
3. Emits light in all directions Emits light only in one
(not directional) direction (directional)
4. Light is less intense and less Laser light is much intense
bright and bright.
13. What is optical resonant cavity? (A.U. Jan. 2010)
It is a pair of mirrors with active material in between
them. One of the mirrors of the resonant cavity is made partially
reflecting to serve as an output element passing the light (laser)
out of the resonator. The other mirror is a highly reflecting one.
14. What is the function of resonator cavity in laser?
(A.U. May 2001)
Resonator cavity is made of a pair of fully reflecting plate
and a partially reflecting plate. Both of them are optically plane
and accurately parallel. The active medium is placed between
these mirrors.
The photons emitted along the axial direction during
stimulated emission travel back and forth across the active
medium and grow in strength. After enough strength is attained,
laser beam emerges out from the partial reflector.
15. What is the principle of laser action? (A.U. May 2003)
Stimulated emission process is a key factor for the laser
action. This can be multiplied through chain reaction. This
multiplication of photons through stimulated emission leads to
coherent, powerful, monochromatic, collimated beam of
light-emission.
3.50 Engineering Physics
16. What are the three important components of any
laser device? (A.U. Jan 2012)
(i) Active medium
(ii) Pumping source
(iii) Optical resonator
17. What are the conditions required for laser action?
(A.U. Dec 2010)
Population inversion should be achieved.
Stimulated emission should be predominant over
spontaneous emission.
18. What are Einstein’s coefficients? (A.U. Jan 2009)
In Einstein’s theory of spontaneous and stimulated
emission, if N1 and N2 are the number of atoms in the lower
energy state E1 and higher energy state E2, then the number
of stimulated absorption transition is given by
Nab B12 N1 Q
The number of spontaneous emission transition is given by
Nsp A21 N2
The number of stimulated emission transition is given by
Nst B21 N2 Q
A21 8h
Also B12 B21 and
B21
3
where Q is the energy density of the incident radiation.
A21, B12 and B21 in the above three equations are called
Einstein’s Coefficients.
Lasers 3.51
19. How lasers are classified? or Mention the various
types of lasers. (A.U. May 2013)
(i) Solid state lasers
(ii) Gas lasers
(iii) Liquid lasers
(iv) Dye lasers
(v) Semiconductor lasers.
20. What is Nd - YAG laser? (A.U. May 2012)
Nd - YAG is a neodymium based laser.
3
Nd Neodymium (rare earth element Nd ).
YAG Yittrium Aluminium Garnet (Y3 Al5 O12).
It is a four level solid state laser.
21. What are the applications of Nd-YAG laser ?
(A.U. Jan. 2013)
(i) It finds many applications in range finders and
illuminators
(ii) It finds applications in resistor trimming, scribing, micro
machining operations such as welding, drilling etc.
(iii) It finds applications in medical field like endoscopy,
urology, neurosurgery, ENT, gynaecology, dermatology,
dental surgery and general surgery.
22. What is semiconductor laser ? (A.U. Jan. 2009)
Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated pn
junction device. It emits laser light when it is forward biased.
23. What is homo-junction laser ? (A.U Jan. 2010)
Homo-junction means that a p-n junction is formed from
a single crystalline material.
Example: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).
3.52 Engineering Physics
24. What is hetero-junction laser ? (A.U Jan. 2011)
Hetero-junction means that the p-n junction has two
different materials like GaAs and GaAl As.
Example: Hetero-junction laser is formed by GaAs and
GaAlAs.
25. What are the drawbacks of homojunction laser
diodes ? (A.U. April 2009)
The output beam has large divergence.
Coherence and stability are poor.
Optical confinement is very poor.
26. What are advantages of heterojunction lasers ?
(A.U. Jan 2012)
Continuous wave operation is possible.
High output power (10 mW) is produced even with low
operating current (< 500 mA)
Very narrow beam with high coherence and
monochromacity is achieved.
It is highly stable with longer life.
27. What are the applications of semiconductor laser ?
(A.U. May 2003)
(i) It is mostly used in optical fiber communications.
(ii) It is used to heal the wounds by means of infrared
radiation.
(iii) It is used in computer laser printers and for writing
and reading CD’s.
28. Mention the applications of lasers in industry.
(A.U. Jan. 2004, May 2006)
Nd : YAG and CO2 lasers are very much used in industries
for the following processes :
(i) Welding
(ii) Cutting
Lasers 3.53
(iii) Drilling
(iv) Heat treatment of metallic and non metallic (plastic,
ceramic, glass) materials.
(v) Non - Destructive Testing (NDT): Testing the materials
for flaws or defects without damaging them.
29. What are differences between homojunction and
heterojunction laser ? (A.U. Dec 2008)
S.No. Homojunction laser Heterojunction laser
(i) Homojunction laser is made Heterojunction laser is
from a single crystalline made from different
material. crystalline materials.
(ii) Power output is low. Power output is high.
(iii) Pulsed output (sometimes Continuous output.
continuous).
(iv) Cost is less. Cost is more.
(v) Life time is less. Life time is more.
(vi) Examples: Examples:
(i) GaAs (i) GaAs/GaAl As
(ii) In P (ii) In P / In Al P
30. Mention the medical applications of laser.
(A.U. Jan 2010, May 2011)
(a) Treatment of detached retinas.
(b) Performing micro-surgery and bloodless operation.
(c) Treatment of human and animal cancer and skin
tumours.
31. What are Scientific and Engineering applications of the
laser ? (A.U. Jan 2011)
(i) Laser beam is used to transmit hundreds of messages
at a time on radio, television and telephone.
(ii) Communication between the planets is possible with
laser.
3.54 Engineering Physics
(iii) Since laser light waves are not absorbed by water, it
is possible to establish under water communication
between sub-marines.
(iv) Laser is used for forecasting the earth quakes.
ADDITIONAL Q&A
1. What is laser?
Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
Laser is a light source. It produces a powerful, monochromatic,
collimated beam of light in which the light waves are coherent.
2. What is stimulated absorption?
An atom in the ground state with energy E1 absorbs a
photon of energy h and go to an excited state (higher state)
with energy E2 provided that the photon energy h is equal to
the energy difference E2 E1. This process is called stimulated
absorption or simply absorption.
3. What is spontaneous emission?
The atom in the excited state E2 (higher energy state)
returns to the ground state E1 (lower energy state) by emitting
a photon of energy h without the action of an external agency.
Such an emission of radiation which is not triggered by an
external influence is called spontaneous emission
4. Mention applications of laser in communication.
It is used in communications between satellites and
rockets and between planets i.e., inter planetary
communications.
Since laser light is not absorbed by water, it is used for
underwater communication between sub-marines.
It is used as light source for optical fibre communication.
Lasers 3.55
5. State applications of laser in military.
(a) Death Ray: Since laser beam is highly intense and
energetic, a powerful beam can destroy objects like
aircrafts, missiles etc. For this reason it is called as
death ray or war weapon.
(b) Laser Gun: In a laser gun highly convergent beam is
focused on enemy, which can vapourise the governing
part of the weapon system or sensitive part of enemy
body.
(c) Lidar: Laser beam can exactly determine the size,
form, distance, velocity and direction of distant object
(enemy plane, missile, etc.) by receiving the reflected
laser beam as in RADAR (Radio Detection and
Ranging). (LIDAR: LIght and RaDAR)
(d) It is expected to be used for automatically guiding
rockets and satellites..
Anna University Part - B ‘16’ Marks Questions
1. For atomic transitions, derive Einstein relations and hence
deduce the expressions for the ratio of spontaneous emission
rate to be stimulated emission rate.
[A.U. Jan. 2009, Jan 2011]
2. Explain the construction and working of Nd - YAG laser
with neat diagram. [A.U. May 2005, Jan. 2009, Jan. 2011]
3. Explain the lasing schemes and working of a Nd:YAG laser.
[A.U. Jan 2012]
4. Describe the construction and working of semiconductor
laser. [A.U. Jan 2013]
5. With suitable diagram explain how laser action is achieved
in homojunction and heterojunction Ga-As laser.
[A.U. Jan 2009, Jan. 2010, Jan 2011]
6. Explain the principle, construction and working of a
semiconductor diode laser with necessary diagrams.
[A.U. Jan 2011]
3.56 Engineering Physics
PROBLEM FOR PRACTICE
1. Find the wavelength of emitted photons from a GaAs laser
diode, which has a bandgap of 1.44 eV. (Ans: 8626 Å)
2. A laser source emits lights of wavelength 0.621 m and has
an output of 35 mW. Calculate how many photons are
emitted per minute by this laser source.
(Ans: 6.562 1018 photons/minute)
3. Transition occurs between a metastable state E3 and an
energy state E2, just above the ground state. If emission is
19
at 1.1 m and E2 0.4 10 J, find the energy of the
E3 state.
(Ans: 2.2068 10 19 J
4. If laser action occurs by the transition from an excited state
to the ground state E1 0 and if it produces light of 650
nm wavelength, what is the energy level of the excited state.
(Ans: 3.0576 10 19 J)
5. Given Eg 1.43 eV. Find the wavelength of the light emitted
by the diode for the given energy gap. Also find the colour
of light emitted. (Ans: 8671.32 Å, IR)
4. Fiber Optics
Fiber Optics: Principle, Numerical aperture and
Acceptance angle - Types of Optical fibers (material,
refractive index, mode) - losses associated with optical
fibers - fiber optic sensors pressure and displacement.
Introduction
The development of lasers and optical fibers has brought
a revolution in the field of communication systems. The
propagation of information carried by light waves through an
open atmosphere was affected due to atmospheric conditions like
rain, fog, etc.,
To have an efficient optical communication system, light
waves should be transmitted through some guiding medium.
This guiding medium is called
optical fiber. The
communication through optical fiber is known as optical
communication or light-wave communication.
A light beam acting as a carrier wave is capable of carrying
more information than that of radiowaves and microwaves due
to its larger bandwidth at the speed of light.
Currently in the most part of the world, fiber optics
is used to transmit voice, video and digital data signals
using light waves from one place to other place. Here,
the light wave is some times called light signal or optical
signal.
4.2 Engineering Physics
4.1 FIBER OPTICS - BASIC CONCEPTS
Structure of Optical Fiber
The optical fiber is a wave guide.
It consists of an inner cylinder made of glass or plastic
called core. The core has high refractive index n1. This core is
surrounded by a cylindrical shell of glass or plastic called
cladding (fig. 4.1).
Fig. 4.1
The cladding has low refractive index n2. This cladding is
covered by a jacket. It protects fiber from moisture and abrasion.
Guiding mechanism
The light is transmitted through the fiber by the principle
of total internal reflection.
The light which enters from one end of the fiber strikes
the interface of core and cladding at a larger angle of incidence.
(Fig. 4.2). (greater than critical angle)
Fig 4.2 Guiding mechanism in an optical fiber
Fiber Optics 4.3
This light beam undergoes total internal reflection and it
passes along the length of the fiber.
Most of the light propagates along the length of fiber and
comes out at the other end of the fiber (fig. 4.2). Thus, fiber
guides the light waves to travel over a long distance without
much loss of energy and optical fiber acts as a wave guide.
Optical fiber cable
It consists of a bundle of optical fibers (thousands of
individual fiber as thin as human hair).
Total internal reflection in optical fiber
The optical fiber obeys the laws of reflection and refraction
of light waves.
Let us consider a light ray AO in a medium of higher
refractive index n1 incident on another medium of lower
refractive index n2 at the boundary XX.
This light ray is either reflected back into first medium
or refracted through second medium (fig. 4.3).
Fig. 4.3 Total internal reflection
4.4 Engineering Physics
The reflection or refraction of the light at the interface
depends on angle of incidence and the difference in the speed
of light in two media having different refractive indices.
Case - 1
The incident ray AO makes an angle i with normal in
the medium of refractive index n1. This light ray is refracted
into the medium of refractive index n2.
The refracted ray bends away from normal because the
refractive index n1 of first medium is greater than the refractive
index n2 of second medium. ie., n1 n2.
Let r be the angle between the refracted ray and normal,
then r i.
Case - 2
If the angle of incidence ‘i’ is increased for a certain value
equal to critical angle c, the incident ray BO is refracted
at the interface and it just emerges along the boundary of
separation XX as OB
If i c, then r 90
Case - 3
If the angle of incidence ‘i’ is greater than the critical
angle of incidence ‘c’, then the incident light ray CO is reflected
back into the same medium as OC by total internal reflection
(fig. 8.3).
Expression for critical angle c
For the refraction of light, a relation between the angle of
incidence (i ) and angle of refraction (r) is given by Snell’s law.
Fiber Optics 4.5
n1 sin i n2 sin r
...(1)
For total internal reflection,
i c and r 90
...(2)
Substituting expression (2) in expression (1), we have
n1 sin c n2 sin 90
n2
sin c sin 90
n1
n2
sin c . .
n1 [ . sin 90 1]
1 n2
c sin
n
1
Conditions for total internal reflection
Total internal reflection occurs in the walls of optic fiber
only in following two conditions:
The material of the fiber (core) should have higher
refractive index n1 than that of the material (cladding)
surrounding the fiber n2.
The light should be incident at an angle (between the
path of the ray and normal to the fiber wall) greater
than critical angle c.
4.6 Engineering Physics
4.2 PRINCIPLE OF LIGHT PROPAGATION IN
OPTICAL FIBERS
[Derivation for Acceptance angle and Numerical
aperture]
Consider the light propagation in an optical fiber (Fig. 4.4).
The incident ray AO enters into core at an angle o to fiber
axis.
A ccepta nce a ngle
C la dding
A'
90o C
B
C ore
r
9 0 o r
Fibre axis
r
0 O
n1 C ore
A n2 C la dding
Lig ht ray
Fig. 4.4 Light propagation in optical fiber
This incident ray is refracted along OB at an angle r in
core. The refracted ray falls on the interface of core and cladding
at the critical angle of incidence (c 90 r and it moves along
BC.
Any light ray which enters into core at an angle of
incidence less than o has angle of refraction less than r.
Therefore, the angle of incidence 90 r at the core - cladding
interface is more than the critical angle of incidence. Thus, the
light ray is totally reflected back into core.
Fiber Optics 4.7
However, the light ray which enters at an angle of
incidence greater than o at O, incident at B at an angle less
than the critical angle. Now, this light ray is refracted into the
cladding region and it is absorbed.
Let n1 and n2, and no be the refractive indice of the core
cladding and surroundings respectively.
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at the point of incidence
of the ray AO into core, i.e., at O we have
no sin o n1 sin r ...(1)
n1
sin o sin r
no
n1 ...(2)
2
sin o 1 cos r
no
... sin2 cos2 1
r r
2 2
sin r 1 cos r
sin r
2
1 cos r
At the point B on the interface of core and cladding,
Angle of incidence c 90 r
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at the point B, we have
o
n1 sin 90 r n2 sin 90
or n1 cos r n2
. . sin 90 r cos r
.
and sin 90 1
4.8 Engineering Physics
n2 ... (3)
cos r
n1
Substituting for cos r from eqn (3) in eqn (2), we have
2
n1 n2
sin o 1
no 2
n1
2 2
n1 n2
2 2
n1 n1 n2 n1
sin o
no 2 no
n1
2
n1
n1
sin o
no n1
n1 n2
2 2
n1 n2 ... (4)
2 2
sin o
no
o sin
1
2 2
n1 n2 ... (5)
no
This angle o is known as acceptance angle.
If the medium surrounding the fiber is air, then no 1. So,
1
n1 n2
2 2
o sin ... (6)
4.3 ACCEPTANCE ANGLE
The maximum angle o at which a ray of light can
enter through one end of the fiber and still be totally
internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the fiber.
Fiber Optics 4.9
Thus, the light that enters within a cone defined by
acceptance angle is confined and guided. This is the fundamental
property of light propagation in a fiber. This cone is called
acceptance cone. (In fig. 4.4, cone AA OA)
4.4 NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA)
The sine of the acceptance angle of the fiber is
known as numerical aperture (NA). It denotes the light
gathering capability of the optical fiber.
It is given by
NA sin o ... (7)
Substituting sin 0 from eqn (4), we have
2 2
n1 n2 ... (8)
NA
no
If the medium surrounding the fiber is air, then no 1
NA
n1 n2 ... (9)
2 2
Condition for propagation of light
Let i be the angle of incidence of an incident ray at the
fiber end. Then, the light ray will propagate through the fiber
only
if i o
or sin i sin o
sin i
n1 n2
2 2
4.10 Engineering Physics
sin i NA ... (10)
This is the condition for propagation of light within
the fiber.
The fig. 4.5 shows the variation of numerical aperture with
acceptance angle.
It is noted that numerical aperture for the fibers in short
distance communication is in the range of 0.4 to 0.5 whereas
for long distance communications numerical aperture is in the
range of 0.1 to 0.3.
Fig. 4.5 Variation of NA with acceptance angle
Fractional Index change :
It is the ratio between refractive index difference
between core and cladding and refractive index of core.
It is denoted by .
Refractive index difference between core and cladding
Refractive index of core of an optical fiber
n1 n2 ... (1)
ie.,
n1
Fiber Optics 4.11
Relation between NA and :
Rearranging eqn. (1)
n1 n2 n1 ... (2)
We know that
NA
n1 n2
2 2
NA
2
n1 n2 n1 n
Substituting for n1 n2 from eqn (2), we have
NA
n1 n2 n1
since n1 ~
n 2, n1 n2 2 n1
NA 2n1 n1
NA
2 n1
n1
2 2
2
NA n1
2 ... (3)
Thus, an increase in the value of increases NA and this
enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. We cannot
increase to a very large value since it leads to what is called
‘intermodal dispersion’ which causes signal distortion.
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEM
Problem 4.1
Compute the numerical aperture and acceptance angle
of an optical fiber from the following data.
Refractive index of core n1 = 1.55
Refractive index of cladding n2 = 1.50
Surrounding medium (air), no = 1 (A.U. Jan 2013)
4.12 Engineering Physics
Given data
Refractive index of core n1 1.55
Refractive index of cladding n2 1.50
Refractive index of surrounding medium (air) no 1
Solution:
Numerical aperture NA
n1 n2 . . no 1
.
2 2
NA
2 2
1.55 1.50 2.4025 2.25
0.1525
NA = 0.39
Acceptance angle
o sin
1
n1 n2
2 2
1
o sin 0.39 23
o 23
4.5 TYPES OF OPTICAL Fibers (Material, refractive
index, mode)
Optical fibers are classified into different types based on
(a) Material
(b) Number of modes
(c) Refractive index profile.
A general classification of optical fibers is shown in fig. 4.6.
Fiber Optics 4.13
Fig. 4.6 Classification of optical fibres
Classification based on material
Optical fibers are classified into two types on the basis of
materials used for their fabrication. They are
(i) Glass fiber
(ii) Plastic fiber
Glass fiber
If the optical fiber is made up of mixture of silica glasses
and metal oxides, then it is called glass fiber.
Example
The glass fiber is made by any one of the following
combination of core and cladding.
(i) core - GeO2 SiO2 cladding - SiO2
(ii) core - SiO2 cladding P2O3 SiO2
Plastic fiber
If the optical fiber is made up of plastics, then it is
called plastic fiber.
4.14 Engineering Physics
Example
The plastic fiber is made of any one of the following
combinations of core and cladding.
(i) core - polystyrene,
cladding - methyl methacrylate
(ii) core - polymethyl methacrylate
cladding - co-polymer
The plastic fiber is very cheap and flexible.
It can be handled without any special care due to its
toughness and durability.
(b) Classification based on the number of modes
In optical fiber, the light propagates in many modes.
Depending on the number of modes of propagation, the
optical fibers are classified into two types. The modes are the
allowed paths inside the fiber
(i) Single - Mode (SM) fiber
(ii) Multi - Mode (MM) fiber (Many mode)
Single - mode fiber
If only one mode is transmitted through an optical
fiber, then the optical fiber is known as single - mode
fiber.
Characteristics of single mode fiber
In a single-mode fiber, the light rays can travel only at
one discrete path through the core. It can support only
one mode of propagation.
Its core diameter is small in the order of a few times
the wavelength of light. (Fig. 4.7)
It is designed to have small refractive index difference
between the core and cladding
Fiber Optics 4.15
Fig. 4.7 Single - mode fibre
The single-mode fiber must be used along with laser
diodes.
Multi mode fiber
If more than one mode is transmitted through an
optical fiber, then the optical fiber is known as multimode
fiber.
In multimode fiber, the light can travel many different
paths through the core of the fiber and can enter and
leave the fiber at various angles.
The large core radii of multimode fiber makes it easier
to launch light into the fiber. (Fig 4.8)
It can support many modes.
Fig. 4.8 Multimode fibre
Refractive index profile
In any optical fiber, cladding has a uniform refractive
index. However, the refractive index of core either remains
constant or vary in a particular way.
4.16 Engineering Physics
The curve which denotes the variation of refractive index
with respect to the radial distance from the axis of the fiber is
called refractive index profile.
(c) Classification based on refractive index profile
Based on the variation in the refractive index of the core
and cladding, the optical fibers are classified into two types.
They are
(i) Step - index fiber
(ii) Graded - index fiber.
(i) Step - index Fiber
In step index fiber, the variation in refractive indice
of core and cladding vary step by step. Hence, this type
of fiber is known as step index fiber.
Based on the refractive index profile and the number of
modes, step - index fiber is classified further into two types.
They are
(i) Step index - single mode fiber
(ii) Step index - multi mode fiber.
(i) Step - index single - mode fiber
The basic structure of the step-index single-mode fiber is
shown in fig. 4.9. It consists of a thin core of uniform refractive
index of a higher value. This core is surrounded by a cladding
of uniform refractive index lesser than that of the core.
A typical step-index single-mode fiber has a core diameter
of 5 to 10 m and an external diameter of cladding of 50 to
125 m (fig. 4.9 (a)).
The refractive index changes abruptly (in step) at the
core-cladding boundary. Its refractive index profile takes the
shape of a step (fig. 4.9 (a)).
Fiber Optics 4.17
5 0 to 1 2 5 m
5 to 10 m Fibre cro ss-section
R e fra ctive
in de x
R e fra ctive
in de x p rofile
R e dial distan ce
(a )
C ladd ing
C ore R ay p ropaga tio n
(b)
Fig. 4.9 Step - index single - mode fibre
Due to its small core diameter, only a single-mode of light
ray transmission is possible as shown in fig. 4.9 (b).
Characteristics
It has a very thin core diameter, typically of about 10
m.
Its numerical aperture is very small.
It supports only one mode in which the entire light
energy is concentrated.
4.18 Engineering Physics
Because of single mode of propagation of light, there is
no signal loss due to intermodal dispersion.
It has higher bandwidth than multimode fiber
Advantages
It has a very high rate of data transmission capacity.
No degradation of signal takes place.
About 80% of optical fibers manufactured are of this
type.
Disadvantages
The manufacturing and handling of this type of fiber are
very expensive.
Applications
This type of fiber is used in under-sea cable for long
distance communication.
It is used in submarine cable system.
(ii) Step - index multimode fiber
The geometry of normal cross-section of a typical step-index
multimode fiber is shown in fig. 4.10 (a). Its core has a much
larger diameter which makes it easier to support propagation
of large number of modes.
A typical step-index multimode fiber has a core diameter
of 50 to 200 m and an external diameter of cladding 125 to
300 m.
It has a core material with uniform refractive index and
a cladding material of lesser refractive index than that of the
core.
Fiber Optics 4.19
There is a sudden increase in the value of refractive index
from cladding to core. Thus, its refractive index profile takes
the shape of a step (fig 4.10 (a)).
Because of larger diameter of the core, the propagation of
many modes within the fiber is possible (fig 4.10 (b)).
1 25 to 300 m
5 0 to 2 00 m Fibre cro ss-section
R e fra ctive
in d ex
R e fra ctive
in d ex p rofile
R e dial distan ce
(a )
Cladd ing
3 2
1
Core
Ray p rop agatio n
(b)
Fig. 4.10 Step - index multimode fibre
Characteristics
It has large core diameter.
It has low bandwidth.
Light is passed into a multimode fiber using a light
emitting diode.
4.20 Engineering Physics
It has larger numerical aperture in the order of 0.3.
It has high attenuation.
Advantages
Since LEDs are used as the source of light, they are
easier to operate.
LEDs have longer life than laser diodes, thus making
them more suitable in many applications.
They are less expensive and require less complex
circuitry.
It is easier to couple the fibers.
Disadvantages
They suffer from intermodal dispersion loss.
Low band width.
Data transmission is less efficient.
Application
They are widely used in data links which require low
band width.
2. Graded - index Multimode Fiber
In this fiber, the refractive index of the core varies radially
from the axis of the fiber.
The refractive index of the core is maximum along
the fiber axis and it gradually decreases towards core -
cladding interface. Thus, it is called graded index fiber.
The geometry of normal cross-section of a typical
graded-index fiber is shown in fig 4.11 (a).
Fiber Optics 4.21
A typical graded-index multimode fiber has a core diameter
of 50 to 200 m and an external diameter of cladding 100 to
250 m.
The refractive index of the core is maximum at the axis
of the fiber and it gradually decreases towards the cladding.
The refractive index profile is shown in fig. 4.11 (a).
n1
Cladd ing
Core
Ray p rop agatio n
(b)
Fig 4.11 Graded - index multimode fiber
4.22 Engineering Physics
The light ray propagation for this fiber is shown in
fig. 4.11 (b).
If the diameter of the core is larger, the intermodal
dispersion loss must be high. But, because of the gradual
decrease in the refractive index of the core, the intermodal
dispersion loss is minimised.
Characteristics
It has a small numerical aperture.
It has intermediate bandwidth.
It has low attenuation.
The source of light is either a laser or LED.
Advantages
Intermodal dispersion is reduced with this type of fiber.
It is a high quality fiber and has good band width.
Disadvantages
It is the most expensive of all types of fibers.
Its fabrication is difficult.
Coupling of fibers and light source is difficult.
Applications
It is widely used in intra-city trunks between central
telephone offices.
It is used in medium-distance applications.
Fiber Optics 4.23
Table 4.1
Differences between single mode fiber and
multi mode fiber
S.
Single mode fiber Multimode fiber
No.
1. In single mode fiber, only one Multimode fiber allows a large
mode can propagate through number of paths or modes for
the fiber the light rays travelling
through it.
2. It has smaller core diameter It has larger core diameter and
and the difference between the refractive index difference
refractive index of core and between the core and cladding
cladding is very small. is larger than the single mode
fiber.
3. No signal dispersion. There is signal degradation.
4. Fabrication is difficult and Fabrication is less difficult and
costly. cheap.
Table 4.2
Differences between step index and graded index fiber
S.No. Step index fiber Graded index fiber
1. The refractive index of the The refractive index of the
core is uniform throughout core varies gradually such
and undergoes an abrupt (or) that it attains maximum at
step change at the core the centre of the core.
cladding boundary
2. The diameter of the core is The diameter of the core is
about 10 m in the case of about 50 m in the case of
single mode fiber and multimode fiber.
50 - 200 m in the case of
multimode fiber.
3. Attenuation is more for step Attenuation is less
index multimode fiber but for
step index single mode fiber,
it is less
4.24 Engineering Physics
S.No. Step index fiber Graded index fiber
4. Numerical aperture is more Numerical aperture is less
for multimode step index fiber
but for single mode step index
fiber it is less.
5. Intermodal dispersion occurs No intermodal dispersion
in step index multimode fiber
4.6 LOSSES ASSOCIATED WITH OPTICAL FIBERS
When light propagates through an optical fiber, a small
percentage of light is lost through different mechanisms.
The output power of the light at the other end is always
less than the power launched at the input end. The loss depends
on fiber material, wavelength of light and length of the fiber.
This loss of optical power is known as attenuation.
Attenuation is generally measured in terms of
decibel (dB).
Definition
It is defined as the logarithmic value of ratio of the
optical power output (P out ) from a fiber to the power
input (P in )
The decibel of loss in optical power in a fiber is calculated
by the formula.
Pout
10 log ... (1)
P
in
Most fiber manufacturers characterize attenuation loss by
the number of decibel loss per kilometer of fiber. This value is
calculated by the formula
Fiber Optics 4.25
10 Pout
dB / km log ... (2)
L P
in
where Pout Optical power coming out of the fiber
Pin Optical power launched into the fiber.
L Length of the fiber in km
The loss per kilometer (or dB / km) is a standard unit for
describing attenuation in all fiber designs.
SOLVED PROBLEM
Problem 4.2
A light signal of 100 mW is injected into a fiber of length
1 km. The outcoming signal from the other end is 40
mW. What is the loss in dB? (A.U. Dec 2012)
Given data
Input power Pin 100 mW
Output power Pout 40 mW
Length of the fiber L 1 km
Solution
10 Pout
Attenuation loss log10 dB
L P
in
10 40 mW
log10
1 100 mW
4.26 Engineering Physics
10 log10 0.4
10 0.398
Attenuation 3.98 dB
Basic Attenuation Mechanisms
The optical power losses occurring in optical fiber are due
to three mechanisms. They are
1. Material absorption loss
2. Scattering loss
3. Bending loss
1. Material Absorption loss
Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to fiber
material composition. It mainly depends on the wavelength
of the light used.
The absorption of light by the fiber material is caused by
three different mechanisms.
(a) Extrinsic absorption
(b) Intrinsic absorption
(c) Absorption by atomic defect
(a) Extrinsic absorption (by impurity atoms)
The important light absorption factor in fibers is the
presence of impurities in the fiber material. The photons of light
energy are absorbed by these impurities.
During light signal propagation, the light photons interact
with these impurities. The electrons in the impurity absorb these
photons and get excited to higher energy level. Thus, there is
loss of light.
Fiber Optics 4.27
(b) Intrinsic absorption
Intrinsic absorption is connected with fiber material. Even
when the fiber is free from impurities there is a tendency for
fiber material to absorb small amount of light energy. This is
known as intrinsic absorption. But, this loss of light is small.
(c) Absorption by atomic defects
Atomic defects such as vacancy, imperfections of the atomic
structure of the fiber material and cluster of atoms produce a
small absorption loss.
Usually absorption losses arising from these defects are
negligible compared to intrinsic and extrinsic absorption losses.
2. Scattering
When the light is scattered by an obstruction, the result
is power loss. The local microscopic density variations in fiber
cause local variations in refractive index.
These variations which are inherent in the manufacturing
process cannot be eliminated. These act as obstructions and
scatter the light in all directions (fig. 4.12). This is known as
Rayleigh scattering.
Fig. 4.12 Rayleigh scattering showing attenuation of an
incident stream of photons due to localized
variations in refractive index
4.28 Engineering Physics
Bending or Radiative Losses
Whenever the optical fibers have bends, then they produce
radiative losses.
Types of bending losses
(a) Macroscopic bending loss
(b) Microscopic bending loss
(a) Macroscopic bending loss
These losses occur when the radius of curvature of bend
is greater than fiber diameter. This situation arises when a fiber
cable turns in a corner.
At the corner, the light radiation does not satisfy the
condition for total internal reflection and hence the light escapes
out of the fiber (fig. 4.13). This is called as macroscopic
bending losses.
Fig. 4.13 Macroscopic bending losses
This type of loss is negligible for small bends.
(b) Microscopic bending loss
Microscopic bending losses are due to micro-bends (small
bends) present inside the fiber (fig. 4.14).
Fiber Optics 4.29
These micro bends are due to non-uniform pressures
created during the cabling of the fiber or even during the
manufacturing itself.
This leads to loss of light by leakage through the fiber.
Fig. 4.14 Microscopic bending losses
This is also called micro - bending losses.
Ways to minimize micro - bending losses
Microbending losses is minimized by extruding (squeezing
out) a compressible jacket over the fiber.
In such cases, when the external force is applied, the jacket
deforms but the fiber tends to stay relatively straight and safe
without causing more loss.
4.7 FIBER - OPTIC SENSORS
One of the most exciting applications of optical fibers is
fiber - optic sensors.
A sensor is a transducer which converts one form
of energy (physical variable) into another.
The sensors find wide applications in sensing and
measuring acoustic fields, magnetic fields, current, rotation,
acceleration, strain, pressure, temperature and so on.
4.30 Engineering Physics
Types of Sensors
There are two types of sensors. They are
i(i) Intrinsic Sensors (or) Active sensors
(ii) Extrinsic Sensors (or) Passive sensors
Active sensors
In active sensors, the physical quantity to be measured acts
directly on the fiber and modifies the radiation passing down
the fiber.
The various active sensors are:
(i) Intensity modulated sensors: These are based on the
change in refractive index, temperature, absorption, etc.
(ii) Phase - modulated sensors: These involve the
interference between the signal and reference in the
interferometer. This leads to a shift in the interference fringes
by the variable.
(iii) Polarization - modulated sensors: In this, a change in
polarization state of the guided signal by the variable takes
place.
(iv) Wavelength - modulated sensors: In this, the spectral
dependent variation of absorption and emission by the variable
takes place.
Passive sensors
In passive sensors, the modulation takes place outside the
fiber. The fiber acts merely as a convenient transmission channel
for light. The passive sensors has a sensor head and the sensed
Fiber Optics 4.31
opticals signal is transmitted to a remote point for signal
processing.
The table 4.3 below gives the physical parameter to be
measured using passive sensor and the modulation effects in the
fiber.
Table: 4.3
S. Physical Quantity to be Modulation Effects in
No. Measured the Fibers
1. Temperature Thermoluminescence
2. Pressure Piezo optic effect
3. Density Triboluminescence
4. Mechanical force Stress birefringence
5. Electric field Electro optic effect
6. Magnetic field Magneto optic effect
7. Electric current Electro luminescence
8. Nuclear radiation Radiation-induced
luminescence
Now, we study some sensors in detail.
(i) Intrinsic sensor (or) Active sensor
4.8 DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
Definition
It is a sensor which is used to sense and measure
the displacement of an object.
Construction
It consists of a bundle of transmitting fibers connected to
a laser source and a bundle of receiving fibers connected to a
detector (fig. 4.15)
4.32 Engineering Physics
Fig. 4.15 Displacement Sensor
Working
First the light from the laser source is transmitted through
transmitting fiber and it falls on the moving target.
The reflected beam from the target is made to pass through
the receiving fiber and this light is detected by the detector.
The intensity of the light received back depends on the
displacement of the target.
If the received intensity increases, it denotes that the
target is moving towards the sensor. If the intensity of light
received decreases, it denotes that the target is moving away
from the sensor.
Thus, the displacement of the target is measured from the
intensity of the light received.
4.9 PRESSURE SENSOR
When a single optical fiber is subjected to pressure
variations, then its length and refractive index changes. This
causes change in phase of light at the end of fiber.
The change in phase of light is proportional to magnitude
of the change in pressure. The phase changes can be measured
by an interferometer method shown in fig.4.16.
Fiber Optics 4.33
Fig. 4.16 Measurement of phase changes
by interferometer method
Here, the light from a laser source is split into two beams
of approximately equal amplitude by a 50% beam splitter.
One beam is passed through sensing fiber, which is
subjected to pressure variations. The other beam through
reference fiber, which is not subject to any changes and
it is used for comparison.
Light from these two fibers is superimposed using
another beam splitter. Interference of these two waves
gives fringes.
The intensity of the fringe depends on the phase reltion
between the two waves. If the waves are in phase, then
the intensity is maximum; this happens when the
sensing fiber is not disturbed.
The intensity is minimum if the waves are out of phase
due to /2 change in length of sensing fiber.
The intensity of interference fringes can be measured with
a photo-detector and pressure changes can be measured.
Advantages of Fiber - Optical Communication System
Extremely wide band width: Optical frequencies are very
15 6
large ~ 10 Hz as compared to radio frequencies ~ 10 Hz) and
4.34 Engineering Physics
10
microwave frequencies ~ 10 Hz). The rate at which information
can be transmitted is directly related to carrier frequency.
No cross talk between parallel fibers: There is no signal
leakage from fibers. Hence, cross - talks between neighbouring
fibers are almost absent. This is quite frequent in conventional
metallic systems.
Absence of inductive interference: Since optical fibers are
not metallic, they do not pick up electromagnetic waves. In fiber
optic cables, there is no interference caused by lightning or other
nearby electromagnetic equipment.
Smaller - diameter, lighter - weight cables: Optical fibers
are light weight and flexible to be handled more easily than
copper cables.
Signal Security: The transmitted signal through the fibers
does not radiate. Further the signal cannot easily be tapped from
a fiber.
Optical fibers are cheaper: The optical fibers are made from
silica SiO2 which is one of the most abundant materials on
the earth.
Optical fibers have low loss per unit length:
The transmission loss per unit length of an optical fiber is low
(about 4 dB / km).
Easy maintenance: The optical fibers are made from silica
glass which does not undergo any chemical reaction or corrosion.
System Reliability: Due to its ultra low loss and zero
dispersion, optical fiber communication system has high
reliability.
Note: All the above features make the optical fiber
communication superior over other conventional communications
systems.
Fiber Optics 4.35
Disadvantages of Optical Fibers
Following are some of the disadvantages of using optical
fiber as communication medium:
Price: Fiber installations, fiber-optic components and
connections are costly.
Special Skills: Fiber is susceptible to break if it is not
handled properly. So, skilled personnel are needed for
fiber installation.
Tapping: Fiber-optic cable is difficult to tap.
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 4.3
In an optical fiber, the core material has a refractive
index 1.6 and refractive index of cladding material is 1.3.
What is the value of critical angle? Also calculate the
value of angle of acceptance cone.
(A.U. May 2012)
Given data
Refractive index of core n1 1.6
Refractive index of cladding n2 1.3
Solution
Critical angle is given by
n2
sin c
n1
1 n2
c sin
n
1
1 1.3
c sin 1.6
4.36 Engineering Physics
1
c sin 0.813
c 54.3
Acceptance angle
n2 n2
1 2
1
o sin
1.62 1.32
1
sin
1
o sin 0.87
o 60.5
Angle of acceptance cone 2o 121
Problem 4.4
What is the numerical aperture of an optical fiber cable
with a cladding index of 1.378 and a core index of 1.546?
(A.U. May 2011)
Given data
Refractive index of core n1 = 1.546
Refractive index of cladding n2 = 1.378
Solution
Numerical aperture of fiber is given by
NA n1 n2
2 2 2 2
1.546 1.378
0.70
0.491
NA 0.70
Fiber Optics 4.37
Problem 4.5
A fiber cable has an acceptance angle of 30 and a core
index of refraction of 1.4. Calculate the refractive index
of the cladding.
(A.U. May 2013)
Given data
Acceptance angle o 30
Refractive index of core n1 1.4
Solution
sin o n1 n2
2 2
2 2 2
sin o n1 n2
2 2 2
n2 n1 sin o
2 2 2
n2 1.4 sin 30
2
n2 1.96 0.25
2
n2 1.71
n2
2
1.71
n2 1.308
Problem 4.6
Calculate the angle of acceptance of a given optical fiber,
if the refractive indices of the core and the cladding are
1.563 and 1.498 respectively. (A.U. Jan 2011)
Given data
Refractive index of core n1 1.563
4.38 Engineering Physics
Refractive index of cladding n2 1.498
Solution
We know that sin o
n1 n2
2 2
2 2
1.563 1.498
sin o 0.446
1
o sin 0.446 26.49
o 26.49
Problem 4.7
Calculate the fractional index change for a given optical
fiber if the refractive indices of the core and the
cladding are 1.563 and 1.498 respectively.
(A.U. Jan 2010)
Given data
Refractive index of core n1 1.563
Refractive index of cladding n2 1.498
Solution
n1 n2
Fractional index change
n1
1.563 1.498
1.563
0.065
0.0416
1.563
0.0416
Fiber Optics 4.39
Problem 4.8
Calculate the numerical aperture of an optical fiber
whose core and cladding are made of materials of
refractive index 1.6 and 1.5 respectively.
(A.U. Jan 2012)
Given data
Refractive index of core n1 1.6
Refractive index of cladding n2 1.5
Solution
Numerical aperture of the optical fiber is given by
NA n1 n2
2 2
Substituting the given values, we have
NA
2 2
1.6 1.5 2.56 2.25 0.557
NA 0.557
Problem 4.9
Calculate numerical aperture and hence acceptance
angle for an optical fiber whose core and cladding has
refractive index of 1.59 and 1.40 respectively.
(A.U. Dec 2010)
Given data
Refractive index of the core n1 1.59
Refractive index of cladding n2 1.40
Solution
We know that numerical aperture
4.40 Engineering Physics
2
NA
2
n 1 n2
NA
2
1.59 1.40
2
NA 0.75
NA sin o
1
o sin NA
1
o sin 0.75
o 48 54
Problem 4.10
The maximum angle of acceptance for an optical fiber
is 11.54. Find the reflective index of cladding if the core
refractive index is 1.60 (A.U. May 2013)
Given data
Acceptance angle o 11.54
Refractive index of core n1 1.60
Solution
We know that NA sin o
2 2
n1 n2
NA sin 11.54
1.60 n2
2 2
2 2
0.2
1.60 n2
Fiber Optics 4.41
Squaring on both sides
2 2 2
0.2 1.61 n2
2 2 2
n2 1.61 0.2
n2
2.56 0.04
n2
2.52
Refractive index of cladding n2 1.59
Problem 4.11
A silica optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.50
and a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine
(a) critical angle at the core cladding
interface,
(b) NA for the fiber and
(c) acceptance angle in air for the fiber.
(A.U. April 2010, Jan 2011, Jan 2012)
Given data
Core refractive index n1 1.50
Cladding refractive index n2 1.47
Solution
1 n2
(a) Critical angle, c sin
n
1
1 1.47
c sin 1.50 78.5
c 78 30
4.42 Engineering Physics
(b) Numerical aperture
n1 n2
2 2
NA
2 2
1.50 1.47 0.30
NA 0.30
(c) Acceptance angle in air,
1 1
o sin NA sin 0.30 1728
o 17 28
Problem 4.12
Calculate numerical aperture, acceptance angle, and
critical angle of a fiber having core refractive index
= 1.50 and cladding refractive index = 1.45.
(A.U. May 2012)
Given data
Core refractive index n1 1.50
Cladding refractive index n2 1.45
Solution
n1 n2
2 2
(i) Numerical aperature NA
2 2
NA 1.50 1.45
2.25 2.10
0.15
0.39
Fiber Optics 4.43
NA 0.39
1 1
(ii) o sin NA sin 0.39 22 35 .
o 22 35
(iii) Critical angle,
1 n2 1 1.45
c sin
n
sin 75 12
1 1.50
c 7512
Problem 4.13
Optical power of 1 mW is launched into an optical fiber
of length 100 km. If the power emerging from the other
end is 0.3 mW, calculate the fiber attenuation.
(A.U. Dec 2008)
Given data
Length of optical fiber 100 km
Optical power input Pin 1 mW
Optical power output Pout 0.3 mW
Solution
10 Pout
Attenuation lo g10
L P
in
10 0.3
log 10
100 1
1
log 10 0.3
10
1
0.523
10
0.0523 dB km
4.44 Engineering Physics
ANNA UNIVERSITY Part - A
‘2’ Marks Q & A
1. Define acceptance angle. (A.U. Jan 2010)
The maximum angle at which a ray of light can enter
through one end of the fiber and still be total internally reflected
is called acceptance angle of the fiber.
2. Define numerical aperture of a fiber.
(A.U. Dec 2010, May 2011, May 2012)
It is the light collecting efficiency of the fiber. It is a
measure of the amount of light rays that can be accepted by
the fiber. It is equal to the sine of the acceptance angle.
i.e., NA sin o
n1 n2
2 2
where n1 and n2 are the refractive indice of core and cladding.
3. What are types of optical fibers based on number of
modes? (A.U. Jan 2013)
(a) Single mode fiber - one mode
(b) Multi mode fiber - many modes
4. What is single mode fiber? (A.U. Jan 2010)
If only one mode is transmitted through a fiber, then it
is a single mode fiber. Generally, single mode fiber has small
core diameter.
5. What is multimode fiber? (A.U. May 2012)
If more than one mode is transmitted through a fiber, then
it is a multi mode fiber. The core diameter is large when
compared to single mode fiber.
Fiber Optics 4.45
6. Mention types of optical fibers based on the refractive
index profile. (A.U. Jan 2011)
Based on refractive index profile, the fibers are classified
into
(a) step-index fiber
(b) graded-index-fiber
7. What are the differences between single mode fiber
and multi mode fiber? (A.U. Jan 2010)
S.
Single mode fiber Multimode fiber
No.
(i) In single mode fiber only one Multimode fiber allows a large
mode can propagate through number of paths or modes for
the fiber the light rays travelling
through it.
(ii) It has smaller core diameter It has larger core diameter and
and the difference between the refractive index difference is
refractive index of core and larger than the single mode
cladding is very small. fiber.
(iii) No dispersion i.e., degradation There is signal degradation due
of signal during propagation in to multimode dispersion.
fiber.
(iv) Fabrication is difficult and Fabrication is less difficult and
costly. not costly.
8. What are the differences between step index and
graded index fiber? (A.U. May 2010, May 2011, Jan 2012)
S.No. Step index fiber Graded index fiber
(i) The refractive index of the The refractive index of the
core is uniform throughout core is made to vary gradually
and undergoes an abrupt (or) such that the maximum
step change at the cladding refractive index is present at
boundary the centre of the core.
4.46 Engineering Physics
S.No. Step index fiber Graded index fiber
(ii) The diameter of the core is The diameter of the core is
about 10 m in the case of about 50 m.
single mode fiber and
50 - 200 m in the case of
multimode fiber
(iii) Attenuation is more for Attenuation is less
multimode step index fibers
but it is very less for single
mode step index fiber
(iv) Numerical aperture is more Numerical aperture is less
for multimode step index fiber
but it is very less for single
mode step fiber
9. What is meant by attenuation ? (A.U. Dec 2008)
Attenuation in fiber means ‘loss of optical power’ suffered
by the optical signal in the fiber itself.
It is defined as the ratio of the optical power output
Pout from a fiber of length ‘L’ to the power input Pin.
10 Pout
Attenuation log10 dB / km
L P
in
10. What are basic attenuation mechanisms ?
(A.U. May 2012)
(i) Absorption loss
(ii) Scattering loss and
(iii) Radiative loss
11. What are the losses that occurs during optical fiber
communication ? (A.U. Jan 2009)
During the transmission of light through the optical fiber,
three major losses will occur, namely Absorption loss, Scattering
loss, Bending loss.
Fiber Optics 4.47
12. What is optical fiber communication system?
(A.U. Dec 2011)
It is a communication system in which information is
carried by the light through the optical fiber.
13. What is the basic principle in optical fiber
communication system? (A.U. Jan 2013)
The basic principle of optic fiber communication is
transmission of information by propagation of optical signal
through optical fibers over required distance.
It involves deriving optical signal from electrical signal at
transmitting end and conversion of optical signal back to
electrical signal at the receiving end.
14. Mention the components involved in fiber optical
communication system. (A.U. May 2012)
(a) Light source
(b) Optical fiber
(c) Photo detector
15. What are the advantages of the fiber optical
communication system over the conventional system?
(A.U. May 2009)
Optical fibers are light in weight and small in size.
There is no possibility of internal noise and cross talk
generation.
No hazards of short circuits as in metal wires.
Immunity to adverse temperature and moisture.
Lower cost.
16. Give the applications of the fiber optical system.
(A.U. May 2012)
Due to large band width, the system is capable of
handling a large number of channels. Thus, it finds wide
applications in communications.
4.48 Engineering Physics
It is widely used in defence services since high privacy
is maintained.
It is used for signalling purposes.
Fiber optics is also used in cable television, space
vehicles, ships and submarine cable.
17. Why are optical fibers called as wave guides ?
(A.U. Dec 2012)
A wave guide is a tubular structure through which some
sort of energy could be guided in the form of waves. Since light
waves can be guided through a fiber, it is called wave guide.
18. What is the basic principle of fiber sensor ?
(A.U. Jan 2013)
A fiber optic sensor in general consists of a light source,
fiber and a photo detector. Either, fiber change the light
transmission characteristics in accordance with physical
parameter to be sensed (active sensor) or a fiber just acts as a
wave guide and a separate sensing element used for physical
parameter to be measured (passive sensor).
19. What are the essential components of optical
sensors ? (A.U. Dec 2011)
(i) Light source
(ii) Light detector
(iii) Optical fiber.
20. How are fibers used as a sensors? (A.U. Dec 2012)
The fiber optic sensors are used to detect changes in
frequency, intensity, temperature, current, polarization of light
waves etc.
A fiber optic sensor modulates the light passing through
it, when it is exposed to change in environment.
Fiber Optics 4.49
21. Mention the types of sensors used in the fiber optics ?
(A.U. May 2013)
There are two types of sensors used
(a) Intrinsic sensors - Here, fiber itself acts as a sensing
element.
(b) Extrinsic sensors - Separate sensing system collects the
light from the fiber. Fiber acts only a guiding medium.
22. Give four applications of fiber optic sensors.
(A.U. Dec 2010, May 2011, May 2012)
It is used as a liquid level indicator based on the
principle of change in refractive index of the medium.
Optical displacement sensors are used to find the position
and displacement of the target.
Temperature sensors are used to measure the
temperature accurately.
Laser Doppler Velocimeter (LDV) is used to measure
several physical quantities such as velocity, fluid surface
velocity.
The pressure can be accurately measured using
photoelastic pressure sensors.
ADDITIONAL Q&A
1. What is an optical fiber?
Optical fiber is a thin hair like structure made up of
transparent material which can guide the light beam from one
end to another by total internal reflection.
2. What are the conditions to obtain total internal
reflection?
(i) The ray of light should travel from a denser to a rarer
medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence at the denser medium should
be greater than the critical angle.
4.50 Engineering Physics
3. What is absorption loss?
Absorption loss is related to fiber material. It is caused by
three different mechanisms.
(i) Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.
(ii) Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass
material.
(iii) Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of
the fiber materials.
4. Explain the structure of optical fiber.
Optical fiber consists of an inner cylinder made of glass
or plastic called core of high refractive index n1. The core is
surrounded by a cylindrical shell of glass or plastic called
cladding of lower refractive index n2. The cladding is covered
by a jacket that protects the fiber from moisture and abrasion.
5. What is principle behind transmission of light wave
through optical fiber?
The principle behind transmission of light waves in an
optical fiber is total internal reflection.
Anna University Part B - ‘16’ Marks Questions
1. Explain the propagation of light through optical fiber and
the applications of optical fiber as wave guide and sensor.
[A.U. Dec 2011]
2. Define numerical aperture and derive an expression for
numerical aperture and angle of acceptance of fiber in terms
of refractive index of the core and cladding. Mention any
six advantages of optical fiber for communication as a wave
guide. [A.U. Nov 2010, Jan 2011, Jan 2012]
3. (i) Describe the propagation of light through an optical
fiber.
(ii) What are numerical aperture and acceptance angle of
a fiber?
Fiber Optics 4.51
(iii) Explain any two applications of optical fiber.
[A.U. Jan 2009]
4. Define (i) acceptance angle and numerical aperture.
(ii) Derive the expression sin o
n1 n2
2 2
(iii) Describe a method of measuring the temperature of a
source using fiber optic sensor. [A.U. Jan 2009]
5. (a) Derive expression for acceptance angle and numerical
aperture of an optical fiber. Bring out the differences
between step index and graded index fiber.
(b) Write a note on fiber optic pressure sensor
[A.U. Jan 2009, Jan. 2010, Jan 2011]
6. Discuss the various types of optical fibers. [A.U. Dec 2012]
7. Discuss in detail the classification of optical fiber based on
mode and refractive index profile. [A.U. Jan 2009]
8. Explain with basic principle, construction and working of
one type of optical fiber sensor. [A.U. Nov 2012, Jan 2013]
9. How are fibers classified? Explain the classification in detail.
[A.U. Jan 2009, Jan. 2011]
10. What are the different types of fiber optic sensors? Explain
the working of any two sensors. (A.U. Jan 2008)
11. Define and derive an expression for accaptance Angle and
numerical Aperture of a step index optical fiber. Distinguish
between single mode and multi mode fiber.
[A.U. Jan 2010, Jan 2011]
12. Explain fiber optical communication system with a neat
block diagram. [A.U. Jan 2009]
13. Write short notes on Fiber optic-displacement sensor
[A.U. Jan 2010, Jan 2011, Jan 2013]
14. (i) Describe the classification of optical fibers based on
refractive index profile and propagation modes.
4.52 Engineering Physics
(ii) Give an account on fiber optic temperature sensor and
fiber optic displacement sensor.(A.U. Jan 2010, Jan 2012)
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. A step-index fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.16, a core
refractive index of 1.45 and a core diameter of 90 m.
Calculate (a) acceptance angle of the fiber and
(b) refractive index of the cladding.
[Ans: 0 9 12, n2 1.441]
2. Find the numerical aperture and the acceptance angle for
a step-index fiber for which n1 1.5, n2 1.48 and n0 1.
[Ans: NA = 0.244]
3. Calculate the numerical aperture and hence the acceptance
angle for an optical fiber whose core and cladding has
refractive index of 1.59 and 1.40 respectively.
[Ans: NA 0.75 0 48 54]
UNIT - III
HOT AIR OVEN
HEAT EXCHANGER
THERMAL PHYSICS
5. Thermal Physics
Transfer of heat energy – thermal expansion of solids
and liquids – expansion joints – bimetallic strips –
thermal conduction, convection and radiation – heat
conductions in solids – Forbe’s and Lee’s disc method
theory and experiment – conduction through compound
media (series and parallel) – thermal insulation –
applications – heat exchangers – refrigerators, ovens
and – solar water heater.
Introduction
The study of thermal physics is important because of its
applications in various fields of engineering.
Mechanical Engineering
In designs of internal and external combustion engines,
refrigeration and air-conditioning plants, heat-exchangers,
coolers, condensers, furnaces, preheaters, etc.
Electrical Engineering
In designing cooling system for motors, transformers and
generators.
Civil Engineering
Control of heat transfer in dams, structures, buildings and
tunnels.
Chemical Engineering
The application of heat transfer is in freezing, boiling,
evaporation and condensation processes.
5.2 Engineering Physics
5.1 THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
It is a common observation that nearly all substances
expand on heating and contract on cooling.
Types of expansion
A solid substance can undergo three types of expansion:
expansion in length, expansion in area and expansion in volume.
(i) Expansion in length is known as linear expansion
(ii) Expansion in area is known as superficial expansion
(iii) Expansion in volume is known as cubical expansion.
Coefficients of linear, superficial and cubical expansion
of a solid:
(a) The coefficient of linear expansion of a solid is the
increase in length of unit length of the solid when its
temperature is raised by 1K. It is denoted by the letter .
Thus if a rod having a length L1 at T1 K is heated to a
temperature T2 K its length increases to L2.
L2 L1 Increase in length
L1 T2 T1 Original length Rise in temp
(b) The coefficient of superficial expansion of a solid is the
increase in area produced per unit area of the solid when the
temperature is raised by 1 K. It is denoted by the letter .
Thus if a solid having area A1 at T1 K is heated to
T2 K, its area increases to A2
A2 A1 Increase in area
A1 T2 T1 Original area Rise in temp.
Thermal Physics 5.3
(c) Coefficient of cubical expansion of a solid is the
increase in volume per unit volume of a solid for 1 K rise of
temperature. It is denoted by the letter .
Thus if a solid having a volume V1 at T1 K is heated to
a temperature T2 K, let V2 be its volume at T2 K. Then
V2 V1 Increase in volume
V1 T2 T1 Original volume Rise in temp
The unit for coefficients of linear expansion, superticial
expansion and cubical expansion of solids is per C or per K.
5.2 THERMAL EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
Absolute and apparent expansion of a liquid:
A liquid has always been taken in a container and so when
heat is given to the vessel, both the liquid and the container
expand in volume.
The observed expansion of the liquid is only relative to
the container. If we ignore the expansion of the container what
we obtain is only apparent expansion.
To find the absolute expansion of the liquid we should take
into account the expansion of the container.
(a) Coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid:
It is the observed increase in volume of unit volume of
the liquid per degree Kelvin rise of temperature. It is denoted
by a. Thus if V1 and V2 be the observed volumes of a liquid
at temperature T1 K and T2 K respectively then
V2 V1 Increase in volume of liquid
a
V1 [T2 T1] Original volume Rise in Temp
(b) Coefficient of real or absolute expansion of a liquid:
It is the real increase in volume of unit volume of a liquid
per degree Kelvin rise of temperature. It is denoted by r.
5.4 Engineering Physics
If V1 and V2 be the real volumes of a liquid at T1 K and
T2 K, then
V2 V1 Real increase in volume of the liquid
r
V2 T2 T1 Original volume Rise in Temp
The units of coefficient of apparent and real expersions of
the liquids is per C or per K.
Applications of expansion of solids
Expansion of solids plays an important role in numerous
engineering applications.
1. Thermal expansion joints with gaps are provided in
building concrete highways and bridges to compensate
for change in dimension with temperature variations.
2. The length of the electric wire between two electric
poles is kept slightly larger to compensate for its
contraction during winter days.
3. A gap is left at the joint of two rails.
4. One of the most important applications is expansion
joints and bimetallic strip.
5.3 EXPANSION JOINTS
An expansion joint or movement joint is an
assembly designed to safely absorb the heat induced
expansion or contraction of a pipeline, duct or vessel. It
helps to hold parts together.
Types of expansion joints
The expansion joints are classified as follows.
1. Metallic expansion joints
2. Wall expansion joint
3. Slip type expansion joint
Thermal Physics 5.5
4. Fabric expansion joint
5. Rubber expansion joint
6. Gimbal expansion joint
7. Pressure balance expansion joint
Metal expansion joints
They are also called compensators. These expansion joints
are provided for thermal expansion and relative movement in
pipelines, containers and machines.
They consist of one or more metal bellows, connectors at
both ends, and tie rods that depend on the application.
They are classified according to the three basic types of
movement:
(i) axial,
(ii) angular and
(iii) lateral expansion joints.
Axial
In axial compensation, the thermal expansion of a straight
line section between two fixed points is absorbed by an axial
expansion joint.
Fig. 5.1 Expansion joint movements
5.6 Engineering Physics
The distance between two fixed points defines the pipeline
length requiring compensation, and thus determines the axial
movement that must be achieved by the expansion joint. (Fig. 5.1)
Angular
The angular compensation of thermal expansion requires at
least two, and for full compensation even three, angular expansion
joints. Angular expansion joints offer a wide variety of combination
options in so-called two-hinge or three-hinge systems.
Fig. 5.2 Angular expansion
Lateral
Lateral compensation is likewise associated with a
redirection of flow by 90 within single-plane or multi-plane
piping systems. Usually, lateral expansion joints are installed
in existing right-angle redirections in the system.
The movement of a lateral expansion joint always consists
of the desired lateral movement and a slight unavoidable axial
movement that comes from the expansion joint itself.
Fig. 5.3 Lateral compensation
Thermal Physics 5.7
Lateral expansion joints that are movable in all planes
simultaneously absorb expansion from two pipe sections in
different directions.
Applications
1. Heating and air conditioning installation
2. Hot water and fire protection system
3. Compressors inlet and outlet
4. Pipe with axial displacement by temperature or pressure
changes
5. Thermal motors refrigeration circuit.
Wall expansion joints
These vertical joints are provided in large retaining walls to
allow for the expansion of concrete due to temperature changes.
They are usually extended from top to bottom of the wall.
These joints may be filled with flexible joint fillers.
Horizontal reinforcing steel bars running across the stem are
continuous through all joints (Fig. 5.4).
Fig. 5.4 Wall expansion joints
In building construction, an expansion joint is a
mid-structure separation designed to relieve stress on
building materials caused by building movement induced
by thermal expansion and contraction caused by
temperature changes, sway caused by wind, seismic
events, etc.
5.8 Engineering Physics
Bridges are made of steel, which expands and contracts
with temperature. A span long enough to need
expansion joints may expand or contract several
inches in the course of a year.
Without those joints either the bridge butt joints
would crush and buckle in hot weather, or the bridge
would pull apart in cold weather.
5.4 BIMETALLIC STRIP
Definition
A bimetallic strip means a strip made of two metals
of different expansion coefficients joined together. It is
like compound bar.
Principle
It operates on the principle that different metals have
different coefficients of expansion.
Fig. 5.5 Bending of a metallic strip on heating is due to
unequal expansion of the two metals
Thermal Physics 5.9
Description & working
Two strips of brass and iron of equal lengths are joined
together to form a bimetallic strip.
This bimetallic strip is straight at room temperature [Fig.
5.5 (a)].
Now, it is heated by using a burner. On heating, the
metallic strip bends to form a curve in such a way that brass
remains on the outside of the curve [Fig. 5.5(b)].
This means that brass strip has become longer than the
iron strip after heating, that is, brass expands more than iron
for the same rise in temperature.
It is obvious that a bimetallic strip bends due to the
unequal expansion rate of the two metals.
In fact on heating, of the bimetallic strip bends towards
iron side. If, however, the bimetallic strip shown in fig. 5.5 (b)
is cooled in freezing mixture, then it bends the other way
showing that brass contracts more than iron.
Applications of bimetallic strips
They are used as thermo-switches in automatic electrical
heating (and cooling) appliances like thermostats, electric ovens,
electric irons, fire alarms, and bimetallic thermometers. A
thermoswitch is a switch which works by the action of heat.
(i) Bimetallic thermostat
This is a simple device to maintain the temperature
constant. This consist of a bimetallic strip AB, made by welding
together brass and iron.
The bimetallic strip is wound
into a small spring and it is
connected by a rod to the contact
maker M of the circuit of an
electric heater. Fig. 5.5(c)
5.10 Engineering Physics
When the temperature increases, the expansion of the brass
of the strip causes the spring to unwind thus breaking the
electric circuit.
When the temperature decreases the contraction of the
brass strip to bend in the opposite direction making the spring
to wind and make the electric circuit again.
(ii) Bimetallic Thermometer
Fig. 5.6 shows a bimetallic thermometer. It is a rugged
portable thermometer. It is made using a bimetallic strip which
is in the form of a spring centered at point ‘P’ and carries a
pointer.
Fig. 5.6 Bimetallic thermometer
It uses the principle of differential expansion to activate
the pointer. When the temperature is raised, the strip bends
and hence the pointer is moved over a graduated scale in
temperature.
Advantages of bimetallic thermometers
1. They are simple, robust and inexpensive.
2. Their accuracy is between or 2% to 5% of the scale.
3. They can with stand 50% over range in temperatures.
Thermal Physics 5.11
Limitations of bimetallic thermometer
1. They are not recommended for temperature above
400C.
2. When regularly used, the bimetallic may permanently
deform, which inturn will introduce errors.
(iii) Bimetallic automatic fire alarms
A bimetallic strip is also used for making automatic fire
alarms. When fire breaks out in a building, heat is produced.
This heat bends the bimetallic strip in such a way that on
bending, it completes the circuit of an electric bell. The bell
starts ringing and gives the warning of a fire.
(iv) Bimetallic Sensors
A bi-metallic strip is used to convert a temperature
change into mechanical displacement and thus acts as
a temperature sensor.
5.5 TRANSFER OF HEAT ENERGY
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that
concerns with exchange of thermal energy or heat between
physical systems.
Fig. 5.6 Modes of transfer heat of energy
5.12 Engineering Physics
When the temperature of a body increases, the energy
supplied to the body is being stored in the form of thermal or
heat energy.
In the normal process, the transmission of heat takes place
from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature. There are three modes of transmission of heat
(Fig 5.7).
They are
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
5.6 THERMAL CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND
RADIATION
Thermal Conduction:
It is the process in which heat is transferred from
one point to another through the substance without the
actual motion of the particles.
Thermal Convection:
It is the process in which heat is transmitted from
one place to another by the actual motion of the heated
particles.
Example: Let us consider a beaker of water heated by a
flame as shown in figure 5.8. The water in the central portion
at the bottom of beaker gets heated first.
It rises up and the water from the top comes down along
the sides to get heated. This upward and downward motion can
be made visible by placing a crystal of potassium permanganate
at the bottom of the beaker.
Thermal Physics 5.13
Fig. 5.8 Process of thermal convection
The hot air furnace, hot water heating system and the flow
of blood in the body are examples of convection.
This takes places in case of liquids or gases only.
Types of convection
There are two types of convection.
(i) Natural convection
(ii) Forced convection
Natural convection
If the convection is induced by density differences, resulting
from temperature differences within the fluid, then it is termed
as natural convection.
Forced convection
If the fluid motion is caused by external mechanical means,
e.g. by a pump, fan, etc., the process is known ‘forced convection’.
Amount of heat transfer
The amount of heat transfer by convection is calculated on
the basis of the Newton’s law of cooling.
5.14 Engineering Physics
Amount of heat transferred
Q hA t
where A area of the surface from which heat is transferred
t temperature difference between the temperature
of the surface, from which heat is transferred and the
temperature of the fluid to which heat is transferred.
h proportionality constant is called ‘film coefficient of
heat transfer’ or simply ‘convective heat transfer
coefficient’.
Thermal Radiation
It is the process in which heat is transmitted from
one place to the other directly, without the agency of any
material medium.
Example heat radiation from the sun reaches us with an
enormous velocity of light without any intervening medium as
shown in fig. 5.9.
Fig. 5.9 Process of Thermal Radiation
Though the sun is millions of miles away from the earth
and there is no material medium for the greater part of the
distance, the heat reaches us with the velocity of light.
Thus, heat radiations can pass through vacuum. The
properties of heat radiations are similar to light radiation.
Properties of Thermal Radiation
Like light, they travel through vacuum.
Thermal Physics 5.15
Like light, they travel in straight lines.
They travel with the same velocity as light.
Radiant energy follows the law of inverse square as light.
They exhibit the phenomenon of reflection and refraction
as light.
5.7 HEAT CONDUCTIONS IN SOLIDS
It is a well known fact that heat is conducted through the
material of a body.
In conduction, heat transfer takes place from one point to
another through a material medium without the actual
movement of the particles of the medium.
The heat is transmitted from a body of higher temperature
to that of lower temperature.
As an example, when a metal rod is heated at one end,
heat gradually flows along the length of the rod and other end
of the rod also becomes hot after some time. (Fig. 5.9)
Fig. 5.9 Process of thermal conduction
This shows that heat has travelled through the molelcules
of the rod from one end to other and The molecules in the rod
remain fixed in their mean positions.
5.16 Engineering Physics
On heating, the energy of molecules increases and they
start vibrating more about their mean positions. They collide
with the neighbouring molecules. Because of this collision, the
neighbouring molecules are set into vibration.
Each molecule thus transfers some of heat it receives from its
predecessor to its successor. Thus, the transmission of heat takes
place by molecular vibrations in the case of conduction.
Definition
It is the process of transmission of heat from one point to
another point through a solid substance (or some medium)
without the actual motion of the particles (molecules or atoms)
of the subtance.
Note
Heat conduction always requires some material medium. The
material medium must be solid. As it requires material medium,
the heat conduction process never takes place in vacuum.
Thermal conductivity
The ability of a substance to conduct heat energy is
measured by its thermal conductivity.
Expression for Thermal Conductivity
Consider a slab of material of length x metre (thickness)
and area of cross-section A as shown in fig. 5.10.
Fig. 5.10 Expression for thermal conductivity
Thermal Physics 5.17
One end of the slab is maintained at a higher temperature
1 (hot end) and the other end at a lower temperature 2 (cold
end). Now, heat flows from hot end to cold end.
It is found that the amount of heat Q conducted from
one end to the other end is
directly proportional to area of cross-section A.
directly proportional to temperature difference between
the ends 1 2.
directly proportional to time of conduction t.
inversely proportional to length x between the faces
(shaded in fig. 5.10)
i.e., Q A
Q 1 2
Q t
1
Q
x
Combining all these factors, we have
A 1 2 t ...(1)
Q
x
K A 1 2 t
Q ...(2)
x
where K is a proportionality constant. It is known as coefficient
of thermal conductivity or simply thermal conductivity.
Its value depends on the nature of material.
Qx
K
A 1 2 t ...(3)
5.18 Engineering Physics
2
If A 1 m 1 2 1 kelvin
x 1 metre t 1 second
Then, K Q
This condition defines the coefficient of thermal
conductivity.
Definition
It is defined as the amount of heat conducted per
second normally across unit area of cross - section of
the material per unit temperature difference per unit
length.
1 2
The quantity denotes the rate of fall of
x
temperature with respect to distance. It is known as
temperature gradient.
1 2 d
For the smaller values, is written as
x dx
Rewriting the expression (2), we have
d ...(3)
Q KA t
dx
d
To indicate is negative, a negative sign is included in
dx
the R.H.S of the equation, since it signifies that the temperature
decreases with distance.
Unit:
Qx
We know that K
A 1 2 t
Thermal Physics 5.19
Substituting the corresponding units, we have
joule metre
2
metre kelvin second
joule
second metre kelvin
watt 1 W
W J s
metre kelvin mK
1 1
Wm K
1 1
Therefore, the unit of thermal conductivity is W m K .
Note
Thermal conductivity denotes the heat conducting
characteristics of the substances. Generally metals are good
conductors of heat (e.g., silver, copper) and non-metals are bad
conductors of heat (Air, glass, wood).
Thermal conductivities of some common materials are given
in the table. 5.1.
Table 5.1
Thermal conductivity
S.No. Material
Wm 1 K 1
1. Copper 385
2. Aluminium 201
3. Silver 419
4. Wood 0.15
5. Glass 1.0
6. Card board 0.04
The knowledge about thermal conductivity of the
material is very much essential in selecting the materials
for suitable engineering applications (design and
construction).
5.20 Engineering Physics
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 5.1
4 2
A rod 0.25 m long and 0.892 10 m area of cross
section is heated at one end through 393 K while the
other end is kept at 323 K. The quantity of heat which
3
will flow in 15 minutes along the rod is 8.811 10 joule.
Calculate thermal conductivity of the rod.
(A.U Dec 2010)
Given data
4 2
Area of cross section of the rod A 0.892 10 m
Distance between two ends of the rod x 0.25 m
Temperature difference 1 2 393 K 323 K 70 K
3
Quantity of heat conducted Q 8.811 10 joule
Time of flow of heat t 15 minutes 15 60
900 second
Solution
Qx
We know that K
A 1 2 t
Substituting the given values, we have
3
8.811 10 0.25
K 4
0.892 10 70 900
1 1
Thermal conductivity K 392 Wm K
Thermal Physics 5.21
Problem 5.2
How much heat will be conducted through a slab of area
4 2 –3
90 10 m and thickness 1.2 10 m in one second
when its opposite faces are maintained at difference in
temperature of 20 K. The coefficient of thermal
1 1
conductivity of that material is 0.04 Wm K
[A.U, April 2011]
Given data
4 2
Area of the slab A 90 10 m
3
Thickness of the slab x 1.2 10 m
Temperature difference 1 2 20 K
1 1
Thermal conductivity K 0.04 Wm K
Time taken t 1 second
Solution:
Amount of heat conducted
K A 1 2 t
Q
x
Substituting the given values, we have
4
0.04 90 10 20 1
Q 3
1.2 10
Q 6 joule
Amount of heat conducted in one second
= 6 joule.
5.22 Engineering Physics
Problem 5.3
2
The total area of the glass window is 0.5 m . Calculate
how much heat is conducted per hour through the glass
–3
window if thickness of the glass is 7 10 m the
o
temperature of the inside surface is 25 C and of the
o
outside surface is 40 C. Thermal conductivity of glass is
–1 –1
1.0 Wm K [A.U. Jan 2011]
Given data
2
Area of glass window A 0.5 m
3
Thickness of the glass x 7 10 m
1 40C 273 40 313 K
2 25C 273 25 298 K
1 1
Thermal conductivity K 1 Wm K
t 1 hour 60 60 second
3600 second
Solution
Amount of heat conducted
K A 1 2 t
Q
x
1 0.5 313 298 3600
Q 3
7 10
27000
Q 3
7 10
3
Q 3857 10 J
6
Q 3.857 10 J
Thermal Physics 5.23
5.8 FLOW OF HEAT THROUGH COMPOUND MEDIA
Material bars in series
Let us consider a compound media of two different
materials A and B with thermal conductivities K1 and K2 and
thicknesses x1 and x2 (fig. 5.11).
The temperatures of the outer faces of A and B are 1
and 2 The temperature of the surfaces in contact is . When
the steady state is reached, the amount of heat flowing per
second Q through every layer is same.
Fig. 5.11 Heat conduction through a compound media of
two layers in series. (Bodies in series)
After the steady state is reached,
Amount of heat flowing through the material (A) per second
K1 A 1
Q ...(1)
x1
5.24 Engineering Physics
Amount of heat flowing through the material B per second
K2 A 2
Q ...(2)
x2
The amount of heat flowing through the materials A and
B is equal in steady state conditions.
Hence, the eqns (1) & (2) are equal
K1 A 1 K2 A 2
...(3)
x1 x2
Rearranging the eqn (3), we have
K1 A 1 x2 K2 A 2 x1
K1 1 x2 K1 x2 K2 x1 K2 2 x1
Rearranging,
K1 1 x2 K2 2 x1 K2 x1 K1 x2
K1 1 x2 K2 2 x1 K2 x1 K1 x2
K1 1 x2 K2 2 x1
...(4)
K2 x1 K1 x2
This is the expression for interface temperature of
two composite slabs in series.
Substituting for in equation (1), We get
K1 A K1 1 x2 K2 2 x1
Q 1
x1 K2 x1 K1 x2
K1 A 1 K2 x1 K1 x2 K1 1 x2 K2 2 x1
Q
x1 K2 x1 K1 x2
K1 A K2 1 x1 K1 1 x2 K1 1 x2 K2 2 x1
Q
x1 K2 x1 K1 x2
Thermal Physics 5.25
K1 A K2 1 x1 K2 2 x1
Q
x1 K2 x1 K1 x2
K1 A K2 x1 1 2
Q
x1 [K2 x1 K1 x2]
K1 K2 A 1 2
Q
K2 x1 K1 x2
A 1 2
Q
K2 x1 K1 x2
K1 K2 K1 K2
The amount of heat flowing per second through the
compound wall of two materials.
A 1 2
Q
x1 x2 ...(5)
K1 K2
This method can also be extended to composite slab with
more than two slabs.
In general for any number of slabs, the amount of heat
conducted per sec is given by
A 1 2
Q
x
K ...(6)
Materials in parallel
Consider a composite media of two different materials A
and B with thermal conductivities K1 and K2 and thicknesses
x1 and x2. They are arranged in parallel as shown in fig. 5.12.
5.26 Engineering Physics
Fig. 5.12 Heat conduction through the bodies in parallel
The faces of the material A and B are at temperature
1 and the other end faces of A and B are at temperature 2.
A1 and A2 are the area of cross-section of the materials.
Amount of heat flowing through the first material (A) in
one second.
K1 A1 1 2 ...(1)
Q1
x1
Similarly
Amount of heat flowing through the second material (B)
in one second.
K2 A2 1 2 ...(2)
Q2
x2
The total heat flowing through these materials per second
is equal to the sum of Q1 and Q2
Q Q1 Q2
K1 A1 1 2 K2 A2 1 2
...(3)
x1 x2
Thermal Physics 5.27
Amount of heat flowing per second
K1 A1 K2 A2
Q 1 2 ...(4)
x1 x2
In general, the net amount of heat flowing per second
parallel to the composite slabs is given by
KA ...(5)
Q 1 2
x
Note:
This expression is valid where the heat is conducted
through various materials simultaneously under similar
temperature condition.
Methods to determine thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a material is determined by
various methods
1. Searle’s method - for good conductors like
metallic rods
2. Forbe’s method - for determining the absolute
conductivity of metals.
3. Lee’s disc method - for bad conductors
4. Radial flow method - for bad conductors.
5.9 FORBES METHOD - THEORY AND EXPERIMENT
This is one of the earliest method to find the absolute
thermal conductivity of metals.
Theory of the experiment
Consider a long rod. This rod is heated at one end and a
steady state is reached after some time.
5.28 Engineering Physics
Amount of heat flowing per second across the cross-section
A at the point B
d
KA ...(1)
dx B
where K – thermal conductivity
A – cross sectional area
d
dx – temperature gradient at B.
B
This amount of heat flowing across the section B is equal
to the heat lost by radiation by the rod beyond the section B.
Consider an element of thickness dx of the rod.
Mass of the element A dx
where - density of the rod
[Mass Volume density]
Heat lost by the element per second
Mass specific heat capacity rate of fall of temperature
d
Adx S ...(2)
dt
where d
– rate of fall of temperature of the element
dt
S – specific heat capacity of the rod
Total heat lost by the portion of the rod between section
B and the end C
C
d ...(3)
Adx S
dt
B
Thermal Physics 5.29
Amount of heat flowing per Heat lost by radiation by
second across the cross = radiation by the rod
section at the point B. beyond the section B.
C
d d
KA Adx S ...(4)
dx B B
dt
C
d
S dt
dx
B
or K
d
dx ...(5)
B
Experiment consists of two parts
d
1. Static experiment to find
dx B
C
d d
2. Dynamic experiment to find and dx
dt B
dt
1. Static experiment
The specimen metal is taken in the form of a long rod.
One end of this rod is heated by a steam chamber. The rod
has a series of holes into which thermometers are fitted. These
thermometers record temperatures at different points along the
rod. (Fig. 5.13)
Fig. 5.13 Forbe’s method - Static experiment
5.30 Engineering Physics
When the steady state is reached, the temperature
shown by the thermometers of the rod and their respective
distances x from the hot end are noted.
A graph is drawn between the temperature and the
distance x from the hot end (fig. 5.14).
Fig. 5.14 Graph between temperature and
distances from the hot end x
d
The value of is obtained by drawing a tangent to
dx B
the curve at a point B.
If this tangent makes an angle with the x axis, then
from the graph.
d AB
dx BC tan
B
2. Dynamic experiment
A piece of the original rod is heated to the same
temperature as that of the hot end in the static experiment.
The heated piece of the rod is suspended in air.
Thermal Physics 5.31
Now, it is allowed to cool. Its temperature is noted at
regular intervals of time by a thermometer placed in a hole at
the centre. (Fig. 5.15)
Fig. 5.15 Forbe’s method - Dynamic experiment
A graph is drawn between temperature and time t
(fig. 5.16).
Fig. 5.16 Graph between temperature and time t
d
From this graph, the value of for various values of
dt
are determined by drawing tangents at various points of the
cooling curve.
From the graph between temperature and the distances
of hot end x (fig. 5.14) for various values of temperature are
d
obtained. Now, third graph is drawn between and the
dt
corresponding values of x. (fig. 5.17)
5.32 Engineering Physics
d
Fig. 5.17 Graph between and x
dt
The curve is extended to meet the x - axis. Corresponding
to the point B, a point is located on the curve.
The area bounded by the curve, x - axis and the ordinate
C
d
passing through B is dt
dx.
B
The area of the shaded portion is determined.
C
d
S dt
dx
B
We know that K
d
dx
B
substituting the values in the above equation, we have
S Area of the shaded portion
K
tan
Hence, K is determined
Thermal Physics 5.33
Merits
1. It is one of the earliest method to determine the
absolute thermal conductivity of the material.
2. This method is based on the fundamental relation
Q
K which defines thermal conductivity.
dQ
A t
dx
Demerits
1. It is tedious method and requires a lot of time for the
completion of the experiment and drawing the three
graphs.
2. The specific heat capacity of the material of the rod does
not remain constant at different temperatures as assumed.
3. The distribution of heat is not uniform along the bar
in the two experiments. Therefore, this experiment is
not accurate.
5.10 LEE’S DISC METHOD - THEORY AND EXPERIMENT
The thermal conductivity of bad conductors like
glass, ebonite or card board is determined by this method.
Description
The apparatus consists of a circular metal disc or slab
C (Lee’s disc) of radius r and thickness h suspended by the
strings from a stand (fig. 5.18).
The given bad conductor (such as glass, ebonite) is taken in
the form of a disc (D). This bad conductor has the same diameter
as that of the slab and it is placed on the slab. (Lee’s disc)
A cylindrical hollow steam chamber A having the same
diameter as that of the slab is placed on the bad conductor.
There are holes in steam chamber and slab into which
thermometers T1 and T2 are inserted to record the respective
temperatures.
5.34 Engineering Physics
Fig. 5.18 Lee’s disc method
Working
Steam is passed into the steam chamber until the
temperatures in the chamber and the slab are steady. When
thermometers T1 and T2 show steady temperatures, their
readings 1 and 2 respectively are noted. The radius r and
thickness d of the disc D are also measured.
Observation and calculation
Thickness of the bad conductor d
Radius of the bad conductor and metal disc r
Mass of the slab (Lee’s disc) M
Thickness of the metal disc h
Steady temperature in the steam chamber 1
Steady temperature in the slab 2
Thermal conductivity of the bad conductor K
Thermal Physics 5.35
Rate of cooling of the slab at 2 R
Specific heat capacity of the slab S
2
Area of the cross section Ar
Amount of heat conducted through the disc D per second
2
KA 1 2 K r 1 2 ...(1)
Q
d d
At this stage all the heat conducted through the bad
conductor is completely radiated by the bottom flat surface and
the curved surface of the slab C.
Amount of heat lost per second by the slab C
Q Mass Specific heat capacity Rate of cooling
Q MSR ...(2)
At steady state,
Heat conducted through the Heat lost per second
bad conductor per second by the slab C
Hence, equations (1) and (2) are equal
2
K r 1 2
MSR
d
MSRd 1 1 ...(3)
K 2
Wm K
r 1 2
(ii) Determination of rate of cooling R.
The bad conductor is removed and the steam chamber is
placed directly on the slab. The slab is heated to a temperature
about 5C higher than 2. The steam chamber is removed and
the slab alone is allowed to cool.
5.36 Engineering Physics
As the slab cools, the temperatures of the slab are noted
at regular intervals of time (0.5 minute) until the temperature
of the slab falls to about 5C below 2.
The temperature-time graph is drawn and the rate of
d
cooling at the steady temperature 2 is determined.
dt
(Fig. 5.19)
Fig. 5.19 Graph between temperature and time
During the first part of the experiment, before the removal
of bad conductor and steam chamber, the top surface of the slab
is covered by the bad conductor.
Radiation is taking place only from the bottom surface area
and curved surface area of the slab.
2
i.e., Total area r 2 rh r r 2h ... (4)
where h is the height of the slab C.
In the second part of the experiment, heat is radiated from
top surface area, bottom surface area and curved sides. i.e., over
entire surface area
2 2 2
r r 2 r h 2r 2rh 2 r r h ... (5)
As the rate of cooling is directly proportional to the surfaces
that are exposed (other condition being equal)
R r r 2h r 2h r 2h ... (6)
d 2 r r h 2 r h 2r 2h
dt
Thermal Physics 5.37
r 2h d ...(7)
R
2r 2h dt
Substituting for R in equation (3), we have
d
MSd
dt r 2 h ...(8)
K 2
r 2r 2h
1 2
Thus, thermal conductivity of the bad conductor is
determined.
5.11 THERMAL INSULATION
Thermal insulation is to resist the flow of heat to
and from a body. It is a material that reduces the
rate of heat flow.
General principles of thermal insulation
1. The thermal resistance of an insulating material is
directly proportional to its thickness.
2. The provision of an air gap is a very important
insulating agent.
3. The thermal resistance of a building depends on its
orientation also.
4. Heat is energy that flows from one region to another
because of a difference in temperature between the two
regions. The heat is transferred by conduction,
convection, or radiation, or any combination of them.
(i) Reducing heat transfer by conduction
In a flat wall made of any solid material, if one face is
at a higher temperature than the other, heat will flow through
the wall by conduction.
5.38 Engineering Physics
The rate at which heat will flow through the wall
depends on the thermal conductivity of the wall material.
The higher the thermal conductivity of a material, the
poorer its use as thermal insulation.
(ii) Reducing heat by convection
The mode of carrying heat from the warm to the cold side
of the air space is called convection, and the air flows are called
convection currents.
If the air space within the walls of a house is filled with
a porous material, the air circulation will be impeded, and the
rate of heat transfer due to convection will be greatly reduced.
(iii) Reducing heat transfer by radiation
The transfer of heat by radiation does not require the
presence of any matter.
The rate at which heat is transmitted by radiation
depends on various factors, including the temperatures
of the surfaces and the kinds of surfaces involved.
Thermal insulating materials
The materials which are used to insulate thermally are
known as thermal insulating materials.
Thermal insulating materials are classified as
(a) Organic materials (b) Inorganic materials
(a) Organic materials
Cattle hair, Silk, Wool, Wood-pulp, Corkboard, Saw dust,
Sugar-cane fiber, Cardboard, Paper, Leather.
(b) Inorganic insulating materials
Still air, Mineral wool, Slag-wool, Glass wool, Charcoal,
Gypsum powder, Slag, Coke powder, Asbestos.
Thermal Physics 5.39
Types of Thermal insulation
There are three types of thermal insulation. They are
1. House thermal insulation
2. Industrial thermal insulation
3. Building Thermal Insulation
1. House thermal insulation
In a warm house during the winter, insulation in the
walls, ceilings, and floors reduces the loss of heat from
the warm interior to the colder outdoor air.
In a cool house during the summer, the insulation
reduces the entry of heat from the warmer out-door air.
Thermal insulation of house hold items is very essential.
2. Industrial thermal insulation
In industry, thermal insulation is used for enclosing
heating equipment, pipes that carry steam, and cold
storage spaces.
The insulation helps to conserve fuel or power or to
maintain a uniform temperature in an enclosure.
3. Building Thermal insulation
Thermal insulation of exposed doors and windows
The doors and windows which are exposed to outside world
transmit heat to a considerable extent.
Following methods are used to ensure thermal insulation
of the exposed doors and windows.
1. The insulating glass or double glass with air space may
be provided for glased doors and windows. This will
reduce heat transmission through doors and windows.
2. In order to reduce incidence of solar heat, the protection
in the form of sun breakers, weathersheds, projections
curtains, may be provided on the exposed doors and
windows.
5.40 Engineering Physics
3. The flat roofs may be kept cool by water which may
either be stored or sprayed at regular intervals. The
surface temperature of the roof is reduced substantially
by this method.
4. The thermal insulation of flat roof may be provided by
putting a layer of about 25 mm thickness of coconut
pith or cement concrete.
Thermal insulation of exposed walls
The following methods are adopted for the thermal
insulation of exposed wall.
The suitable thickness of wall may be provided.
The hollow wall or cavity wall construction may be adopted.
For partitions, an air space may be created by fixing
hardboards on battens as shown in fig 5.20
weathersheds, projections, curtains, etc. may be provided
on the exposed doors and windows.
Fig. 5.20 Thermal insulation of partition
Thermal insulation of exposed roofs
The thermal insulation of exposed roofs is achieved either
by treating inside surface or outside surface.
Internal treatment:
The false ceiling with an air gap may be provided. The
ceiling is made of thermal insulating materials. Fig. 5.21,
shows the fixing of a false ceiling to a pitched roof.
Thermal Physics 5.41
Fig. 5.21 Internal Treatment for pitched roof
The light insulating materials may be pasted by suitable
adhesives to the inside surfaces of the exposed roof.
5.12 HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers are devices used to transfer heat
between two or more fluid streams at different temperatures.
Heat exchangers find widespread use in power generation,
chemical processing, electronics, cooling, air-conditioning,
refrigeration and automotive applications.
Examples for heat exchangers
(i) Intercoolers and preheaters
(ii) Condensers and boilers in steam plant
(iii) Condensers and evaporators in refrigeration units
(iv) Regenerators
(v) Automobile radiators
(vi) Oil coolers of heat engine
(vii) Milk chiller of a pasteurising plant
5.42 Engineering Physics
Types of heat exchangers
In order to meet the widely varying applications, several
types of heat exchangers are developed. They are classified on
the basis of nature of heat exchange process, relative direction
of fluid motion, design and constructional features, and physical
state of fluids.
1. Nature of heat exchange process
Heat exchangers, on the basis of nature of heat exchange
process, are classified as follows:
(i) Direct contact (or open) heat exchangers.
(ii) Indirect contact heat exchangers.
(a) Regenerator
(b) Recuperators
2. Relative direction of fluid motion
According to the relative directions of fluid motions the heat
exchangers are classified into the following three categories:
(i) Parallel flow or unidirection flow
(ii) Counter-flow
(iii) Cross-flow
3. Design and constructional features
Based on design and construtional features, heat
exchangers are classfied as
(i) Concentric tubes
(ii) Shell and tube
(iii) Multiple shell and tube passes
(iv) Compact heater exchanger
Thermal Physics 5.43
4. Physical state of fluids
Based on the physical state of fluids, heat exchangers are
classified as
(i) Condensers
(ii) Evaporators
Let us discuss one such heat exchanger.
Direct contact heat exchanger
In a direct contact or open heat exchanger, the exchange
of heat takes place by direct mixing of hot and cold fluids and
transfer of heat and mass takes place simultaneously.
Fig. 5.22 shows a direct contact heat exchanger in which
steam mixes with cold water, gives its latent heat to water and
gets condensed. Hot water and non-condensable gases leave the
container as shown in the figure.
Fig. 5.22 Direct contact or open heat exchanger
Examples
(i) Cooling towers
(ii) Jet condensers
(iii) Direct contact feed heaters.
5.44 Engineering Physics
Indirect contact heat exchanger
In this type of heat exchanger, the heat transfer between
two fluids could be carried out by transmission through wall
which separates the two fluids.
This type includes the following:
(a) Regenerators.
(b) Recuperators or surface exchangers.
(a) Regenerators
In a regenerator type of heat exchanger the hot and cold
fluids pass alternately through a space containing solid particles
(matrix), these particles providing alternately a sink and a source
for heat flow.
Examples
(i) I.C. engines and gas turbines
(ii) Open hearth and glass melting furnaces
(iii) Air heaters or blast furnaces.
(b) Recuperators
‘Recuperator’ is the most important type of heat exchanger
in which the flowing fluids exchanging heat are on either side
of dividing wall (in the form of pipes or tubes generally). These
heat exchangers are used when two fluids cannot be allowed to
mix i.e., when the mixing is undesirable.
Examples
(i) Automobile radiators,
(ii) Oil coolers, inter coolers, air preheaters, economisers,
superheaters, condensers and surface feed heaters of a
steam power plant,
(iii) Milk chiller of pasteurising plant
(iv) Evaporator of an ice plant.
Thermal Physics 5.45
Refrigeration
Definitions:
Refrigeration: It is the process of continuous cooling or
extraction of heat to below that of the atmosphere from a
substance with a help of the external work.
Principle of refrigeration: It is based on the second law of
thermodynamics that the heat can made to flow from cold body
to a hot body with the help of external source.
Refrigerant: It is the working fluid used in the refrigerator.
E.g. Ammonia, Methyl chloride, Freon etc.
Ton of refrigeration:
It is the standard unit of the refrigerator. It is the freezing
capacity of the one American short ton of water from 0C in
24 hrs.
One ton of the refrigeration = 3.5 kW = 3.5 kJ/s =
210 kJ/min.
Coefficient of performance: It is the measure of the
performance of the refrigeration system. It is the ratio of the
refrigerating effect (output) to the input work required to
produce the effect.
Output Q
COP = .
Input W
The value of the COP may be less than the unity or greater
than unity.
Relative COP: It is the ratio of the actual COP to the
theoretical COP.
Actual COP
Relative COP
Theoretical COP
5.46 Engineering Physics
5.13 REFRIGERATOR
It is a machine which produces cold. It is used to
remove heat from the refrigerated space and reject it to
atmosphere. Hence, it maintains the temperature below
the surrounding atmosphere.
Principle
A refrigerator works by passing a cool refrigerant gas
around food items (kept inside the fridge), which absorbs heat
from them and then loses that heat to the relatively cooler
surroundings on the outside.
Types of refrigeration systems
Mainly they are classified under two groups:
1. Based on the type of the external work
Using mechanical energy:
(a) Cold air refrigeration
(b) Vapors compression refrigeration
Using heat energy:
(a) Simple vapour absorption refrigeration
(b) Actual vapour absorption refrigeration
2. Based on the usage
(a) Primary refrigeration
(b) Secondary refrigeration
Parts and working of vapour compression refrigerator
A refrigerator consists of a few key components that play
a vital role in the refrigeration process (fig. 5.23)
They are
1. Expansion valve
2. Compressor
Thermal Physics 5.47
3. Evaporator
4. Condenser
5. Refrigerant
Expansion valve
Also referred to as the flow control device, an expansion
valve controls the flow of the liquid refrigerant (also known as
‘coolant’) into the evaporator.
It’s actually a very small device that is sensitive to
temperature changes of the refrigerant.
Compressor
The compressor consists of a motor that ‘sucks in’ the
refrigerant from the evaporator and compresses it in a cylinder
to make a hot, high-pressure gas.
Evaporator
This is the part that actually cools the stuff kept inside
a refrigerator. It consists of finned tubes (made of metals with
high thermal conductivity to maximize heat transfer) that absorb
heat blown through a coil by a fan.
The evaporator absorbs heat from the stuff kept inside, and
as a result of this heat, the liquid refrigerant turns into vapor.
Condenser
The condenser consists of a coiled set of tubes with external
fins and is located at the rear of the refrigerator. It helps in
the liquefaction of the gaseous refrigerant by absorbing its heat
and subsequently expelling it to the surroundings.
As the heat of the refrigerant is removed, its temperature
drops to condensation temperature, and it changes its state from
vapor to liquid.
Refrigerant
Also commonly referred to as the coolant, it’s the liquid
that keeps the refrigeration cycle going.
5.48 Engineering Physics
It’s actually a specially designed chemical that is capable
of alternating between being a hot gas and a cool liquid.
The refrigerants such as ammonia, R-290, R-600A are used.
Fig. 5.23
Working
The refrigerant, which is now in a liquid state, passes
through the expansion valve and turns into a cool gas due to
the sudden drop in pressure.
As the cool refrigerant gas flows through the chiller
cabinet, it absorbs the heat from the food items inside the fridge
and vaporizes.
The refrigerant, which is now a gas, flows into the
compressor, which sucks it inside and compresses the molecules
together to make it into a hot, high-pressure gas.
Thermal Physics 5.49
Now, this gas transports to the condenser coils (thin
radiator pipes located at the back of the fridge), where the coils
help dissipate its heat so that it becomes cool enough to condense
and convert back into its liquid phase.
After the condenser, the liquid refrigerant travels back to
the expansion valve, where it experiences a pressure drop and
once again becomes a cool gas. It then absorbs heat from the
contents of the fridge and the whole cycle repeats.
5.14 OVEN
An oven is a thermally insulated chamber used for
heating, baking or drying of a substance and most
commonly used for cooking.
Kilns and furnaces are special-purpose ovens, used in
pottery and metalworking, respectively.
Types of ovens
Double oven
Ceramic oven
Gas oven
Microwave oven
Toaster oven
Hot air oven
Hot Air Oven
The electrical device which is widely used in medical
products industries, rubber industries, and for the process of
sterillization using dry heat is known as hot air oven.
The instrument works on the basis of dry heat to sterilize
the specimens and articles. The instrument can be operated at
a temperature of 50C to 250C.
5.50 Engineering Physics
It is also known as the thermostat that controls the
temperature. The device is provided with the digital panel to
control the temperature digitally.
Operating Principle
It works on the principle of fine gravity air
convection in a highly heated electrical chamber.
Description
It consists of the following parts:
An insulated chamber surrounded by an outer case
containing electric heaters.
A fan to circulate the air
Shelves
Thermocouples
Temperature sensor
Door locking controls
The apparatus consists of a large, rectangular, copper-base
and covered with asbestos sheets. It is also provided with a door
and erected on a four-legged stand. (Fig. 5.24)
The roof is provided with a hole through which a
thermometer is fitted inside for recording of temperature.
The oven has two or three shelves. The oven is heated by
electric heater, fitted at the base of the instrument. There is a
regulator of heater to control the inside temperature.
Thermal Physics 5.51
Fig. 5.24 Hot air oven
Working
Before sterilization, the glassware are dried properly and
wrapped in brown paper and then exposed to hot air inside the
oven.
After loading of glassware, the oven is switched on, the
temperature will increase slowly up to the desired point
160C where it will remain steady.
Then at 160C, the oven is kept for an hour. This is the
appropriate temperature for sterilization of glassware. Then,
gradually the temperature is brought down and thereafter
sterilization is complete.
Fig. 5.25 Hot air oven
5.52 Engineering Physics
Advantages
This treatment kills the bacterial endotoxin, not all
treatments can do this.
Dry heat sterilization by Hot Air Oven does not leave
any chemical residue.
Eliminates “wet pack” problems in humid climates.
Disadvantages
Plastic and rubber items cannot be dry-heat sterilized
because temperatures used (160–170C) are too high for
these materials.
Dry heat penetrates materials slowly and unevenly.
It requires a continuous source of electricity.
Safety Guidelines
Before placing in Hot Air Oven
(i) Dry glasswares completely.
(ii) Plug test tubes with cotton wools.
(iii) Wrap glasswares in kraft papers. Do not overload the
oven. Overloading alters heat convection and increases
the time required to sterilize.
Allow free circulation of air between the materials.
The material used for wrapping instruments and other
items must be porous enough to let steam through but
tightly woven enough to protect against dust particles
and microorganisms.
Applications
It is widely used to sterilize glassware in pharmaceutical
industries such as petri dishes, pipettes, bottles, test
tubes, flasks, pestle, etc.
Thermal Physics 5.53
Solar Power
The energy (heat and light) obtained from the sun
is called solar energy. Sun is the source of all energy. Sunlight
contains infrared radiations in large proportion, and these
infrared rays heats all objects on which they fall.
Every square metre of earth’s upper atmosphere receives
1.36 kJ of energy per second. However, of this only 47%, i.e.,
0.64 kJ of solar energy reaches every square metre of earth’s
surface per second.
Harnessing solar energy
The solar energy falling on the earth is very much diffused,
and scattered. In order to use solar energy for practical purposes,
we have to collect and concentrate it.
The solar energy is harnessed by using the following two ways:
1. Direct harnessing
2. Indirect harndessing
1. Direct use of harnessing
The solar energy is either directly collected as heat (in solar
cookers, or solar water heaters) or converted directly into
electricity (in solar cells).
2. Indirect harnessing
Indirect harnessing is carried out by
converting solar energy into chemical energy in plants
(biomass)
harnessing the energy of wind
utilizing the energy of sea waves and
utilizing the energy due to the temperature difference of
the water at different levels in oceans.
Conversation of Solar energy
Solar energy is converted into more useful forms of energies
by two ways
5.54 Engineering Physics
(i) Thermal conversion
(ii) Photo-conversion
Thermal conversion
In thermal conversion, the heat from the direct rays of Sun
is absorbed in the form of infrared radiation by surfaces, air or
water and put to many uses.
Photo conversion
In photo conversion, when sunlight (solar energy) of short
wavelength falls on the surface of a metal, it is absorbed and
it is used to excite and eject electrons from the surface. This
is known as photoelectric effect.
The ejected electrons move in a circuit in a direction opposite
to that of conventional current and generate electric current. The
photovoltaic or solar cells are designed based on this principle.
5.15 SOLAR WATER HEATER
It consists of an insulated box painted black from inside
having a glass lid to receive and store solar heat as shown in
fig 5.26. Inside the box it has black painted copper tube coil
through which cold water is made to flow in.
Fig. 5.26 Solar water heater
Thermal Physics 5.55
Water gets heated and flows out into a storage tank. The
hot water from the storage tank fitted on roof top is then
supplied through pipes into buildings.
Applications of Solar Power
Traditional uses of solar energy
Drying clothes, drying fruits and vegetables, reducing
moisture content in grains, and making salt from sea-water.
Solar cells (or) photo voltaic cells (or) PV cells
Used in calculators, electronic watches, street lights, water
pumps, radios and TVs.
Solar Battery
When a large number of solar cells are connected in series
it forms a solar battery. Solar battery produces more electricity
which is enough to run water pump, to run street-light, etc.,
They are used in remote areas where conventional
electricity supply is a problem.
Solar heat collector
It is generally used in cold places, where houses are kept
in hot condition using solar heat collectors.
Domestic water supply and irrigation in many villages is done
by using solar pumps.
The light installations in villages, streets and tunnels,
educational institutions and healthcare centres are mostly
dependent on the solar energy.
Also, the direct rays of Sun are used to provide warmth in
the houses.
5.56 Engineering Physics
It is also helpful in cooking using solar cookers or to
warm up water using solar water heaters.
Advantages of Solar power
Solar energy systems are maintenance free and will last
for decades.
Once installed, there are no recurring costs. They operate
silently, have no moving parts, do not release offensive
smells and do not require to add any fuel.
More solar panels can easily be added in the future when
we need.
Environment friendly
It’s not affected by the supply and demand of fuel.
Therefore, it is not subjected to the ever-increasing price
of gasoline.
Solar energy is clean, renewable (unlike gas, oil and
coal), sustainable and helping to protect our environment.
It does not pollute air.
Solar energy does not contribute to the cost and problems
of the recovery and transportation of fuel or the storage
of radioactive waste.
Disadvantages of solar power
The initial cost of purchasing and installing solar panels
always is high.
Solar energy is not available round the clock. It cannot
be obtained in night time.
Available Solar energy is diffused. Required to be focused
at one point before using (particularly for thermal
conversion).
Thermal Physics 5.57
Energy has not be stored in batteries.
Air pollution and whether can affect the production of
electricity.
They need large area of land to produce more efficient
power supply.
Problem 5.4
By means of an electric heater of 12 kW, the
2
temperature in a room with 6.0 m of windows is to be
maintained so that the inner surface of the glass is
10C above the outer surface. Ignoring the heat losses
through the walls of the room and assuming that heat
is lost through the window glass of thickness 6 mm,
what is the coefficient of thermal conductivity of glass.
(A.U. Jan - 2012)
Given data
Heat generated by the electric heater 12 kW
3
12 10 watt
3
12 10 joule/second
2
Area of the window A 6 m
Temp difference 1 2 10 K
3
Thickness of glass window x 6 mm 6 10 m
Solution
Heat conducted through the window glass
K A 1 2 t
Q
x
5.58 Engineering Physics
Q K A 1 2
t x
Q x
K
t 1 2
Q
Here is heat conducted per second = heat generated per
t
second (power)
3 3
12 10 6 10
K
10
1.2
1 1
Thermal conductivity of glass 1.2 Wm K .
Problem 5.5
A solid of square of side 50 cm and thickness 10 cm is
in contact with steam at 100C on one side. A block of
ice at 0C rests on the other side of the solid. 5 kg of
ice is melted in one hour. Calculate the thermal
conductivity of the solid. [A.U Jan 2012]
Given data
2
Side length of the solid 50 cm 50 10 m
2 2 2
Area of the solid A 50 10 50 10 m
4 2
2500 10 m
2
Thickness of the solid x 10 cm 10 10 m
Final temperature of the steam 100C 100 273 373 K
Initial temperature of ice 0C 0 273 273 K
Thermal Physics 5.59
Temperature difference 373 K 273 K
100 K
Mass of ice melted 5 kg
Time taken for melting of ice 1 hour
1 60 60
3600 second
1
Latent heat of ice 3,36,000 J kg
5 1
3.36 10 J kg
Solution:
Amount of heat Q passing across the solid
KA 1 2 t
x
Substituting the given values, we have
4
K 2500 10 100 3600
Q 2
10 10
5
Q 9 10 K
Heat gained by ice in one hour Q
Mass of the ice Latent heat of ice
5
5 3.36 10
5
16.8 10 joule
Heat conducted across the solid = Heat gained by ice
for one hour in one hour
5 5
9 10 K 16.8 10
5.60 Engineering Physics
5
16.8 10
K 5
9 10
1 1
K 1.86 Wm K
Problem 5.6
A cooper rod of length 50cm and cross-sectional area
2 2
6 10 cm is connected in sereis with an iron rod of
same area of cross-section and length 25 cm. One end
of copper is immersed in boiling water. The far end of
the iron is in an ice bath of 0C. Find the rate of transfer
of heat from boiling water to ice bath. (Thermal
1 1
conductivity of copper and iron are 401 Wm K and
1 1
80 Wm K respectively.) [A.U Dec 2015]
Given
Length of copper rod x1 50 cm
2
50 10 cm
Length of the iron rod x2 25 cm
2
25 10 cm
Temperature of ice bath 2 0C
Temperature of boiling water 1 100C
Thermal conductivity of copper
1 1
K1 401 Wm K
Thermal conductivity of iron
1 1
K2 80 Wm K
Thermal Physics 5.61
Area of cross section of Copper and Iron
2 2
6 10 cm
2 2 2 2
6 10 10 m
2 4 2
6 10 10 m
Solution:
The rods are connected in series. Therefore, the rate of
heat flow from boiling end to ice
A 1 2
Q
x1 x2
k1 k2
2 4
6 10 10 100 0
2 2
50 10 25 10
401 80
6
6 10 10
50 25 2
401 80 10
6 2
6 10 100 10
0.125 0.313
2
6 10
0.438
2
13.69 10
1
Q 0.137 Js
5.62 Engineering Physics
ANNA UNIVERSITY PART - A
‘2’ Marks Q & A
1. Define heat conduction. [A.U. Jan 2011]
Conduction is the process of transmission of heat from one
point to another through substance (or some medium) without the
actual motion of the particles (atoms / molecules) of the substance.
2. Define coefficient of thermal conductivity and
mention its unit. [A.U., Dec. 2010]
It is defined as the quantity of heat conducted per second
normally across unit area of cross-section per unit temperature
difference per unit length of the material.
–1 –1
Its unit is watt / metre / kelvin (Wm K )
3. Derive the unit in which thermal conductivity is
measured. [A.U. April 2009]
Thermal conductivity of material
Qx
K
A 1 2 t
joule metre joule
K 2
metre kelvin second second metre kelvin
watt
metre kelvin
1 1
Wm K
4. What is basic principle behind Lee’s disc method in
determining thermal conductivity of bad conductor?
[A.U. Jan 2012]
The given bad conductor is taken in the form of disc is
placed in between the metal disc (Lee’s disc) and steam chamber.
The steam is passed through the steam chamber. Heat conducted
through bad conductor per second is calculated. Amount of heat
lost per second by disc is also calculated.
Thermal Physics 5.63
At steady state
Heat conducted through
Amount of heat lost
the bad conductor
per second per second by the disc
From this, thermal conductivity of the bad conductor is
calculated.
5. How are heat conduction and electrical conduction
analogous to each other? [A.U., Dec. 2008]
Heat conduction Electrical conduction
1. Heat is conducted from a Electricity is conducted from
point of higher temperature a point at higher potential to
to a point of lower a point at lower potential.
temperature.
2. In metals, heat conduction is In metals, electrical
mainly due to free electrons. conduction is due to free
electrons.
3. The ability to conduct heat The ability to conduct
is measured by thermal electricity is measured by
conductivity. electrical conductivity.
6. What are the characteristics of good and bad
conductors? [A.U. Nov. 2011]
Good conductors Bad conductors
1. They have high electrical & They have very low electrical
thermal conductivity and thermal conductivity
2. They can be easily heated or They cannot be easily heated
cooled or cooled
3. Examples: Metals like iron, Examples: Non metals like
copper glass, wood
7. What is thermal resistance? [A.U. Jan 2012]
The thermal resistance of a body is a measure of its
opposition to the flow of heat through it.
5.64 Engineering Physics
8. Explain why the specimen used to determine thermal
conductivity of a bad conductor should have a larger
area and smaller thickness. (A.U. April, 2013)
For a bad conductor with a small thickness and large area
of cross-section, the amount of heat conducted increases (large).
This will increase accuracy of the measurement
9. Write down an expression for the amount of heat
conducted through a compound media of two layers.
(A.U. Jan 2009)
Amount of heat conducted through a compound media of
two layer is
A 1 2
Q
x1 x2
K1 K2
A – Area of the cross section
1 – temperature at outer face of the material at hot end
2 – temperature at the outer face of the material at cold end
x1 – thickness of the material at hot end
x2 – thickness of the material at cold end
K1 – thermal conductivity of the material at hot end
K2 – thermal conductivity of the material at cold end
10. Mention the methods to determine thermal
conductivity of good and bad conductors.
(A.U. Jan 2011)
Searle’s method – for good conductors like metallic rod
Forbe’s method – for determining the absolute
conductivity of metals
Lee’s disc method – for poor conductors
Radial flow method – for bad conductors
Thermal Physics 5.65
Additional Part - A ‘2’ Marks Q&A
1. Define coefficient of linear expansion.
The coefficient of linear expansion of a solid is the increase
in length of unit length of the solid when its temperature is
raise by 1K. It is denoted by the letter .
2. Define superficial expansion.
The coefficient of superficial expansion of a solid is the
increase in area produced in unit area of the solid when the
temperature is raised by 1K. It is denoted by the letter .
3. Define is coefficient of cubical expansion
Coefficient of cubical expansion of a solid is the increase
in volume of unit volume of a solid for 1 K rise of temperature.
It is denoted by the letter .
4. Define coefficient of apparent expansion of the liquid.
It is the observed increase in volume of unit volume of
the liquid per degree Kelvin rise of temperature. It is denoted
by a.
5. Define coefficient of real expansion of liquid.
It is the real increase in volume of unit volume of a liquid
per degree Kelvin rise of temperature. It is denoted by r.
6. What is expansion joint?
An expansion joint or movement joint is an assembly
designed to safely absorb the heat induced expansion or
contraction of a pipeline, duct or vessel. It helps to hold parts
together.
7. What is bimetallic strip?
A bimetallic strip means a strip made of two metals pined
together. It is like compound bar. It operates on the principle
that different metals have different coefficients of expansion.
5.66 Engineering Physics
8. What are three modes of transferring heat?
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
9. Define convection.
It is the process in which heat is transmitted from one
place to another by the actual motion of the heated particles.
10. Define radiation.
It is the process in which heat is transmitted from one place
to the other directly, without the agency of any material medium.
11. What is thermal insulation?
It will resist the flow of heat to and from a body. It is a
material that reduces the rate of heat flow.
12. What are heat exchangers?
They are devices used to transfer heat between two or more
fluid streams at different temperatures.
13. Define refrigerator.
It is a machine which produces cold. It is used to remove
heat from the refrigerated space and reject it to atmosphere.
Hence, it maintains the temperature below the surrounding
atmosphere.
14. Define oven.
An oven is a thermally insulated chamber used for heating,
baking or drying of a substance and most commonly used for
cooking.
Kilns and furnaces are special-purpose ovens, used in
pottery and metalworking, respectively.
15. What is solar power?
The energy (heat and light) obtained from the sun, is called
solar energy. Sun is the source of all energy. Sunlight contains
infrared radiations in large proportion, and these infrared rays
heats all objects on which they fall.
Thermal Physics 5.67
Anna University Part - B – ‘16’ Marks Questions
1. Describe Forbe’s method to determine thermal conductivity
of metals with relevent theory. [A.U. Dec 2005]
2. Describe with relevant theory the method of determining
the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a bad conductor
by Lee’s disc method. [A.U. Dec 2011, Jan 2014]
3. Derive an expression for the quantity of heat flow through
a metal slab whose faces are kept at two different
temperatures. Use this expression to determine the thermal
conductivity of a bad conductor by Lees’s disc method.
[A.U. Nov. 2007]
Additional Part - B – ‘16’ Marks Questions
1. Explain expansion joints and bimetallic strips.
2. Describe three modes of transfer of heat.
3. Explain flow of heat through compound media.
4. Explain the concept of thermal insulation.
5. Describe heat exchangers and refrigerators.
6. Write notes on oven.
7. Describe the working of solar water heater.
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
2
1. A copper rod 19 cm long and of 0.785 cm area of
cross-section which is thermally insulated is heated at one
end to 100C while the other end is kept at 30C. Calculate
the amount of heat that will flow in 10 minutes along the
–1 –1
way. K of copper is 380 W m K . (Ans. 6.594 kJ)
2. Two bars of copper and steel of length 1.0 m and 0.5 m
respectively and of coefficient of thermal conductivity 400
–1 –1 –1 –1
W m K and 50 W m K respectively are joined end to
end.
5.68 Engineering Physics
The free ends of copper and steel are maintained at
100C and 0C respectively. Calculate the temperature of
copper-steel junction if both bars have the same area of
cross-section. (Ans. 80oC)
4 2
3. Calculate the thickness of the slab of area 85 10 m
through which 8 joules of heat is flowing through the
opposite faes maintained at a temperature difference of 30
K. The coefficient of thermal conductivity of the material
1 1
of the slab is 0.05 Wm K . The time taken for the heat
flow is 10 seconds. (Ans. 0.0159 m)
4. Equal bars of copper and aluminium are welded end to end.
If the free ends of copper and aluminium are maintained
at 150C and 0C respectively. Find the temperature of the
welded interface. Assume the thermal conductivity of copper
1 1 1 1
and aluminium to be 386.4 Wm K and 210 Wm K
respectively. (Ans. 97.183C)
5. A slab consists of two parallel layers of different materials
4 cm and 2 cm thick and of thermal conductivity
1 1 1 1
226.8 Wm K and 150.2 Wm K respectively. If the
opposite faces of the slab are at 100C and 0C. Calculate
the temperature of the surface dividing the two.
(Ans. 316 K or 43oC)
UNIT - IV
QUANTUM PHYSICS
6. Quantum Physics
Black body radiation – Planck’s theory (derivation) –
Compton effect. Theory and experimental verification –
Wave particle duality – Electron diffraction – concept
of wave function and its physical significance –
Schrodinger’s wave equation – Time independent and
time dependent equation – Particle in a one-dimensional
rigid box – tunneling (qualitative) – Scanning tunneling
microscope.
Introduction
The classical mechanics is not adequate to explain the
motion of atomic particles like electrons, protons etc. Many
examples for the failure of classical mechanics are
(i) black body radiation
(ii) specific heat of solids at low temperature
(iii) theory of atomic structure
(iv) photo - electric effect and
(v) Compton effect. To explain the failures of classical
mechanics, the quantum theory was developed.
Black Body
In practice, a perfect black body is not available. The body
showing close approximation to a perfect black body can be
constructed.
A hollow copper spherical shell is coated with lamp black
on its inner surface. In this, a fine hole is made and a pointed
projection is provided just in front of the hole. (Fig. 6.1(a)).
When the heat radiations enter into this spherical shell
through the hole, the heat radiations suffer multiple reflections
and they are completely absorbed. Now, this body acts as an
absorber.
6.2 Engineering Physics
When this body is placed in a constant temperature bath
at high temperature, the heat radiations comes out from the
hole (Fig. 6.1(b)). Now, this hole acts as a radiator. It is to
be noted that only the hole and not the walls of the body acts
as the radiator.
(a) Absorber (b) Radiator
Fig. 6.1 Black body
Perfect black body
A perfect black body is one which absorbs all the
radiations (all the wavelengths) incident on it. Further,
when such a body is placed at constant high temperature,
it emits radiation of all the wavelengths.
Any object coated with a dull black pigment is a good
approximation to a perfect black body.
6.1 BLACK BODY RADIATION
The heat radiation emitted from the black body is
known as black body radiation.
The wavelength at which the maximum energy of radiation
emitted depends only on temperature of the black body and it
does not depend on the nature of the material.
Note: In Astrophysics, all stars are taken as examples for a
black body. Ex: Sun.
Quantum Physics 6.3
Energy spectrum of black body radiation
The radiation emitted by a black body varies with its
temperature. The intensity of radiation corresponding to different
wavelengths is measured at different temperatures and plotted.
Fig. 6.2 Energy spectrum of a black body
The black body spectra is shown in figure 6.2. It has the
following characteristics:
(i) The black body emits all kinds of radiation ranging
from lower wavelength to higher wavelength.
(ii) The black body spectrum shows that the energy density
increases with the increase in wavelength and reaches
a maximum value and then decreases with the increase
in wavelength.
(iii) The wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy
density gets shifted towards lower wavelength, with the
increase of temperature.
(iv) If the temperature of the black body in increased, the
energy density also increases.
6.4 Engineering Physics
Laws of black body radiation
Wien’s displacement law
This law states that the product of wavelength ( m )
corresponding to the maximum energy of radiation and
absolute temperature of the black body (T) is a constant.
ie., mT constant
constant
m
T
1
m
T
It is found that the wavelength corresponding to the
maximum energy of black body radiation is inversely proportional
to absolute temperature.
As the temperature of black body increases, the
wavelength corresponding to maximum energy decreases.
Wien’s radiation law
Wien deduced the law for the energy emitted by a black
body at a given wavelength and temperature (T) to explain
the blackbody spectrum. It is known as Wien’s radiation law.
The energy density in the wavelength range and
d is given by
8hc 1 8hc 1 . . c
E 5 h/kT
5 hc/kT .
e e
5 hc/kT
E 8hc e
5 C2 T
E C1 e
where C1 and C2 are constants
Quantum Physics 6.5
T is the temperature of the blackbody.
The constants C1 and C2 have the values,
hc
C1 8hc and C2
k
Limitation
This law holds good only for short wavelengths
and not for longer wavelengths.
Rayleigh - Jean’s law
This law states that the energy distribution of a
black body is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature (T) and inversely proportional to the fourth
power of the wavelength .
ie., E T
1
E 4
T
E 4
8kT
E 4
where k is Boltzmann’s constant.
Limitation
This law holds good only for longer wavelength
regions and not for shorter wavelengths.
It is found that both Wien’s and Rayleigh - Jeans laws do
not agree with the experimental results for entire wavelength
range. Therefore, it is concluded that classical theory failed to
explain the emission of black body radiation.
6.6 Engineering Physics
Thus, Max - Planck introduced quantum theory to explain
laws of the black body radiation.
Planck’s quantum theory of black body radiation
The revolutionary ‘Planck hypothesis’ of black body
radiation was introduced by Max Planck in the year 1900.
This theory successfully explains the nature of black body
radiation.
6.2 PLANCK’S THEORY
1. A black body is not only filled up with the radiations
but also with a large number of tiny oscillators.
They are of atomic dimensions. Hence, they are known
as atomic oscillators or Planck’s oscillators.
Each of these oscillators is vibrating with a
characteristic frequency.
2. The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is
same as that of oscillator frequency.
3. The oscillator cannot absorb or emit energy in a
continuous manner. It can absorb or emit energy in
multiples of small units called quantum.
This quantum of radiation is called photon. The energy
of the photon is directly proportional to the frequency of
radiation ,
i.e.,
h
where h is a proportionality constant.
34
It is known as Planck’s constant h 6.625 10 J.s.
4. The o sc illato r vibrating w ith frequenc y can only emit
energy in quantum of values h . It indicates that
the oscillators vibrating with frequency can only have
discrete energy values n.
Quantum Physics 6.7
It is given by
n n h n
where n is a positive integer 1, 2, 3, ....
It means that the energy of the atomic oscillator is
quantized and integer n is known as quantum
number.
Planck’s Law of Radiation
Statement
The energy density of heat radiation emitted from
a black body at temperature T in the wavelength range
from to d is given by
8hc
E d 5 h/kT
d
e 1
Here, h Planck’s constant
c Speed of the light
Frequency of radiation
k Boltzmann’s constant
T Temperature of the blackbody
6.3 PLANCK’S LAW OF RADIATION (Derivation)
Consider a black body with a large number of atomic
oscillators.
Average energy E per oscillator is given by
E ... (1)
E
N
6.8 Engineering Physics
where E Total energy due to all the oscillators
N Total number of oscillators
Number of atomic oscillators
N0
in ground state
According to Maxwell’s energy distribution law, the number
of oscillators with energy n is given by
n/kT ... (2)
Nn N0 e
where T – Absolute temperature of the black body
k – Boltzmann’s constant.
If N is total number of oscillators and N0, N1, N2, , are
the number of oscillators with energies 0, 1, 2, then
N N0 N1 N2 .....
From the eqn. (2), we have
0/kT /kT 2/kT ... (3)
N N0 e N0 e 1 N0 e
From Planck’s quantum theory, can take only a quantum
of values h. Therefore, the possible values of are
0, 1h, 2h, 3h, etc., (Fig. 6.3)
ie., n nh, n 0, 1, 2
0 0 , 1 h , 2 2h
Substituting these values in eqn (3), we have
0 h kT 2h kT
N N0 e N0 e N0 e ....
h/kT 2 h/kT ... (4)
N N0 N0 e N0 e
[ ... e0 1 ]
Quantum Physics 6.9
Fig. 6.3 Energy diagram for
a Planck’s oscillator of frequency
h/kT
put x e , we get
2 3
N N0 N0 x N0 x N0 x ...(5)
2
N N0 [1 x x ]
1 ... (6)
N N0
1 x
. . 1
. 1 x 1 1 x x2
1 x
by u sing binomia l series.
N0
N
1 x
Total energy of the black body due to all the oscillators is
given by
E 0 N0 1 N1 2 N2 ...(7)
Substituting fo r 0, 1, 2, and N0, N1, N2 ... in eqn (7),
we have
6.10 Engineering Physics
h/kT 2h/kT
E 0 N0 h N0 e 2 h N0 e
h/kT 2h/kT ...(8)
E h N0 e 2 h N0 e
h/kT
put x e , we have
2 ...(9)
E h N0 x 2h N0 x
E h N0 x [1 2x ]
1 ... (10)
E h N0 x 2
1 x
. . 1 2
. 2
1 x 1 2x
1 x
by using binomial series.
Substituting eqns (6) and (10) in eqn (1), we get
h N0 x
2
1 x
E
N0
1 x
h N0 x 1 x
E
1 x
2 N0
h x
E
1 x
h x
E
1
x 1
x
h
E
1
x 1
Quantum Physics 6.11
h/kT
on substituting x e , we have
h
E
1
h/kT 1
e
h ... (12)
E h/kT
e 1
Number of oscillators per unit volume in the wavelength
range and d is given by
8 d ... (13)
4
The energy density of radiation in the wavelengths
and d is given by
Number of oscillators
per unit volume Average energy
E d per oscillator
in wavelength range
and d
8 d h ... (14)
E d 4
h/kT
e 1
8 d hc/ .. c
4
h/kT .
e 1
8 hc 1 ... (15)
E d 5 h/kT
d
e 1
8 h c ... (16)
E 5 h / kT
e 1
6.12 Engineering Physics
This eqn (16) represents Planck’s radiation law in terms
of wavelength.
Note: Planck’s law is also expressed in terms of frequency by
2
substituting c and d c d in eqn (15) Then, we have
3
8h ... (17)
E d 3 h kT
d
c e 1
Planck’s law shows good agreement with experimental
values for entire wavelength region which is confirmed by
deduction of Wien’s law and Rayleigh’s Jean law from Planck’s
law.
Deduction of Wien’s Displacement Law
from Planck’s Law
We know that Wien’s law holds good only at shorter
wavelength.
Therefore, when is very small, is very large, hence
h h/kT
1 and e is large when compared to 1.
kT
Thus, ‘1’ is neglected in the denominator of eqn (16)
h/kT h/kT
ie., e 1~
e .
Hence, the eqn (16) reduces to
8 hc ... (18)
E 5 h/kT
e
This eqn (18) represents Wien’s radiation law.
Thus, Planck’s law reduces to Wien’s law at shorter
wavelengths.
Quantum Physics 6.13
Deduction of Rayleigh Jean’s Law from Planck’s Law
We know that Rayleigh - Jean’s law holds good only at
longer wavelength. Therefore, when is very large, is very
h
small, and 1
kT
h/kT h
e 1
kT
(by using exponential series and neglecting higher orders)
Now, eqn (16) reduces to
8 hc
E
5 h
1 1
kT
8hc
E 5
h
kT
8 h .. c
E 5 .
h
kT
8kT ... (19)
E 4
This eqn (19) represents Rayleigh - Jeans law.
Hence, Planck’s law reduces to Rayleigh - Jean’s law at
longer wavelength.
Thus, Planck’s law reduces to Wien’s law of radiation
at smaller wavelengths and to Rayleigh - Jeans law at
longer wavelengths.
Planck worked out the correct equation. His equation
worked well & fitted the experimental curve completely over the
entire range of wavelengths. The three curves are shown in
fig. 6.4.
6.14 Engineering Physics
Fig. 6.4 Graphs for the 3 laws.
Planck’s formula is found to agree remarkably well
with experimental observations for smaller and longer
wavelengths. So, it is an established formula for the
validity of quantum hypothesis.
Scattering of X - rays
Like ordinary light waves, X - rays are scattered by matter
in two different ways. They are
(a) Coherent scattering or classical scattering or
Thomson scattering.
(b) Incoherent scattering or Compton scattering.
(a) Coherent scattering
In coherent scattering, X - rays are scattered by electrons
without any change in their wavelengths. This type of scattering
was explained by Thomson on the basis of classical
electromagnetic theory.
(b) Incoherent scattering (Compton scattering)
In Compton scattering, the scattered X - ray consists of two
components, one is having the same wavelength as that of the
incident X - rays and the other has a slightly longer wavelength.
This type of scattering was studied by Compton on the basis of
particle nature of light radiation.
Quantum Physics 6.15
6.4 COMPTON EFFECT
Compton effect refers to the change in the wavelength
of scattered X - rays by a material.
Statement
When a beam of X - rays is scattered by a substance
of low atomic number, the scattered X - ray radiation
consists of two components.
One component has the same wavelength as the
incident ray and the other component has a slightly
longer wavelength .
This change in the wavelength of scattered X - rays
is known as Compton shift. The phenomenon is called
Compton effect.
The radiations of unchanged wavelength in the scattered
radiations are called unmodified radiations. The radiations of
longer wavelength are known as modified radiations.
The change of wavelength is due to loss of energy of the
incident X - rays.
Explanation
The compton effect was explained on the basis of quantum
theory of radiation. The X - radiation consists of quanta or
photons each having an energy of h. These photons move with
velocity of light (c). They obey the laws of conservation of energy
and momentum when they undergo collision.
The whole process is treated as a particle - particle
collision between X - ray photon and a loosly bound
electron of the atom in the scattering substance.
When a photon of energy h collides with a free electron
of the scattering substance, which is assumed to be at rest
initially, the photon transfers some of its energy to the electron
(fig. 6.5).
6.16 Engineering Physics
Fig. 6.5 Compton effect
The electron gains kinetic energy and it recoils with
velocity v. Therefore, the scattered photon has lower energy, (lower
frequency and longer wavelength) than that of the incident one.
6.5 THEORY OF COMPTON EFFECT (Derivation)
Consider an X - ray photon striking an electron at rest
(fig 6.6 a). This X - ray photon is scattered through an angle
to X-axis from its initial direction of motion (fig 6.6 b).
(a) Before collision (b) After collision
Fig. 6.6 Compton effect
Let the frequency of scattered photon be and its energy
h. During the collision, X - ray photon gives a fraction of its
energy to the free electron. This free electron of mass m gains
energy and it moves with a velocity v at an angle to X-axis.
Quantum Physics 6.17
Total energy before collision
Energy of incident photon h
2
Energy of electron at rest = mo c
where mo – rest mass of the electron,
c – velocity of light.
2
Total energy before collision h mo c
Total energy after collision
Energy of scattered photon h
2
Energy of scattered electron mc
where m is the mass of electron.
when it moves with velocity v.
2
Total energy after collision h mc
Applying the law of conservation of energy, i.e.,
Total energy before collision Total energy after collision
2 2
h mo c h mc
2 2
mc h h mo c
2 2
mc h mo c ...(1)
Total momentum along X-axis
Before collision
h
Momentum of photon along X-axis
c
Momentum of electron along X-axis 0
h
Total momentum along X-axis
c
6.18 Engineering Physics
Note: From de-Broglie’s concept,
h
momentum of the particle p
c h h
But, for photon p
c/ c
After collision
Since the momentum is vector quantity, it is resolved along
X-axis and Y-axis, then
h
Momentum of photon along X-axis cos
c
Momentum of electron along X-axis mv cos
Total momentum along X-axis after collision
h
cos mv cos
c
Applying the law of conservation of momentum ie.,
Total momentum before collision Total momentum after collision
h h ....(2)
cos mv cos
c c
h h
cos mv cos
c c
h
cos mv cos
c
h cos mvc cos
mvc cos h cos ....(3)
Total momentum along Y-axis
Before collision
Momentum of photon along Y-axis = 0
Quantum Physics 6.19
Momentum of electron along Y-axis = 0
Total momentum along Y-axis = 0
After collision
h
Momentum of photon along Y - axis sin
c
Momentum of electron along Y - axis mv sin
[negative sign indicates negative Y - direction]
h
Total momentum along Y - axis sin mv sin
c
Applying the law of conservation of momentum ie.,
Total momentum before collision Total momentum after collision
h
0 sin mv sin
c
h ...(4)
mv sin sin
c
....(5)
mvc sin h sin
Squaring eqn (3) and eqn (5) and then adding, we get
2 2 2 2 2
mvc cos mvc sin h cos h sin
... (6)
L.H.S. of eqn (6)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
m v c cos m v c sin
2 2 2 2 2
m v c sin cos
O X E =UKP EQU ?
6.20 Engineering Physics
R.H.S. of eqn (6)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
h 2 cos cos h sin
2 2 2 2 2 2
h [ 2 cos cos sin ]
2 2 2 2 2
h [ 2 cos sin cos ]
2 2 2
h 2 cos [ ... sin2 cos2 1 ]
L.H.S = R.H.S of eqn. 6
2 2 2 2 2 2 ...(7)
m v c h 2 cos
Squaring eqn (1). on both sides, we get
2 2 2 2 ...(8)
mc h moc
2 4 2 2 2 4 2
m c h mo c 2h mo c
2 4 2 2 2 2 2 4 ....(9)
m c h 2 2h mo c mo c
Subtracting eqn (7) from eqn (9), we get
2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
m c m v c h 2 2h mo c
2 4 2 2 2
mo c h 2 cos
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
m c c v h 2h h 2h mo c
2 4 2 2 2 2 2
mo c h 2h c o s h
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
m c c v 2h 2h moc 2h c o s mo c
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
m c c v 2h 1 cos 2h mo c mo c ...(10)
Quantum Physics 6.21
From the theory of relativity, the variation of mass with
velocity is given by
mo ... (11)
m
2
v
1 2
c
Squaring the eqn (11) on both sides, we have
2 2 2 2
2 mo mo mo c
m 2
2 2
2 2
v c v c v
1 2 2
c c
2 2 2 2 2
m c v mo c
2
Multiplying c on both sides, we have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
m c c v mo c c
2 2 2 2 2 4
m c c v mo c ...(12)
Substituting eqn (12) in eqn (10), we get
2 4 2 2 2 4
mo c 2h 1 cos 2h mo c mo c
2 2
2h mo c 2h 1 cos
h
or 1 cos
mo c
2
h
1 cos
mo c
2
1 1 h ... (13)
2
1 cos
mo c
6.22 Engineering Physics
Multiplying c on both sides of eqn (13), we have
c c hc
2
1 c o s
mo c c
..
.
c c h
1 cos c
mo c
h
1 cos
mo c
Therefore, the change in wavelength is given by
h ... (14)
d 1 cos
mo c
It is found that the change in wavelength d does
not depend on the wavelength of the incident radiation
and the nature of the scattering substance. But it depends
only on the angle of scattering .
Case - 1 When 0, then
h
d 1 c o s 0
mo c
h
d 1 1 [ ... cos 0 1 ]
mo c
h
0
mo c
d 0
i.e. Along the incident direction, there is no change in wavelength
Case - 2 When 90, then
h
d 1 cos 90
mo c
h
d 1 0 [ ... cos 90 0 ]
mo c
Quantum Physics 6.23
h
d
mo c
Substituting for h, mo and c, we have
34
6.625 10
d 31 8
9.11 10 3 10
d 0.0243 Å
This difference in wavelength is known as Compton
wavelength of electron.
Case - 3 When 180, then
h
d 1 cos 180
mo c
h
d 1 1 [ ... cos 180 1 ]
mo c
h 2h
d 1 1
mo c mo c
2h
d
mo c
d 2 0.0243 Å . . h
. m c 0.0243 Å
o
d 0.0486 Å
Thus, the change in wavelength is maximum at 180.
6.6 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF
COMPTON EFFECT
A beam of monochromatic X-rays of wavelength is made
to incident on a scattering substance (fig. 6.7). The scattered
X-rays are received by Bragg spectrometer.
6.24 Engineering Physics
Fig. 6.7 Experimental verification of Compton effect
The intensity of scattered X-rays is measured for various
scattering angles. The graph is plotted (intensity Vs wavelength)
as shown in fig. 6.8.
It is found that the curves have two peaks, one
corresponding to unmodified radiation and other corresponding
to modified radiation.
The difference between two peaks on the wavelength axis
gives Compton shift.
The curves show that the greater the scattering angle, the
greater is Compton shift in accordance with the expression.
h
d 1 cos
mo c
The change in wavelength d 0.0243 Å at 90 is found
to be in good agreement with the theoretical value 0.0243 Å.
Thus, Compton effect is experimentally verified.
Quantum Physics 6.25
Fig. 6.8 Graph between intensity of the scattered
X-rays and wavelength ()
The experimental observations were in perfect agreement
with the prediction of the above equation, thus holding the
Einstein’s concept of photon as completely valid.
Physical significance of compton effect
In the compton effect, the compton shift is explained on
the basis that the X-ray photons collide with electrons and,
during the collision, the energy exchange between the two occurs
as though it is a kind of particle-particle collision.
6.26 Engineering Physics
Thus, it demonstrates the particle nature of X-rays which
we know are electromagnetic waves, or in other words, it
signifies the particle nature of waves in general.
6.7 WAVES AND PARTICLE DUALITY OF MATTER
The concept of wave nature of matter arose from the dual
character of radiation which sometimes behaves as a wave and
at other times as a particle.
de - Broglie’s Hypothesis
Louis de - Broglie proposed a very bold and novel
suggestion that like light radiation, matter or material
particle also posseses dual (two) characteristics i.e.,
particle – like and wave – like.
The moving particles of matter such as electrons, protons,
neutrons, atoms or molecules exhibit the wave nature in addition
to particle nature.
According to de - Broglie hypothesis, a moving particle is
always associated with waves. (Fig. 6.9)
Fig. 6.9 particle and wave nature of matter particle
Waves and particles are the only two modes through
which energy can propagate in nature.
Our universe is fully composed of light radiation and
matter.
Since nature loves symmetry, matter and waves
must be symmetric.
Quantum Physics 6.27
If electromagnetic radiation like light, X - rays can act
like a wave and a particle, then material particles
(electrons, protons etc) should also act like a particle and
a wave.
Every moving particle is always associated with a wave.
de - Broglie waves and its wavelength
The waves associated with the matter particles are
called matter waves or de - Broglie waves.
From Planck’s theory, the energy of a photon of frequency
is given by
E h ... (1)
According to Einstein’s mass - energy relation
2
E mc ... (2)
where m - mass of the photon
c - velocity of the photon.
Equating (1) and (2), we get
2
h mc ...(3)
hc 2 c
mc
hc
2
mc
h
(for electromagnetic radiation)
mc
Since mc p momentum of a photon,
h ...(4)
then
p
6.28 Engineering Physics
The wavelength of de - Broglie wave associated with any
moving particle of mass m with velocity v (momentum p mv)
is given by
h h ...(5)
p mv
This equation (5) is known as de - Broglie’s wave
equation.
de - Broglie wavelength in terms of energy
1 2
We know that the kinetic energy E mv
2
Multiplying by m on both sides we get,
1 2 2 ...(6)
mE m v
2
2 2
2mE m v
2 2
or m v 2mE
Taking square root on both sides,
2 2
mv 2 mE
mv
2 mE
h ... (7)
We know that
mv
substituting for mv in eqn (7), we have
h
de - Broglie wavelength
2mE
de - Broglie’s wavelength associated with electrons
When an electron of charge e is accelerated by a potential
difference of V volts, then the electron gains a velocity v and
hence,
Quantum Physics 6.29
Workdone on the electron eV ... (1)
This workdone is converted into the kinetic energy
1 2
of the electron as mv
2
Workdone = kinetic energy
1 2
... (2)
eV mv
2
2
2 eV mv
2
mv 2 eV
Multiply by m on both sides, we have
2 2
m v 2 meV
Taking square root on both sides, we get
2 2
mv
2meV
mv
2meV ... (3)
From the de - Broglie’s concept, the wavelength associated
with any moving particle is given by
h ... (4)
mv
Substituting eqn (3) in eqn (4), we have
h ... (5)
2meV
Substituting the given values, we have
6.30 Engineering Physics
34 19
h 6.625 10 Js, e 1.6 10 C
31
m 9.1 10 kg
34
6.625 10
2 9.1 10
31
1.6 10
19
V
10
12.25 10 ...(6)
metre
V
12.25
Å ...(7)
V
Properties of Matter Waves
1. If the mass of the particle is smaller, then the
wavelength associated with that particle is longer.
2. If the velocity of the particle is small, then the
wavelength associated with that particle is longer.
3. If v 0, then , i.e., the wave becomes
indeterminate and if v , then 0. This indicates
that de - Broglie waves are generated by the motion of
particles.
4. These waves do not depend on the charge of the
particles. This shows that these waves are not
electromagnetic waves.
5. The velocity of de - Broglie’s waves is not constant since
it depends on the velocity of the material particle.
Quantum Physics 6.31
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 6.1
An electron is accelerated by a potential difference of
150V. What is the wavelength of that electron wave?
(A.U. Jan 2010)
Given data
Accelerating voltage applied to the electron V 150 V
Solution
We know that the de - Broglie wavelength
10
12.25 10
metre
V
Substituting the given values, we have
10
12.25 10
metre
150
10
12.25 10
metre
12.24
10
1.001 10 metre
1.001 Å
Problem 6.2
Calculate de – Broglie wavelength of an electron of
energy 100 eV (A.U. Jan 2011)
6.32 Engineering Physics
Given data
Energy of electron E 100 eV
19
E 100 1.6 10 joule
... 1 eV 1.6 10
19
J
31
Mass of the electron m 9.1 10 kg
34
Planck’s constant h 6.625 10 Js
Solution
h h
We know that
mv
2mE
Substituting the given values, we have
34
6.625 10
100 1.6 10
31
2 9.1 10
19
10
de - Broglie’s wavelength 1.235 10 metre
1.235 Å
Note: At the time de - Broglie proposed his hypothesis, there
was no experimental evidence to show that the particles of
matter like electrons, protons, neutrons etc., have wave
properties.
However, the wave nature of atomic particles was
experimentally verified by the American scientists Davisson and
Germer in 1927 and by G.P. Thomson in 1928 and thus the
truth of de Broglie concept was established.
Quantum Physics 6.33
6.8 ELECTRON DIFFRACTION - G.P. THOMSON
EXPERIMENT
G.P. Thomson made investigations with high speed
electrons, accelerated by a potential ranging from 10,000 to
50,000 volts and studied the electron diffraction effects.
Thomson found the electron diffraction patterns exactly
analogous to X-ray patterns. Moreover, he was able to determine
the wavelength associated with electrons.
Experimental arrangement and working
The experimental arrangement is shown in fig. 6.10.
Fig. 6.10 G.P. Thomson experiment
It consists of a discharge tube in which the electrons are
produced from the cathode C. The electrons are accelerated by
a potential upto 50,000 volts. These accelerated electrons are
passed through a slit S to obtain a fine beam of electrons.
Then, they are allowed to fall on a very thin gold foil G.
6
The thickness of the foil is of the order of 10 cm.
6.34 Engineering Physics
The electron beam coming out of the foil is recorded by
the photographic plate P. After developing the plate, a
symmetrical pattern consisting of concentric rings about a
central spot diffraction pattern is obtained. (fig. 6.11). This
pattern is similar to patterns produced by X-rays.
Fig. 6.11 Diffraction pattern obtained in
G.P. Thomson’s experiment
The diffraction pattern can only be produced by
waves and not by the particles. So, Thomson concluded that
electrons behaved like waves. He also calculated the associated
wavelength of the electrons.
It is found that the wavelength of the electron depends
only on the accelerating voltage and it is independent of the
nature of the target material.
Thomson’s experiment led to the discovery of Electron
microscopes.
Note: In order to check, whether the diffraction pattern
of concentric rings is produced by the electron or by the X-rays,
a magnetic field is applied between the gold foil and the
photographic plate.
It is found that there is deflection of the diffraction pattern
due to deflection in the path of the electron indicating that the
diffraction pattern is produced by electrons.
If it is produced by X-rays, there should be no deflection
of diffraction pattern, because X-rays are not deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
Quantum Physics 6.35
6.9 CONCEPT OF WAVE FUNCTION
In quantum mechanics it is postulated that there exists a
function determined by the physical situation. The function is
called wave function.
It is also postulated to contain all possible information
about the system. Hence, it is also called as state function.
The wave function may vary with respect to both the
position coordinates of the physical system and the time. It is
then called the total wave function, and is represented by
the capital form of the greek letter (pronounced as psi).
If the wave function has variation only with position (i.e.,
space) and not with time, it is represented by the lower case
greek letter .
The total wave function can be represented by the equation,
i kx t ...(1)
Ae
where, A is a constant, and is the angular frequency of
the wave.
Separating the space and time dependent parts, can be
expressed as,
ikx i t ...(2)
Ae e
In the above equation, separating out the time dependent
part, we can represent the rest as a space dependent wave
function.
ikx ...(3)
Ae
is time independent wave function. The total wave
function is now written as,
i t
e
6.36 Engineering Physics
The wave function in quantum mechanics accounts for the
wave-like properties of a particle.
It is obtained by solving a fundamental equation called
Schrondinger equation. To solve the schrodinger equation it
requires the knowledge of,
(i) potential energy of the particle,
(ii) initial conditions, and
(iii) boundary conditions.
6.10 SCHROEDINGER WAVE EQUATION
Schroedinger wave equation describes the wave
nature of a particle in mathematical form. It is the basic
equation of motion for matter waves.
If the particle has wave properties, then there should be
some sort of wave equation to describe the behaviour of that
particle.
Schroedinger connected the expression of de-Broglie’s
wavelength with the classical wave equation for a moving
particle. He obtained a new wave equation. This wave equation
is known as Schroedinger wave equation.
Forms of Schroedinger wave equations
There are two forms of Schroedinger wave equations.
They are:
(a) Time independent wave equation
(b) Time dependent wave equation
One, which is general and takes care of both the position
and the time variations of the wave function, is called
time-dependent Schrodinger equation.
Quantum Physics 6.37
It involves the imaginary quantity ‘i’.
The other one is applicable only to steady state conditions
in which case, the wave function can have variation only with
position but not with time. It is called time-independent
Schrodinger’s equation and is simpler than the other one. It
doesn’t involve ‘i’.
Accordingly we get the corresponding wave functions by
solving the respective types of schrodinger equation. The wave
functions obtained as solutions of time-dependent schrodinger
equation will always be complex.
But the wave functions obtained as solutions of time-
independent schrodinger equation are not necessarily complex
functions, though they could be complex under certain conditions.
6.11 SCHROEDINGER TIME INDEPENDENT
WAVE EQUATION (Derivation)
Consider a wave associated with a moving particle.
Let x, y, z be the coordinates of the particle and wave
function for de - Broglie’s waves at any given instant of time t.
(Fig 6.12)
Fig 6.12
The classical differential equation for wave motion is given by
2 2 2 2
1
2 2
2
2 2
...(1)
x y z v t
6.38 Engineering Physics
Here, v is wave velocity.
The eqn (1) is written as
2
2 1
2 2
... (2)
v t
2 2 2
2
where 2 2
2
is the Laplacian’s operator.
x y z
The solution of eqn (2) gives as a periodic variations in
terms of time t,
it
x, y, z, t o x, y, z e
it
o e ... (3)
Here, o x, y, z is a function of x, y, z only which is the
amplitude at the point considered. is angular velocity of the
wave.
Differentiating the eqn (3) with respect to t, we get
it
i o e
t
Again differentiating with respect to t, we have
2
it
2 i i o e
t
2
2 2 it
2
i o e
dt
2
2 ... (4)
2
t
. . . i2 1 o e
it
Quantum Physics 6.39
Substituting eqn (4) in eqn (2), we have
2
2
2
v
2
2
2
0 ... (5)
v
v
We know that angular frequency 2 2
.. v
Here, is the frequency .
2
... (6)
v
Squaring the eqn (6) on both sides, we get
2 2 2 2
2 4
2
2
2
... (7)
v
Substituting eqn (7) in eqn (5), we have
2
2 4
2
0 ... (8)
h
on substituting, in eqn (8), We get
mv
2
2 4
2
0
h
2 2
m v
2 2 2
2 4 m v
2
0 ... (9)
h
6.40 Engineering Physics
If E is total energy of the particle, V is potential energy
1 2
and mvp is kinetic energy, then
2
Total energy = Potential energy Kinetic energy
1 2
E V mv
2
1 2
or EV mv
2
2
2 E V mv
2
mv 2 E V
Multiplying by m on both sides, we have
2 2
m v 2m E V ... (10)
Substituting eqn (10) in eqn (9), we get
2
2 4
2 2mE V 0
h
2
2 8 m ... (11)
2
E V 0
h
The eqn (11) is known as Schroedinger time
independent wave equation, for three dimensions.
h
Let us now introduce h in eqn (11),
2
2 2
2 h h ... (12)
h 2 2 2
2 4
is a reduced Planck’s constant
where h
Quantum Physics 6.41
,
The eqn (11) is modified by substituting h
2 m
2
E V 0
h
2
8
2 m
2
E V 0
h
2 2
22
2 2m
2
E V 0 ... (13)
h
2
4
on substituting eqn (12) in eqn (13), Schroedinger
time-independent wave equation is written as
2 2m (or) ... (14)
E V 0
h2
h2 2 ... (15)
V E
2m
Note: In eqn (14), there is no term representing time. That
is why it is called as time independent equation.
Special case
If we consider one-dimensional motion ie., particle moving
along only X - direction, then Schroedinger time independent
equation (14) reduces to
2
d 2m ... (16)
2
E V 0
dx h2
6.42 Engineering Physics
6.12 SCHROEDINGER TIME DEPENDENT
WAVE EQUATION
Schroedinger time dependent wave equation is derived from
Schroedinger time independent wave equation.
The solution of classical differential equation of wave
motion is given by
it ... (1)
x, y, z, t 0 x, y, z e
Differentiating eqn (1) with respect to time t, we get
it ... (2)
i 0 e
t
it . .
i 2 0 e . 2
t
... (3)
2i
t
( ... o e i t
E . . E
2i . E h or h
t h
E E . . h
i i . h 2
t h h
2
E ... (4)
i
t h
Multiplying i on both sides in eqn (4), we have
E 2 E
i ii i
t h
h
E ..
i [ . i i i2 1]
t h
E
ih
... (5)
t
Quantum Physics 6.43
Schroedinger time independent wave equation is
h2 2
V E
2m
Substituting for E from eqn (5)
2 2
h
V ih
2m t
2 2
h
V ih
2m t ... (7)
or H E ... (8)
h 2 2
where H V is Hamiltonian operator
2m
is energy operator.
E ih
t
The eqn (7) is known as Schroedinger time dependent
wave equation.
Note: In eqn (7), there is term representing time. That is
t
why it is called time dependent wave equation.
6.13 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WAVE FUNCTION
1. The variable quantity which describes de-Broglie wave
is called wave function .
2. It connects the particle nature and its associated wave
nature statistically.
3. The wave function associated with a moving particle
at a particular instant of time and at a particular point
in space is related to the probability of finding the
particle at that instant and at that point.
6.44 Engineering Physics
4. The probability 0 corresponds to the certainty of not
finding the particle and probability 1 corresponds to
certainty of finding the particle.
i.e., d 1, if particle is present.
0, if particle is not present.
where complex conjugate of
5. The probability of finding a particle at a particular
region must be real and positive, but the wave function
is in general a complex quantity.
Application of Schrodinger Equation
6.14 PARTICLE IN A ONE-DIMENSIONAL RIGID BOX
Consider a particle of mass m moving between two rigid
walls of a box at x 0 and x a along x-axis.
This particle is bouning back and forth between the walls
of the box. The potential energy (V) of the particle inside the
box is constant. It is taken as zero for simplicity (fig. 6.13).
Fig. 6.13 Particle in a one-dimensional rigid box
Quantum Physics 6.45
The walls are infinitely high. The potential energy V of
the particle is infinite outside the walls.
Thus, the potential function is given by
Vx 0 for 0 x a
Vx for 0 x a
This potential function is known as square well
potential. (fig. 6.13)
The particle can not come out of the box. Also, it can not
exist on the walls of the box. So, its wave function is 0 for
x 0 and x a. Now, task is to find the value within
the box i.e., between x 0 and x a.
Schroedinger’s wave equation in one-dimension is given by
2
d 2m
E V 0 ... (1)
dx
2 2
h
Since V 0 between the walls, the eqn (1) reduces to
2
d 2mE ... (2)
2
0
dx 2
h
2mE 2
Substituting k in eqn (2), we get
h
2
2
d 2 ... (3)
2
k 0
dx
The general solution of eqn (3) is given by
x A sin kx B cos kx ... (4)
Here, A and B are two unknown constants.
The values of the constants A and B are determined by
applying the boundary conditions.
6.46 Engineering Physics
Boundary condition (i)
0 at x 0
Applying this condition to eqn (4), we have
. . sin 0 0
.
0 A sin 0 B cos 0
cos 0 1
0 0B1
Hence, B 0
Boundary condition (ii)
0 at x a
Applying this condition to eqn (4), we have
0 A sin ka 0 [ ... B 0 ]
A sin ka 0
It is found that either A 0 or sin ka 0
A can not be ‘0’ since already one of the constants B is ‘0’.
If A is also 0, then the wave function is zero even in between
walls of the box. Hence, A should not be zero.
sin ka 0
sin ka is ‘0’ only when ka takes the value of n
ie., ka n
where n is positive integer 1, 2, 3 ...
n ... (5)
k
a
On squaring eqn (5), we have
2 2 ... (6)
2 n
k 2
a
Quantum Physics 6.47
2 2mE 2mE . . h
We know that k . h 2
h
2
h
2
2
4
2
2 2m 4 E
k 2
h
2 ... (7)
2 8 mE
k 2
h
Equating eqn (6) and eqn (7), we have
2 2 2
n 8 mE
2
2
a h
Energy of the particle
2 2 ... (8)
n h
En 2
8ma
substituting eqn (5) in eqn (4), we have
n x ... (9)
n x A sin
a
Here n 1, 2, 3
For each value of n, there is an energy level.
The particle in a box cannot possess any arbitrary
amount of energy. It can only have discrete energy values
specified by eqn (8).
In otherwords, its energy is quantised.
Each value of En is known as eigen value and the
corresponding n is called as eigen function.
Normalisation of wave function
The constant A is determined by normalisation of wave
function as follows.
Probability density is given by
6.48 Engineering Physics
nx
We know that n x A sin
a
nx nx
A sin A sin
a a
. .
[ . when the wave function is real (not complex)]
2 2 nx ... (10)
A sin
a
It is certain that the particle is some where inside the
box. Thus, the probability of finding the particle inside the box
of length a is given by
a
... (11)
dx 1
0
Substituting from eqn (10) in eqn (11), we have
a
2 2 nx
A sin
a
dx 1
0
a 2n x
1 cos a
2
A
2
. .
2
dx 1 . sin
1 cos2
2
0
a a
A
2
2nx
dx cos dx 1
2 a
0 0
2nx a
sin a
2 a
A
x 1
2 0 2n
a
0
Quantum Physics 6.49
The second term of the integral becomes zero at both limits
2
A a
x0 1
2
2
A a 2 2
Thus, 1 or A
2 a
... (12)
A
2
a
On substituting eqn (12) in eqn (9), we have
The eigen function n belongs to eigen energy values
En and it is expressed as
2 nx
n sin ... (13)
a a
This expression (13) is known as normalised eigen
function. The energy En and normalised wave functions n are
shown in fig. 6.14.
Fig. 6.14 Energy levels and wave functions
6.50 Engineering Physics
Special cases
From eqns (8) and (13), the following cases can be taken
and they explain the motion of electron in one dimensional box.
Case (i) : For n 1
2
h
E1 2
8ma
2 x
1 x sin
a a
Hence, 1 x is maximum at exactly middle of the box as
shown in fig. 6.12.
Case (ii) : For n 2
2
4h
E2 2 4E1
8ma
2 2x
2 x sin
a a
Hence, 2 x is maximum at quarter distance from either
sides of the box as shown in 6.12.
Case (iii): For n 3
2
9h
E3 2
9E1
8ma
2 3x
3x sin
a a
Hence, 3 x is maximum at exactly middle and one-sixth
distance from either sides of the box as shown in fig. 6.12.
Quantum Physics 6.51
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEM
Problem 6.3
Find the energy of an electron moving in one - dimension
in an infinitely high potential box of width 0.1 nm.
[A.U. Jan 2013]
Given data
9
a 0.1 nm 0.1 10 m
Solution
We know that energy of an electron
2 2
n h
En 2
8ma
where n 1, 2, 3,
The lowest energy of the particle is obtained for n 1.
2 2 2
1 h h
E 2
2
8ma 8ma
Substituting the given values, we have
34 2
6.625 10
E 31 9 2
8 9.11 10 0.1 10
18
E 6.022 10 J
18
6.022 10
E 19
1.6 10
E 37.69 eV
6.52 Engineering Physics
Terminology related to microscope
(a) Microscope
A microscope is an instrument which is used to view the
magnified image of a smaller object which cannot be clearly seen
with a naked eye.
(b) Optical microscope
It is a microscope which uses light radiation to illuminate
the object.
(c) Resolving power
It is the ability of the microscope to show two closer
objects as separated ones.
The resolving power is inversely proportional to wavelength
of light used. In an electron microscope, beam of electrons are
used to illuminate the speciman.
The wave length associated with these electrons is about
0.1 Å or less. Hence, its resolving power is very high. The
minimum distance that can be resolved in the electron
microscope is about 10 Å.
(d) Magnification Power
It is the ability of the microscope to show the image of
an object in an enlarged manner.
size of the image
Magnification power
size of the object
D
F f
In an optical microscope,
F Focal length of objective lens in mm
f Focal length of eye piece in mm
Quantum Physics 6.53
Length of microscope (16 cm)
D Least distance of distinct vision (25 cm)
Thus, the magnification is about 1000 X (one thousand
times).
In the case of electron microscope, is very large ( > 1 m )
F and f can be reduced to less than a millimetre. So, the
5
magnification power of electron microscope is about 10 X.
(e) Depth of focus
It is defined as the ability of the objective of
microscope to produce a sharp focussed image when the
surface of the object is not truly plane.
The deviation from plane surface occurs when the specimen
is severely etched or when certain constituents of the structure
are depressed or elevated from the etched surface.
Electron Microscope
Definition
It is a microscope which uses electron beam to
illuminate a specimen and it produces an enlarged image
of the specimen.
It has very high magnification power and resolving power
when compared to optical microscope.
Principle
Like an optical microscope, its purpose is to magnify
extremely minute objects. The resolving power of microscope is
inversely proportional to the wavelength of the radiation used
for illuminating the object under study.
Higher magnification as well as resolving power can be
obtained by utilizing waves of shorter wavelength .
Electron microscope uses electron waves whose wavelength
is given by the formula 12.25/ V .
6.54 Engineering Physics
For V 10,000 V, 0.1225 Å which is extremely short.
Electron microscopes giving magnification more than 2,00,000 X
are common in medical research laboratories.
Types of Electron Microscopes
There are four types of electron microscopes. They are
1. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
2. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
3. Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM)
4. Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM).
6.15 TUNNELING (QUALILATIVE)
According to classical ideas, a particle striking a hard wall
has no chance of leaking through it. But, the behaviour of a
quantum particle is different due to the wave nature associated
with it.
We know that when an electromagnetic wave strikes at
the interface of two media, it is partly reflected and partly
transmitted through the interface and enters the second medium.
In a similar way the de Broglie wave also has a possibility
of getting partly reflected from the boundary of the potential
well and partly penetrating through the barrier.
Fig. 6.15 shows a potential barrier of height V and
thickness a. A potential barrier is the opposite of a potential
well; it is a potential-energy function with a maximum. The
potential energy is zero for x 0 and x a has a value V for
0 x a.
An electron of total energy E approaches the barrier from
the left. From the view-point of classical physics, the electron would
be reflected from the barrier because its energy E is less than V.
For the particle to overcome the potential barrier, it must
have an energy equal to or greater than V.
Quantum Physics 6.55
Quantum mechanics leads to an entirely new result. It
shows that there is a finite chance for the electron to leak to
the other side of the barrier. We can say that the electron
tunneled through the potential barrier and hence in quantum
mechanics, the phenomenon is called tunneling.
Fig. 6.15
Note
The region around the barrier can be divided into three
regions as shown in fig. 6.15. We write down the Schrodinger
wave equation for the electron wave in the three regions and
solve them. The Schrodinger wave equation for regions (I) and
(III) has the form.
2 2
d 8 mE ...(1)
2
2
0
dx h
2 2
d 8 m ...(2)
and 2
2
E V 0
dx h
For region (II).
The solution of equation (1) is found to be sinusoidal. The
solution of equation (2) is found to be exponential. The form of
the wave function in the region (I), (II) and (III) is also shown
in the fig. 6.15.
Application
Tunneling is significant in many area of physics. The
tunnel diode is a semiconductor diode in which electrons
tunnel through a potential barrier.
6.56 Engineering Physics
The current can be switched on and off very quickly by
varying the height of the barrier, which is done with an
applied voltage.
The scanning tunneling electron microscope uses electron
tunneling to produce images of surfaces down to the scale
of individual atoms.
6.16 SCANNING TUNNELLING MICROSCOPE (STM)
In 1981, Gerd Binning and Heinrich Rohrer developed the
scanning tunneling microscope (STM), a significantly superior
tool for observing surfaces atom by atom.
STM is the highest resolution imaging and nano fabrication
technique available. It depends on quantum tunneling of
electrons from a sharp metal tip to a conducting surface.
Principle
STM has a metal needle that scans a sample by moving back
and forth and gathering information about the curvature of the
surface. It follows the smallest changes in the contours of a sample.
The needle doesn’t touch the sample, however, but stays
about the width of two atoms above it.
Instrumentation
A schematic of STM is shown in figure 6.16.
Fig. 6.16 A schematic of STM
Quantum Physics 6.57
It has the following components.
Piezoelectric tube with the tip and electrodes. Capable
of moving in X, Y, Z direction.
Fine needle tip for scanning the sample surface. A
macroscale image of an etched tungsten STM tip is
shown in figure. 6.17.
Fig. 6.17 Tungsten tip of STM
Tip is affixed to the piezoelectric tube inorder to control
it position and movement on an atomic scale. Piezoelectric
materials exhibit an elongation or contraction along their
length when an electric field is applied.
The figure 6.18 shows a tube of PZT, coated with metal
both inside and outside.
Fig. 6.18 A piezoelectric tube used in STM tip
6.58 Engineering Physics
Applying voltages to the appropriate regions on the tube
causes the PZT to deform and move the tip. The X and Y piezos
control the back and forth motion of the tip, while the Z piezo
allow the tip to approach the surface.
Working
The tip is mechanically connected to the scanner, an
XYZ positioning device. The sharp metal needle is brought close
to the surface to be imaged. The distance is of the order of a
few angstroms.
A bias voltage is applied between the sample and the tip.
When the needle is at a positive potential with respect to the
surface, electrons can tunnel through the gap and set up a small
“tunneling current” in the needle. This feeble tunneling
current is amplified and measured.
With the help of the tunneling current, the feedback
electronics keeps the distance between tip and sample constant.
The sensitivity of the STM is so large that electronic corrugation
of surface atoms and the electron distribution around them can
be detected.
Applications of STM
1. The STM shows the positions of atoms - or more
precisely, the positions of some of the electrons.
2. Uses of STM to study metals and semiconductors
surface can provide non-trivial real space information
especially in studying semiconductor such as Si (100)
surface.
3. One innovative applications of STM recently found is
manipulation of atoms. For example, Iron atoms are
placed on Cu surface and dragged by the STM tip and
moves across the surface to a desired position. Then,
the tip was withdrawn by lowering the tunneling
current.
4. To analyze the electronic structures of the active sites
at catalyst surfaces.
Quantum Physics 6.59
STM is used in the study of structure, growth, morphology,
electronic structure of surface, thin films and nano structures.
Disadvantages of STM
A small vibration, even a sound, could smash the tip
and the sample together.
A single dust particle, for example, could damage the
needle.
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 6.4
Find the change in wavelength of an X-ray photon when
it is scattered through an angle of 90 by a free electron.
( A.U. Jan 2012 )
Given data
Angle of scattering 90
34
h 6.625 10 Js
31
mo 9.11 10 kg
8 1
c 3 10 ms
Solution
h
We know that 1 cos
mo c
Substituting the given values, we have
34
6.625 10 1 cos 90
31 8
9.11 10 3 10
34
6.625 10 1 0
31 8
9.11 10 3 10
12
2.42 10 m
6.60 Engineering Physics
Problem 6.5
In a Compton scattering experiment, the incident
10
photons have a wavelength of 3 10 m. Calculate the
wavelength of scattered photons if they are viewed at
an angle of 60 to the direction of incidence.
[A.U April 2010]
Given data
10
Wavelength of incident X - rays 3 10 m,
Angle of scattering 60
34
h 6.625 10 Js
31
mo 9.1 10
8 1
c 3 10 ms
Solution:
We know that
h
1 cos
mo c
h
or 1 cos
mo c
Substituting the given values, we have
34
10 6.625 10
3 10 31 8
1 cos 60
9.1 10 3 10
34
10 6.625 10
3 10 22
1 0.5
2.730 10
10 12
3 10 2.427 10 0.5
Quantum Physics 6.61
10 12
3 10 1.2132 10
10
3.012 10 m
3.012 Å
Problem 6.6
X-rays of 1.0 Å are scattered from a carbon block. Find
the wavelength of the scattered beam in a direction
making 90 with the incident beam. How much kinetic
energy is imparted to the recoiling electron?
[A.U May 2011]
Given data
10
Wavelength of incident X - rays 1 Å 1 10 m
Angle of scattering 90
34
h 6.625 10 Js.
8 1
c 3.0 10 ms
19
1 eV 1.6 10 joule.
Solution
The change in wavelength is given by
h
1 cos
mo c
34
6.625 10
31 8
1 cos 90
9.11 10 3 10
11
0.242 1 0 10
6.62 Engineering Physics
10
0.0242 10 0.0242 Å
Now 1.0 0.0242 1.0242 Å
10
1.0242 10 m
hc
Energy of incident X-ray photon
hc
Energy of scattered X-ray photon
Energy imparted to the recoiling electron
hc hc
1 1
hc
hc hc
34 8 10
6.625 10 3 10 0.0242 10
10 10
1.0 10 1.024 10
17
4.66 10 joule
17
4.66 10
19
291 eV
1.6 10
Problem 6.7
- 27
A neutron of mass 1.675 10 kg is moving with a
kinetic energy 10 keV. Calculate the De-Broglie
wavelength associated with it. [A.U Jan 2011]
Given data
27
Mass of the neutron 1.675 10 kg
Quantum Physics 6.63
3
Kinetic energy 10 keV 10 10 eV
3 19
10 10 1.6 10 J
34
Planck’s constant h 6.625 10 Js
Solution:
h
We know that
2mE
Substituting the given values, we have
34
6.625 10
10 10 1.6 10
27 3 19
2 1.675 10
34
6.625 10
5.36 10
42
13
2.862 10 m
Problem 6.8
An electron at rest is accelerated through a potential of
5000 V. Calculate de - Broglie wavelength of matter wave
associated with it. [A.U. Jan 2012]
Given data
Accelerating potential V 5000 V
Solution
h
We know that
2meV
12.26 10
10 m
V
6.64 Engineering Physics
Substituting the given values, we have
10
12.26 10
5000
10
12.26 10
70.71
10
0.173 10 m
0.173 Å
Problem 6.9
Calculate de - Broglie wavelength associated with a
proton moving with a velocity equal to one-thirtieth of
the velocity of light. (A.U. Dec. 2012)
Given data
1
Velocity of the proton v velocity of light
30
1 8 1
3 10 ms
30
7 1
1 10 ms
27
Mass of the proton m 1.67 10 kg
34
Planck’s constant h 6.625 10 Js
Solution
We kno w that de - Bro glie w avelength
h
mv
Quantum Physics 6.65
Substituting the given values, we have
34
6.625 10
27 7
1.67 10 1 10
14
3.97 10 m
Problem 6.10
If the momentum of two particles are in the ratio
1 : 0.25, compare their de - Broglie wave lengths.
(A.U. Jan 2011)
de - Broglie wavelengths associated with two particles of
momentum in the ratio 1 : 0.25 are 1 and 2
h h
mv p
h h
1 , 2
p1 p2
1 : 2
h h
:
p1 p2
1 1
:
1 0.25
1 : 4
de - Broglie wavelengths are in the ratio
1 : 4
6.66 Engineering Physics
Problem 6.11
Calculate the de - Broglie’s wave length of an electron
6
having a velocity of 10 m/sec. (A.U. Dec. 2012)
Given data
6 1
Velocity of the electron v 10 ms
31
Mass of the electron m 9.1 10 kg
34
Planck’s constant h 6.625 10 Js
Solution
h
We know that de - Broglie’s wavelength
mv
Substituting the given values, we have
34
6.625 10
31 6
9.1 10 10
10
7.28 10 m
7.28 Å
Problem 6.12
Calculate the de - Broglie’s wavelength associated
with an electron which travels with a velocity
–1
500 km s . (A.U. Jan. 2003)
Given data
Velocity of the electron
3 1
v 500 km / sec 500 10 m s
34
Planck’s constant h 6.625 10 Js
31
Mass of the electron m 9.1 10 kg
Quantum Physics 6.67
Solution
We know that de-Broglie’s wavelength associated with
electrons
h
mv
Substituting the given values, we have
34
6.625 10
31 3
9.1 10 500 10
6
0.00145 10
10
14.5 10 m
14.5 Å
Problem 6.13
Calculate the minimum energy an electron can possess
in an infinitely deep potential well of width 4nm.
[A.U. Jan 2013]
Given data
9
Width of potential well a 4 nm 4 10 m
For minimum energy, n 1
31
Mass of the electron m 9.1 10 kg
34
Planck’s constant h 6.625 10 Js
Solution:
2 2
n h
We know that En 2
8ma
6.68 Engineering Physics
Substituting the given values, we have
2 34 2
1 6.625 10
E1 31 9 2
8 9.11 10 4 10
21
E1 3.764 10 J
21 . .
3.764 10 [ . 1 eV 1.6 10 19 J]
E1 19
eV
1.6 10
E1 0.024 eV
Problem 6.14
An electron is trapped in a one-dimensional box of
length 0.1 nm. Calculate the energy required to excite
the electron from its ground state to the fifth excited
state. [A.U. April 2013]
Given data
Length of the one dimensional box
9
a 0.1 nm 0.1 10 m
For ground state n 1
th
For 5 excited state, n 6
Solution
2 2
n h
We know that En 2
8ma
2 34 2
1 6.625 10
E1 31 9 2
8 9.11 10 0.1 10
18
E1 6.022 10 J
Quantum Physics 6.69
th
For 5 excited state, n 6
2 34 2
6 6.625 10
E6 31 9 2
8 9.11 10 0.1 10
16
E6 2.168 10 J
The energy required to excite the electron from its ground
state to the fifth excited state is E E6 E1
16 18
E 2.168 10 6.022 10
16 16 16
2.168 10 0.06022 10 2.108 10 J
16
2.108 10 . . 19
19
eV [ . 1 eV 1.6 10 J]
1.6 10
E 1317 eV
ANNA UNIVERSITY PART - A
‘2’ MARKS Q&A
1. State Planck’s hypothesis. (A.U. Dec 2008)
The atomic oscillators can absorb or emit energy in
multiples of a small unit called quantum. The quantum of
radiation is called photon. The energy of the photon is
proportional to the frequency of radiation
i.e., h
where h is a constant known as Planck’s constant.
2. State Plank’s law of radiation. (A.U. Jan 2009)
The energy density of heat radiation emitted from a black
body at temperature T in the wavelength range and d
is given by
6.70 Engineering Physics
8hc
E 5 h/kT
e 1
h – Planck’s constant
c – Speed of light
– Frequency of radiation
k – Boltzmann’s constant.
T – Temperature of the black body
3. State compton effect. (A.U. Jan 2011)
When a beam of X - rays is scattered by a substance of
low atomic number, the scattered radiation consists of two
components. One has the same wavelength as the incident
ray and the other has a slightly longer wavelength .
This phenomenon of change in wavelength of scattered X - rays
is known as compton effect.
4. What is Compton wavelength? (A.U. Jan 2008)
The change in wavelength corresponding to scattering angle
of 90 obtained in Compton effect is called Compton wavelength.
h
Mathematically, 1 cos
mo c
31
mo - rest mass of electron 9.11 10 kg
h
When 90, 1 cos 90
mo c
h
1 0
mo c
h
0.0243 Å
mo c
This is known as Compton wavelength of electron.
Quantum Physics 6.71
5. What are matter waves? (A.U. Dec. 2012)
The waves associated with moving particles of matter (e.g.,
electrons, photons, etc) are known as matter waves or de-Broglie
waves.
6. How De-Broglie justified his concept? (A.U. May 2012)
Our universe is fully composed of light and matter.
Nature loves symmetry. If radiation like light can act like
wave and particle, then material particles (e.g., electron,
neutron etc.) should also act as particle and wave.
Every moving particle has always associated with a wave.
7. Write an expression for the wavelength of matter
waves ? (or) What is de - Broglie’s wave equation?
(A.U. Jan 2010)
Wavelength for matter waves is
h h
mv p
where h planck’s constant
m mass of the particle
v velocity of the particle with
which the wave is associated.
p momentum of the particle.
8. Write an expression for the de - Broglie wavelength
associated with electrons. (A.U. Dec. 2011)
De-Broglie wave length associated with electrons accelerated
by the potential V.
h
2 mo e V
where h planck’s constant
e charge of the electron
m mass of the electron
V accelerating voltage
6.72 Engineering Physics
9. State the properties of the matter waves.
(A.U. Jan 2012)
(i) Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength
associated with it.
(ii) Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is
wavelength associated with it.
(iii) These waves are not electromagnetic waves.
(iv) The velocity of deBroglie wave is equal to the velocity
of the material particle.
10. Write down Schroedinger time independent and
dependent wave equations. (A.U. Jan 2011)
Schroedinger time independent wave equation is
2 2m
E V 0
h2
Schroedinger time dependent wave equation
h2 2
V ih
2m t
2 2 2
2
where 2
2
2 is Laplacian operator.
x y z
Wave function
m Mass of the particle.
E Total energy of the particle.
V Potential energy.
h
and h
2
11. Mention some of the physical significances of the
wave function. (A.U. Jan. 2010, May 2011, Jan 2013)
(i) The wave function relates the particle and wave
nature of matter statistically.
Quantum Physics 6.73
(ii) It is a complex quantity and hence we cannot measure
it.
(iii) If the particle is certainly to be found somewhere in
a space of dimensions dx, dy, dz, then the probability
value is equal to one.
||
2
i.e., P dx dy dz 1
V
12. What are eigen values and eigen function?
(A.U. Jan. 2013)
Energy of a particle moving in one dimensional box of
width a is given by
2 2
nh
En 2
8ma
For each value of n, there is an energy level. Each value
of En is called an eigen value.
For every quantum state (i.e., for different ‘n’ values), there
is a corresponding wave function n. This corresponding wave
function is called eigen function.
Eigen function associated with an electron in a one
dimensional box is given by
2 nx
n sin .
a a
13. What is an electron microscope? (A.U. Dec. 2012)
It is a microscope in which the object is illuminated by
highly accelerated fast-moving electron beam.
It has very high magnification of about 100,000 X and
very high resolving power.
It works on the principle of electron diffration.
6.74 Engineering Physics
14. What is the basic principle in electron microscope?
(A.U. Nov. 2011)
The given object is illuminated by highly accelerated
fast-moving electrons. The focussing of electron beam is done by
magnetic fields (magnetic lenses).
The wavelength associated with electron permits the
detailed examination of tiny objects due to reduction of
diffraction effects.
15. What are types of electron microscope? (A.U. Dec 2012)
(a) Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
(b) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
(c) Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM)
(d) Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)
ADDITIONAL Q&A
1. State Wien’s displacement law.
It states that in the energy spectrum of a black body, the
product of the wavelength corresponding to maximum energy
m and absolute temperature T is a constant.
i.e., m T constant.
2. State Rayliegh - Jean’s law.
It states that the energy distribution in the block body
spectrum is given by
8 kT
E 4
where, k – Boltzmann constant.
T – temperature
– wavelength
Quantum Physics 6.75
3. Give the importance of Planck’s radiation formula.
It explains all regions of black body spectrum.
It is based on quantum theory.
It is used to derive other laws related to black body
radiation.
4. What is Schroedinger wave equation?
The equation that describes the wave nature of a particle
in mathematical form is known as Schroedinger wave equation.
5. What is a wave function?
A variable quantity which characterises de - Broglie wave
is known as wave function and it is denoted by the symbol .
6. Define tunneling effect.
Quantum mechanics leads to an entirely new result. It
shows that there is a finite chance for the electron to leak to
the other side of the barrier. We can say that the electron
tunneled through the potential barrier and hence in quantum
mechanics, the phenomenon is called tunneling.
7. What are the application of tunneling effect?
Tunneling is significant in many area of physics. The
tunnel diode is a semiconductor diode in which electrons
tunnel through a potential barrier. The current can be
switched on and off very quickly by varying the height of
the barrier, which is done with an applied voltage.
The scanning tunneling electron microscope uses electron
tunneling to produce images of surfaces down to the scale
of individual atoms.
8. What is scanning tunneling microscope?
In 1981, Gerd Binning and Heinrich Rohrer developed the
scanning tunneling microscope (STM), a significantly superior
tool for observing surfaces atom by atom.
6.76 Engineering Physics
STM is the highest resolution imaging and nano fabrication
technique available. It relies on quantum tunneling of electrons
from a sharp metal tip to a conducting surface.
9. What is the principle of scanning tunnelling
microscope?
STM has a metal needle that scans a sample by moving
back and forth over it, gathering information about the curvature
of the surface and follow the smallest changes in the contours
of a sample. The needle doesn’t touch the sample, however, but
stays about the width of two atoms above it.
10. What are the applications of STM?
The STM shows the positions of atoms - or more
precisely, the positions of some of the electrons.
Uses of STM to study metals and semiconductors surface
can provide non-trivial real space information
especially in studying semiconductor such as Si (100)
surface.
One innovative applications of STM recently found is
manipulation of atoms. For example, Iron atoms are
placed on Cu surface and dragged by the STM tip and
moves across the surface to a desired position. Then, the
tip was withdrawn by lowering the tunneling current.
To analyze the electronic structures of the active sites
at catalyst surfaces.
11. What are the disadvantages of STM?
A small vibration, even a sound, could smash the tip
and the sample together.
A single dust particle, for example, could damage the
needle.
Quantum Physics 6.77
Anna University Part - B (16 Marks) Questions
1. (a) Explain Planck’s quantum hypothesis.
(b) Derive Planck’s radiation law. [A.U. May 2013]
2. Derive Planck’s law for black body radiation and hence
deduce Wien’s law and Rayleigh Jean’s law. [A.U. May 2008]
3. (i) Define Compton effect.
(ii) Derive an expression for the wavelength of the scattered
photon (compton shift). [A.U. May 2007]
4. (i) What is Compton effect?
(ii) Give the theory of Compton effect and show that the
h
Compton shift 1 cos
mo c [A.U. May 2009, Jan. 2010]
5. Explain Compton effect and derive an expression for the
wavelength of scattered photon. Also briefly explain its
experimental verification. [A.U. Jan 2010, Jan. 2011]
6. Arrive at the Schrondinger wave equation and apply the
same for a particle in a rectangular box to obtain the energy
eigen values and the corresponding eigen functions.
[A.U. Dec. 2011, April 2012, Jan. 2012, Jan. 2013]
7. Derive the time independent Schroedinger equation for a
one-dimensional case. Use it to prove that a particle enclosed
in a one-dimensional box has quantised energy values.
[A.U. Jan 2012]
8. Solve Schroedinger wave equation of a particle in box (one
dimensional) and obtain the energy eigen values.
[A.U. May 2010, Jan. 2011, Jan. 2012]
9. Derive an expression for energy levels of a particle enclosed
in one-dimensional potential box of width ‘a’ and infinite
height. [A.U. Jan 2009]
10. Explain the principle and working of scanning tunelling
electron microscope and list out its limitations.
[A.U. Jan. 2011]
6.78 Engineering Physics
11. Using Quantum theory derive an expression for the average
energy emitted by a black body and arrive at Planck’s
radiation law in terms of frequency. State the assumptions
before starting the derivations. [A.U. Jan. 2012]
ADDITIONAL PART B
‘16’ MARKS’ QUESTIONS
1. With the concepts of quantum theory of black body radiation
derive an expression for energy distribution and use it to
prove Wien’s law and Rayleigh - Jeans law.
2. Obtain the eigen valves and eigen functions for an electron
enclosed in a one dimensional potential box.
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. In Compton scattering, the incident photons have a wavelength
0.5 nm. Calculate the wavelength of scattered radiation if they
are viewed at angle of 45 to the direction of incidence.
[Ans: 0.5007 nm]
2. X-rays of 1.0 Å are scattered from a carbon block. Find the
wavelength of the scattered beam in a direction making
60 with the incident beam. How much kinetic energy is
imparted to the recoiling electron?
[Ans: 1.0121 Å K.E. 149 eV]
3. Find the change in the wavelength of an X-ray photon when
it is scattered through an angle of 180. [Ans: 0.0484 Å]
4. Monochromatic X-rays of wavelength 0.7078 Å are scattered
by carbon at an angle of 90 with the direction of incident
beam. What is the wavelength of scattered X-rays?
[ Ans: 0.7320 Å ]
5. Estimate the potential difference through which a proton is
needed to be accelerated so that its de Broglie wavelength
becomes equal to 1 Å.
27
(Given mass of proton 1.673 10 kg.) [ V = 0.082 V ]
Quantum Physics 6.79
6. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with an
electron carrying an energy 2000 eV. [ 2.74 10 11 m ]
7. Prove that the de Broglie wavelength of an electron
accelerated through a potential difference of V volts is
V
150
Å.
8. Calculate the minimum energy an electron can possess in
an infinitely deep potential well of width 4 nm.
[Ans: E 0.0236 eV]
9. Calculate the zero point energy for an electron in a one
dimensional box of width 10 Å. [ Ans: 0.376 eV ]
UNIT - V
a) Simple cubic b) Face centered cubic c) Body centered cubic
Three dimensional view showing the number of atoms per unit cell
Closed Packed Hexagonal Lattice Structure
Seed
Single Silicon Crystal
Quartz Crucible
Water Cooled Chamber
Heat Shield
Carbon Heater
Graphite Crucible
Crucible Support
Spill Tray
Electrode
MELT GROWTH TECHNIQUE
CRYSTAL PHYSICS
UNIT - V
Closed Packed Hexagonal Lattice Structure
a) Simple cubic b) Face centered cubic c) Body centered
cubic
Three dimensional view showing the number of atoms per unit cell
Seed
Single Silicon Crystal
Quartz Crucible
Water Cooled Chamber
Heat Shield
Carbon Heater
Graphite Crucible
Crucible Support
Spill Tray
Electrode
MELT GROWTH TECHNIQUE
CRYSTAL PHYSICS
7. Crystal Physics
Single crystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous
materials – Single crystals unit cell, crystal systems,
Bravais lattices, directions and planes in a crystal, Miller
indices – interplaner distances – coordination number
and packing factor for SC, BCC, FCC, HCP and diamond
structures – crystal imperfections point defects, line
defects – Burger vectors, stacking faults – role of
imperfection in plastic deformation – growth of single
crystals solution and melt growth techniques.
Introduction
Materials differ from one another in their properties. Some
solids are brittle, some are ductile, some are malleable, some
are strong, some are weak, some are good conductors of heat
and electricity, some are bad-conductors of heat and electricity,
some are magnetic, some are non-magnetic and so on.
The differences in the properties of the various solids are
due to their structures. The behaviour of a solid material is
related to its crystal structure.
Classification of Solids
From the crystal structure point of view, the solid materials
are broadly classified as
(i) Crystalline materials and
(ii) Non - Crystalline or Amorphous materials
7.2 Engineering Physics
(i) Crystalline materials
The materials in which the atoms are arranged in a
systematic pattern (regular pattern) are known as
crystalline materials.
In these materials, the arrangement of atoms is in a
periodically repeating pattern.
7.1 SINGLE AND POLY CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS
The crystalline material is either a single crystal or
poly - crystal. In single crystal, the entire material consists of
only one crystal. (Fig. 7.1 (a))
In poly - crystal material, a collection of many small
crystals is separated by well-defined boundaries. (Fig. 7.1 (b))
The atomic arrangements of single crystal and poly - crystal
are shown in fig 7.1 (a) and (b).
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.1 Atomic arrangement
(a) single crystal (b) poly - crystal
The crystalline materials are made up of either metallic
crystals or non-metallic crystals.
Example
Metallic crystals
Iron, copper, silver, aluminium, tungsten, etc.
Crystal Physics 7.3
Non - metallic crystals
Crystalline carbon, germanium, silicon, crystallized
polymers, etc.
7.2 NON-CRYSTALLINE OR AMORPHOUS MATERIALS
Amorphous means without form.
The materials in which atoms are arranged in an
irregular (random) fashion are known as non-crystalline
or amorphous materials.
Example
Glass, rubber and plastics.
The arrangement of atoms in non - crystalline materials in
two dimensions is shown in fig. 7.2.
Fig. 7.2 Non - crystalline or Amorphous material
Crystallographic terms
Let us understand some of the important crystallographic
terms.
Crystal
A crystal is a three-dimensional solid which consists
of a periodic arrangement of atoms.
7.4 Engineering Physics
Crystal structure
The arrangement of atoms in a crystal is known as
crystal structure. It is the basis for understanding the
properties of materials.
Crystallography or Crystal physics
The branch of physics which deals with the internal
structure, properties, external or internal symmetries in a
crystal is known as crystallography or crystal physics.
Space Lattice
A crystal is an array of atoms in three dimensions. As a
matter of convenience, these atoms can be associated with a set
of imaginary points in space.
These points are arranged in such a way that every point
has an identical surrounding as any other point in three
dimensions and it is known as a space lattice or simply lattice.
Lattice is an imaginary geometrical concept. It is a large
assembly of points in which each point represents the position
and orientation of an atom in the crystal.
Note: In 2 dimensions, the arrangement of points is only
in 2D (X & Y)].
Definition
Space lattice is as an array of points in space to
represent atoms in a crystal in which the environment
about each point is the same i.e., every point has identical
surroundings as that of every other point in the array.
Explanation
The collection of points in two dimensions is shown in
fig. 7.3 (a) and (b)
It is found that in fig 7.3 (a) the environment (position of
neighbouring points) about any two points is same. Hence, it is
a 2D lattice.
Crystal Physics 7.5
The mathematical representation of a 2D lattice is
T l a m b where l and m are integers, a and b are the
translation vectors in X and Y directions.
For example T AB 2a 2b as shown in fig 7.3(a)
On the other hand, in fig. 7.3 (b) the environment about
any two points is not the same. So, it is not a proper lattice.
Fig. 7.3
(b) Two-dimensional
(a) Two-dimensional
collection of points but not a
lattice
space lattice
A similar argument is extended to three-dimensional space
lattice. For 3D, T l a m b n c such that a , b and c
are the translation vectors.
Lattice points
The points in a space lattice are called lattice points (Fig. 7.4).
Lattice lines
The lattice points are joined with lines as shown in fig.
7.4. These lines are known as lattice lines.
Lattice plane
A plane containing lattice points is known as lattice
plane. (fig. 7.4)
7.6 Engineering Physics
Fig. 7.4 Space lattice in three - dimension
Basis
Definition
The crystal structure is obtained by adding a unit
assembly of atoms to each lattice point. This unit
assembly is called basis.
Explanation
A basis may be a single atom or assembly of atoms which
is identical in composition, arrangement and orientation.
When the basis is repeated in a space lattice with correct
periodicity in all three directions, then it gives the actual crystal
structure.
Therefore, a space lattice combined with a basis gives a
crystal structure.
ie., Space lattice + Basis Crystal structure
Crystal Physics 7.7
The basis combined with lattice points is shown in fig 7.5
in which two atoms (represented by circles of smaller and large
radii) are added to one lattice point (represented by a black dot).
Fig. 7.5 Crystal structure is obtained
when a basis is added to each lattice point
For many metals, the number of atoms in basis is one
(Aluminium and Barium crystals), two or three or move.
For example in NaCl and KCl, each basis has two atoms
and in CaF2, basis has three atoms. But, for many complicated
structures, the basis exceeds more than 1000 atoms.
Note
A space lattice refers to the geometry of a set of points in
space whereas a crystal structure refers to the actual
arrangement of atoms in space.
7.3 SINGLE CRYSTALS UNIT CELL
Consider a two - dimensional space lattice as shown in
fig. 7.6.
It is found that when a parallelogram ABCD is repeated
by an integral multiple of vectors a and b c o rrespo nding to AB
and AD, the w ho le pattern (o r array) is o btained.
7.8 Engineering Physics
The region ABCD is known as unit cell. a and b are
basis vectors.
The choice of the unit cell is not unique. It can be
constructed in a number of ways like A BCD or A B CD
without affecting the symmetry of the crystal (fig. 7.6).
Fig. 7.6 Unit cell in two - dimension
Definition
The unit cell is defined as the smallest geometric
figure which is repeated in three dimensions to derive
the actual crystal structure.
The unit cell fully represents the characteristics of the
entire crystal.
The same principle is extended for a three-dimensional
case. A unit cell in three-dimensions is shown fig. 7.7.
It is also defined as the smallest volume of a solid
from which the entire crystal structure is constructed by
translational repetition in three-dimensions.
Crystal Physics 7.9
Fig. 7.7 Unit cell in three-dimensions
Lattice parameters of the unit cell
The unit cell is constructed if the distance between two
neighbouring lattice points along three directions and angles
between them are known.
The distance between two neighouring lattice points is the
edge of the unit cell. The lengths OA, OB, OC in three axes
OX, OY and OZ are the axial lengths or intercepts. (Fig. 7.8)
Fig. 7.8 Lattice parameters of the unit cell
7.10 Engineering Physics
In fig 7.8, the axial lengths OA a, OB b and OC c are
known as intercepts a, b and c along three axes.
Interfacial angles
The angles between three intercepts (, and ) are
called interfacial angles.
The three intercepts and three interfacial angles are
the lattice parameters of the unit cell. They determine
the actual size and shape of the unit cell:
a, b, c axial lengths, , , interfacial angles.
7.4 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
There are ‘7’ types of crystal systems. They are
1. Cubic
2. Tetragonal
3. Orthorhombic
4. Monoclinic
5. Triclinic
6. Rhombohedral
7. Hexagonal
1. Cubic system
In this crystal system, all the three axial lengths of the
unit cell are equal and they are perpendicular to each other
(fig. 7.9 [a]).
i.e., abc and
90
Crystal Physics 7.11
Fig. 7.9 (a) Cubic
Example: Iron, Copper, Sodium Chloride (NaCl),
Calcium Fluoride (CaF2).
2. Tetragonal system
In this system, two axial lengths of the unit cell are equal
and third axial length is either longer or shorter (fig. 7.9 [b]).
All the three axes are perpendicular to each other.
i.e., a b c and
90
Fig. 7.9 (b) Tetragonal
Example: White tin, Indium.
7.12 Engineering Physics
3. Orthorhombic system
In this system, three axial lengths of the unit cell are not
equal but they are perpendicular to each other. (fig. 7.9 [c]).
i.e., a b c and
90
Fig. 7.9 (c) Orthorhombic
Example: Sulphur, Topaz.
4. Monoclinic system
In this system, three axial lengths of unit cell are not
equal. Two axes are perpendicular to each other and third axis
is obliquely inclined (fig. 7.9 [d]).
i.e., a b c and
90 , 90
Example: Sodium sulphite Na2 SO3,
Ferrous sulphate FeSO4.
Crystal Physics 7.13
Fig. 7.9 (d) Monoclinic
5. Triclinic system
In this system, three axial lengths of unit cell are not equal
and all the three axes are inclined obliquely to each other (fig.
7.9 [e]).
i.e., a b c and
90
Fig. 7.9 (e) Triclinic
Example: Copper sulphate (CuSO4),
Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7
7.14 Engineering Physics
6. Rhombohedral system (Trigonal)
In this system, three axial lengths of the unit cell are
equal. They are equally inclined to each other at an angle other
than 90 (fig. 7.9 [f]).
i.e., a b c and
90
Fig. 7.9 (f) Rhombohedral
Example: Calcite.
7. Hexagonal system
In this system, two axial lengths of unit cell (say
horizontal) are equal and lying in one plane at angle 120 with
each other. (fig. 7.9 [g]).
Fig. 7.9 (g) Hexagonal
Crystal Physics 7.15
The third axial length (say vertical) is either longer or
shorter than other two and it is perpendicular to this plane.
i.e., abc and
90, 120
Example: Quartz, Tourmaline.
Table 7.1
Seven Crystal Systems
Axial Interfacial
S. Crystal
lengths angles Example
No. system
a, b, c , ,
Iron, Copper, CaF2
1. Cubic a b c 90
NaCl,
2. Ordinary white tin,
Tetragonal a b c 90
Indium
3. Orthorhombic a b c 90 Sulphur, Topaz
90, Na2SO4, FeSO4
4. Monoclinic a b c
90
5. Triclinic a b c 90 CuSO4, K2Cr2O7
6. Rhombohedral a b c 90 Calcite
90, Quartz, Tourmaline
7. Hexagonal a b c
120
7.5 BRAVAIS LATTICE
Bravais showed that there are only 14 possible ways
of arranging points in space such that the environment
looks same from each point.
Thus, there are only 14 types of space lattices which are
possibly developed from ‘7’ crystal systems.
These 14 types of space lattices are known as Bravais
lattices. The lattice can be primitive or non-primitive.
7.16 Engineering Physics
Primitive cell
A primitive cell is the simplest type of unit cell which
contains only one lattice point per unit cell (contains lattice
points only at the corners of unit cell).
Example: Simple Cubic (SC), Simple Tetragonal
Non - primitive cell
The unit cell which contains more than one lattice point
is called non - primitive cell.
Example: BCC, FCC and HCP contains more than one lattice
point per unit cell.
If the number of lattice points per unit cell is two (BCC),
three and four (FCC), then the unit cell is called doubly
primitive, triply primitive and quadruply primitive
respectively.
Table 7.2
Bravais lattices
S. Crystal Number of
No. system possible types
1. Cubic 3 Simple, Body - centred and
Face centred
2. Tetragonal 2 Simple and
Body - centred
3. Orthorhombic 4 Simple, Base - centred,
Body - centred and
Face - centred
4. Monoclinic 2 Simple and Base - centred
5. Triclinic 1 Simple
6. Rhombohedral 1 Simple
(Trigonal)
7. Hexagonal 1 Simple
Total 14
Crystal Physics 7.17
1. Cubic lattice
It has 3 possible types of arrangements of lattice points.
(i) Simple (or primitive) cubic lattice (SC)
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell as
shown in fig. 7.10 (a).
(ii) Body - centred cubic (bcc) lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and
one lattice point at the body centre as shown in fig. 7.10 (a).
(iii) Face - centred cubic (fcc) lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and
one lattice point at each face centre of 6 faces of the cube as
shown in fig. 7.10 (a).
Fig. 7.10 (a) Cubic lattice
2. Tetragonal lattice
It has two possible types of lattices.
(i) Simple tetragonal lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell as
shown in figure 7.10 (b).
7.18 Engineering Physics
(ii) Body - centred tetragonal lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and
one lattice point at the body centre as shown in fig. 7.10 (b).
Fig. 7.10 (b) Tetragonal lattice
3. Orthorhombic lattice
It has four possible types of lattices.
(i) Simple orthorhombic lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell as
shown in fig. 7.10 (c).
(ii) Body - centred orthorhombic lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and
one lattice point at the body centre as shown in fig. 7.10 (c).
(iii) Face - centred orthorhombic lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and
one lattice point at the each face centre of the 6 faces of the
unit cell as shown in fig. 7.10 (c).
(iv) Base - centred orthorhombic lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and
2 lattice points each at the centre of two faces (base) opposite
to each other as shown in fig. 7.10 (c).
Crystal Physics 7.19
Fig. 7.10 (c) Orthorhombic lattice
4. Monoclinic lattice
It has two possible space lattices.
(i) Simple monoclinic lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell as
shown in fig. 7.10 (d)
(ii) Base - centred monoclinic lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and
2 lattice points each at the centre of two faces (faces of the
base) opposite to each other as shown in fig. 7.10 (d)
Fig. 7.10 (d) Monoclinic lattice
5. Triclinic lattice
It has only one possible space lattice.
7.20 Engineering Physics
Simple Triclinic lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell as
shown in fig. 7.10 (e).
Fig. 7.10 (e) Simple Triclinic
6. Rhombohedral lattice
It has only one possible space lattice.
Simple Rhombohedral lattice
It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell as
shown in fig. 7.10 (f)
Fig. 7.10 (f) Simple Rhombohedral
7. Hexagonal lattice
It has only one possible space lattice.
Simple Hexagonal lattice
It has lattice points at all 12 corners of the hexagonal unit
cell and 2 lattice points each at the centre of two hexagonal
faces of the unit cell (top and bottom) as shown in fig. 7.10 (g).
Crystal Physics 7.21
Fig. 7.10 (g) Simple Hexagonal
In fact, it is proved mathematically that there are only 14
independent ways of arranging points in three dimensional space
such that each arrangement confirms to the definition of space
lattice.
Characteristics of the unit cell
The unit cell is characterized by the following parameters:
(Assuming one atom to one lattice point)
(i) Number of atoms per unit cell
(ii) Coordination number
(iii) Nearest neighbouring distance
(iv) Atomic radius
(v) Packing factor
(i) Number of atoms per unit cell
It is the number of atoms possessed by the unit cell.
This is determined by the arrangement of atoms in the unit
cell.
7.22 Engineering Physics
(ii) Coordination Number (CN)
It is the number of nearest atoms directly
surrounding a particular atom in a crystal.
The coordination number gives the information about the
packing of atoms in a structure. It tells whether the crystal
structure is closely packed or loosely packed.
If the coordination number is high, then the structure is
more closely packed. If it is low, then the structure is loosely
packed.
(iii) Nearest neighbouring distance 2r
It is the distance between the centres of two nearest
neighbouring atoms.
It is expressed in terms of the length of edge of the unit
cell ‘a’ and it is 2r in simple cubic. (Fig. 7.11)
Fig. 7.11 Nearest neighbouring distances atomic radius
(iv) Atomic radius r
It is half of the distance between two nearest neighbouring
atoms in a crystal. It is denoted by ‘r’. It is usually expressed
in terms of cube edge ‘a’ (lattice parameter).
For a simple cubic unit cell, the atomic radius. (Fig. 7.11).
a
r
2
Crystal Physics 7.23
(v) Packing Factor (PF)
It is defined as the ratio of total volume occupied
by the atoms in a unit cell to the total volume of a unit
cell.
Packing factor
Total volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell v v
Total volume of the unit cell V V
Number of atoms per unit cell Volume of one atom
Total volume of the unit cell
It is also known as density of packing.
The packing factor tells us how closely the atoms are
stacked in the unit cell. A high packing factor indicates that
atoms are very closely packed and therefore there is very little
unoccupied space.
On the other hand, a low packing factor indicates loose
packing of atoms and hence there is relatively more unoccupied
space.
COORDINATION NUMBER AND PACKING FACTOR FOR
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES – SC, BCC, FCC and HCP
It is noted that a large number of metallic crystal
structures have hcp, fcc and bcc structures. Simple Cubic (SC)
structure is very rare in metals.
The alkali metals Li, Na, K, etc., have bcc structures, some
transition elements and rare earths have fcc structures, elements
of second group have hcp structures.
7.6 SIMPLE CUBIC (SC) STRUCTURE
The simple cubic structure is the simplest and easiest
crystal structure. In this structure, there is one atom at each
of the ‘8’ corners of unit cell. These atoms touch each other
along cube edges. (fig 7.12).
7.24 Engineering Physics
Fig. 7.12 Simple cubic - unit cell
1. Number of atoms per unit cell
The unit cell of a simple cubic structure is shown in fig
7.12. The representative arrangement is drawn in fig. 7.12 (a).
The actual way of arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.12 (b).
There are 8 atoms, one atom at each corner of unit cell.
Each corner atom is shared by 8 adjascent unit cells. (Fig. 7.13)
Fig. 7.13 Simple cubic - unit cell
1
Share of each unit cell of corner atoms
8
1
8 1
8
Total number of atoms in one unit cell = 1 atom
Crystal Physics 7.25
2. Coordination number
Simple cubic unit cell has 8 corner atoms. Let us consider
one of the corner atoms (say X). It is shared by 8 adjacent unit
cells as shown in fig 7.14.
Fig 7.14
There are 4 nearest neighbouring atoms to this particular
atom ‘X’ which are shown by 1, 2, 3, and 4 in a plane
(horizontal plane). Further, there are 2 more nearest atoms,
one directly above (atom 5) and the other one directly below
(atom 6) the atom X.
Thus, there are only six (4 + 2) nearest neighbours for the
atom X.
Hence, coordination number for simple cubic is 6.
Note: Similarly if we consider any corner atom, the total
number of nearest neighbours i.e., the co-ordination
number is the same.
3. Atomic radius
Consider a face of unit cell of a simple cubic structure (fig
7.15). The atoms touch each other along the edges of the cube.
7.26 Engineering Physics
Fig. 7.15 Face view of simple cubic - unit cell
It is clear that the distance between the centres of two
nearest atoms is equal to the cube edge a.
If ‘a’ is the side of the unit cell and r its radius, then,
from fig. 7.15,
2r a
a
r
2
4. Packing factor
Number of atoms per unit cell 1
4 3
Volume of the atoms in the unit cell, v 1 r
3
a
Atomic radius r
2
3
Total volume of the unit cell, V a
v
We know that packing factor
V
Substituting for v and V, we have
Crystal Physics 7.27
4 3
r
3
Packing Factor
3
a
Substituting for r, we have
3 3
4 a 4 a 4 a
3
3 2 3 23
3 8
3 3
3
a a a
3.14
0.52
6 6
Packing factor 0.52 100 %
PF ~
52%
Thus, 52% of the volume of unit cell is occupied by the
atoms and the remaining 48% volume is vacant.
Example: Only one element polonium (Po) at certain
temperature range exhibits this crystal structure.
7.7 BODY - CENTRED CUBIC (BCC) STRUCTURE
In this crystal structure, the unit cell has one atom at
each corner of the cube and one atom at the body centre of the
cube 7.16 (a). The atoms represented as hard spheres are shown
in fig. 7.16 (b).
(a) Unit cell - BCC (b) Hard sphere model.
Fig. 7.16 Body - centred cubic cell
7.28 Engineering Physics
1. Number of atoms per unit cell
The unit cell of the BCC structure is shown in fig. 7.17.
Each corner atom is shared by 8 surrounding unit cells.
1
Hence, the share of one unit cell of corner atoms.
8
There are ‘8’ corner atoms,
1
Contribution of all corner atoms 8 1 atom
8
There is one atom at the body centre of each unit cell.
Total number of atoms in one unit cell
1 1 2 atoms
Fig. 7.17 BCC unit cell
Coordination number
In the unit cell of BCC structure, there is one atom (say
atom X) at the body centre of the unit cell. There are ‘8’ atoms
at the 8 corners of the unit cell as shown in fig. 7.18.
The corner atoms do not touch each other. But all the eight
corner atoms touch the body centre atom along the body
diagonal. Thus, for body centre atom ‘X’, there are 8 nearest
neighbours (ie., 8 corner atoms).
Crystal Physics 7.29
Fig. 7.18
Hence, the coordination number of body centred
cubic structure is 8.
Note: The coordination number can also be determined in
another way by taking the corner atom as reference
atom.
In a BCC structure, each corner atom is surrounded by
‘8’ body centred unit cells. Therefore, the nearest
adjacent neighbours of any corner atom are the ‘8’ body
centred atoms of the surrounding ‘8’ unit cells.
Thus, the coordination number is 8.
3. Atomic radius
The corner atoms do not touch each other. However, each
corner atom touches the body centre atom. The unit cell of BCC
is shown in fig. 7.19. The side of the unit cell is ‘a’.
Consider the atoms at A, G and at the centre of the unit
cell ‘O’.
It is clear from fig. 7.19 that the corner atoms A and G
are nearest neighbouring atoms to the body centre atom O.
These atoms lie in a straight line along the body diagonal
AG of the cube.
7.30 Engineering Physics
From the geometry of figure 7.19,
AG r 2r r 4r
on squaring on both sides, we get
2 2
AG 4r
Fig. 7.19 Unit cell of BCC
From the right angled ABC,
2 2 2
AC AB BC
substituting for AB and BC from the fig 7.19, we have
2 2 2
AC a a
2 2
AC 2a
Crystal Physics 7.31
From the right angled ACG,
2 2 2
AG AC CG
2 2 2
Substituting for AG , AC and CG , we have
2 2 2 2
4r 2a a 3a
2 2 2
4 r 3a
2
2 3a
or r 2
4
Taking square root on both sides, we have
2
3a
r
2
2
4
3
a2
r
2
4
2
3 a
r
4
4. Packing factor
Number of atoms per unit cell 2
4 3
Volume of 2 atoms in the unit cell, v 2 r
3
3 a
Atomic radius r
4
3
Volume of the unit cell, V a
v
Packing factor
V
7.32 Engineering Physics
Substituting for v and V, we have
4 3
2 r
3
PF 3
a
Substituting for r, we have
3
4 3 a
2
3 4
PF 3
a
3 3
8 3 a
3 3
4
3
a
8 3
3
3
3 444
8 33
3 64
3
PF
8
3.14
3
PF 0.68
8
or 0.68 100 %
PF 68%
Thus, packing factor is 68% ie., 68% of the volume of unit
cell is occupied by atoms and the remaining 32% volume is
vacant.
Common examples of this type of structure
Tungsten, Chromium and Molybdenum.
Crystal Physics 7.33
7.8 FACE - CENTRED CUBIC (FCC) STRUCTURE
In this type of crystal structure, the unit cell has one atom
at each corner of the cube and one atom at the centre of each
face. (fig. 7.20).
This structure is close-packed because each atom has 12
nearest neighbours. This type of structure is more common in
metals.
Fig. 7.20 Face - centred cube - Unit cell
1. Number of atoms per unit cell
A unit cell of a face - centred cubic structure is shown in
fig. 7.21. There are 8 corner atoms, one at each of its 8 corners.
Each corner atom is shared by 8 surrounding unit cells.
Fig. 7.21 FCC unit cell
7.34 Engineering Physics
1
Share of each unit cell = of corner atoms.
8
Number of atoms per unit cell from
1
the contribution of corner atoms 8 1 atom
8
In addition, there are 6 atoms at the 6 face centres of the
cube. Each face-centred atom is shared by 2 adjascent unit cells.
1
Hence, the share of each unit cell of face - centred atoms
2
Number of atoms in the unit cell from the contribution of
face-centered atom
1
6 3 atoms
2
Total number of atoms per unit cell
1 3 4 atoms
2. Coordination number
In FCC structure, there are 8 corner atoms and 6 face
centred atoms one at the centre of each face of the unit cell.
Consider a corner atom (X) of a unit cell as shown in fig.
7.22. There are three mutually perpendicular planes with a
common point of intersection on the atom X.
In plane I, it has 4 face centred atoms (1, 2, 3, 4) as
nearest neighbours.
In plane II, it has 4 more face centred atoms (5, 6, 7, 8)
as nearest neighbours for the corner atom X.
Crystal Physics 7.35
Fig. 7.22 Calculation of coordination number
Similarly, plane III has 4 more face centred atoms, (9, 10,
11, 12) as nearest neighbours to the corner atom X.
Therefore, total number of nearest atoms to any corner
atom is 4 4 4 12
Hence, coordination number is 12.
Note: The coordination number can also be found by taking
face centred atom as the reference atom, nearest
neighbouring atoms are corner atoms. It is found to
be the 12.
3. Atomic radius
Consider the atoms at A and C in a face of unit cell of
FCC. These atoms lie in a straight line along the face diagonal
AC.
The atoms touch each other along the face diagonal of the
cube. The length of the face diagonal AC r 2r r 4r
(Fig. 7.23).
In right angled ABC
2 2 2
AC AB BC
7.36 Engineering Physics
Fig. 7.23 Face view of the unit cell - FCC
2 2 2
Substituting for AC , AB and BC from fig 7.23, we have
2 2 2
r 2r r a a . .
[ . AC 4r]
2 2 2
4r a a
2 2 2
4 r 2a
2
2 2a
r 2
4
Taking square root on both sides, we have
2a
a
2 2 2
2a 2
r
2
4
2
4
2 4
2 a
r
4
Crystal Physics 7.37
4. Packing factor
Number of atoms per unit cell 4
4 3
Volume of 4 atoms, v 4 r
3
2 a
Atomic radius r
4
Side of the unit cell a
3
Volume of the unit cell V a
v
Packing factor
V
Substituting fo r v , V and r, w e have
3
4 3 4 2 a
4
4
3
r 3 4
PF 3
3
a a
3 3 3
2 a
4 4 2
2
2 a
4 3 4
3 4 3 4 4 4
3 3
a a
2
2
34
2
PF
6
2
3.14
0.74
6
0.74 100 %
PF 74%
7.38 Engineering Physics
Thus, the packing factor is 74% ie., 74% of the volume of
unit cell is occupied by atoms and the remaining 26% volume
is vacant.
Common examples of this type of structure
Copper, aluminuim, nickel, gold, lead and platinum.
Note: Packing factor of FCC
2 Packing factor of SC
7.9 HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED (HCP) STRUCTURE
A unit cell of a close-packed hexagonal structure is shown
in fig 7.24 (a).
In this type of crystal structure, the unit cell has one atom
at each of the 12 corners of the hexagonal face, one atom each
at the centre of the two hexagonal faces. 3 atoms symmetrically
arranged inside the unit cell.
There are 3 layers of atoms in it. At the bottom layer (A),
the central atom has ‘6’ nearest neighbouring atoms in the same
c
plane. The second layer (B) which is at a distance from the
2
bottom layer has 3 atoms as shown in fig. 7.24 (b).
(a) Lattice point representation of HCP (b) Hard sphere model
Fig. 7.24 Hexagonal close - packed structure.
Crystal Physics 7.39
The third layer ie., the layer similar to the bottom layer
which is at a distance ‘c’ from the bottom layer. Thus, HCP
structure has the stacking sequence of AB, AB
1. Number of atoms per unit cell
Each corner atom is shared by 6 surrounding unit cells,
1
i.e., each corner atom gives th of its share to unit cell.
6
Number of atoms due to corner atoms in 1
6 1
upper hexagonal plane of unit cell 6
Number of atoms due to corner atoms in 1
lower hexagonal plane of unit cell 6 1
6
Each central atom in the upper and lower planes (base
central atom) is shared by two unit cells. It means that the
1
upper and lower planes of the given unit cell contain atom
2
each.
Total number of central atoms in 1
2 1
both upper and lower planes 2
There are ‘3’ atoms completely inside the unit cell which are
not shared by any other adjacent unit cells.
Total number of atoms in a hcp unit cell 1 1 1 3
6
2. Coordination number
Consider the bottom layer, the central atom has 6 nearest
neighbouring atoms in the same plane.
‘c’
At a distance from the bottom layer, there are two
2
layers, one above and the other below the bottom layer
containing 3 atoms in each layer are also neighbouring atoms.
7.40 Engineering Physics
In total, there are 12 (3 + 6 + 3) nearest neighbouring
atoms. (Fig. 7.24 (c))
Coordination number 12
7 9
8
2 3
1 4
6
5
11
10 12
Fig. 7.24 (c)
3. Atomic radius r
Atoms touch each other along the edges of the hexagon.
Thus, from the figure 7.24 (d), the nearest neighbouring distance
a 2 r.
Atomic radius
a
r
2
Fig. 7.24 (d)
Crystal Physics 7.41
c
4. Calculation of ratio
a
Let ‘c’ be the height of the unit cell of HCP structure and
‘a’ be the distance between two neighbouring atoms.
Consider a triangle ABO in the bottom layer of unit cell
of HCP structure (fig 7.25). Here A, B and O are the lattice
points and exactly above these atoms at a perpendicular distance
‘c’
, the next layer atom lies at C.
2
(a) Bottom layer of HCP
(b) Triangles ABO and AXC
structure
Fig. 7.25
ABO is an equilateral triangle. A line AY is drawn r
to BO (Fig. 7.25 (b)). Then,
AY
cos 30
AB
a3 ... AB a
AY AB c o s 30
3
cos 30
2
2
a
3 ... (1)
AY
2
7.42 Engineering Physics
X is a centre for ABO
2 ... (2)
AX AY
3
Substituting for AY, we get
2 a
3
AX
3 2
2 a
3
3
3 2
a ... (3)
AX
3
In the AXC, plane AXC is perpendicular to the plane ABO
2 2 2
then AC AX CX ... (4)
a c
Substituting the values for AC a, AX and CX
3
2
in eqn (4), we get
2 2
2 a c ... (5)
a 2
3
2 2
2 a c
a 2 2
3
2
2 2
2 a c
a
3 4
2 2
c 2 a
a
4 3
Crystal Physics 7.43
2 2 2
c 3a a
4 3
2 2
c 2a
4 3
2
c 24
a
2 3
2
c 8 ... (6)
a
2 3
Taking square root on both sides, we have
2
c 8
a
2 3
c
a
83
1.633
c ... (7)
1.633
a
5. Packing factor
Volume of all the atoms in a unit cell v
Number of atoms per unit cell n 6
a
Atomic radius r
2
Volume of all 6 atoms in the unit cell
4 3
v 6 r
3
Substituting for r, we have
7.44 Engineering Physics
3
4 a
v 6
3 2
3 3
24 a 24 a
v
3 2 3 3 8
3
v a
Volume of the unit cell (V)
Area of the base of the hexagon 6 Area of triangle AOB
1
Area o f AOB base BO height AY (Fig. 7.25)
2
a
3
Substituting for BO a and AY ,
2
1 a
3
Area of AOB a
2 2
2
a 3
4
2
a 3
Area of the base 6
4
2
3
3 a
2
Volume of the unit
Area of the base height of the hexagon
cell of the HCP
2
3 a
3
V c
2
v
Packing factor
V
Substituting v and V, we have
Crystal Physics 7.45
3
a
PF ‘
3 3 a2c
2
2 a
PF
3 c
3
1
2 3 1/2 .. c 8 2
PF 8 . a 3
3
3
1
2
2 3
1
2
3
3 8
2
3 2 2 2
3 8
3 3
42 3
4
2 32
2
3.14
Packing factor 0.74
2
3 3
2
or 0.74 100 %
Packing factor 74%
Therefore, packing factor is 74% ie., 74% of the volume of
unit cell is occupied by the atoms and the remaining 26% volume
is vacant.
Note: Packing factors of FCC and HCP structures are same
and they are known as closely packed structures
Common examples of HCP structure
Magnesium, zinc, titanium, zirconium, beryllium and
cadmium.
7.46 Engineering Physics
Some special cubic crystal structures
In addition to SC, BCC, FCC and HCP, there are some
special cubic structures. Some of these structures are derivatives
from or combination of the basic structures described above.
7.10 DIAMOND CUBIC (DC) STRUCTURE
The diamond cubic structure is a very important crystal
structure. Besides diamond, the elemental semiconductors silicon
and germanium also have this structure. The unit cell of
diamond cubic structure is shown in fig. 7.26.
Fig. 7.26 Unit cell of diamond cubic structure
This structure is a combination of two interpenetrating
face - centred - cubic (FCC) sub lattices.
One sub - lattice has its origin at (0, 0, 0) (atom X). The
other sub - lattice has its origin (atom Y) quarter of the way
a a a
along the body diagonal ie., at the point , ,
4 4 4
It is loosely packed structure since each atom has only four
nearest neighbours (ie., coordination number is 4).
Crystal Physics 7.47
1. Number of atoms per unit cell
In the unit cell of diamond, the carbon atoms are present
at three different positions of the unit cell as shown in fig. 7.26.
(i) Corner atoms represented by ‘C’.
(ii) Face centred atoms represented by ‘F’.
(iii) Four atoms present fully inside the unit cell
represented as 1, 2, 3 and 4.
The positions of atoms projected on a cube face is as shown
in fig. 7.27
Fig. 7.27 Diamond structure
Atomic position projected on a cube face
(i) Number of corner atoms per unit cell
Each corner atom is shared by 8 unit cells. There are 8
corner atoms in the unit cell.
Therefore, the number of atoms due to corner atoms per
unit cell
1
8
8
1 atom
7.48 Engineering Physics
(ii) Number of face centred atoms per unit cell
Each face centred atom is shared by 2 unit cells. We have
6 face centred atoms.
Number of face centred atom per unit cell
1
6 3 atoms
2
(iii) Number of atoms inside unit cell
Inside the unit cell, we have 4 atoms represented by 1, 2,
3, 4 in fig. 7.26 which are not shared by any other sourrounding
unit cells.
Total number of atoms per unit cell 1 3 4 8
2. Atomic radius
The corner atoms do not touch each other. Similarly the
face centred atoms also do not touch each other.
But both face centred atoms and corner atoms touch with
the atoms (1, 2, 3, 4) situated inside the unit cell as shown in
fig. 7.26.
For example, the nearest two neighbours which have direct
contact (shown by double line) are atoms ‘X’ and ‘Y’ as shown
in fig 7.26.
A perpendicular is drawn to Y atom which meets the unit
cell at a point ‘Z’ as shown in fig. 7.28 which is at a distance
of a/4.
Fig. 7.28
Crystal Physics 7.49
From fig. 7.28,
2 2 2
XY XZ ZY
[... XZ XT TZ ]
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
XY XT TZ ZY
Substituting for XT, TZ and ZY, we have
2 2 2
a
2 a a
XY
4
4 4
2 2 2
a a a
2
2
2
4 4 4
2 2 2
a a a
16 16 16
2
2 3a
XY
16
Taking square root on both sides, we have
3
a
2 2
3a
XY
2
16 16
3 a
XY
4
Since XY 2r, w e have
3
2r a
4
3 a
r
42
3 a
r
8
7.50 Engineering Physics
3 a
Atomic radius r
8
3. Coordination number
From fig. 7.26 the number of nearest atoms (shown by
double line) for Y atom is 4. Therefore, the coordination number
for diamond is 4.
Coordination number for diamond = 4
Note: The coordination number is found to be same even if it
is calculated with respect to atoms say (2), (3), (4), corner
(or) face centred atoms.
4. Packing factor
We know that Packing factor (PF)
Volume occupied by the atoms per unit cell v ... (1)
Volume of the unit cell V
Volume occupied by 1 atom
4 3
r
3
In diamond, we have 8 atoms per unit cell
Volume occupied by all the ‘8’ atoms per unit cell
4 3
v 8 r
3
We know that atomic radius for diamond structure
3 a
r
8
Volume occupied by the atoms per unit cell
3
4 3 a
v 8
3 8
Crystal Physics 7.51
3 3
4 a
3
v 8
3 8
3
3
3
4 a 3
3
v 8
3 8 8 8
3
a 3
v
2 8
Volume occupied by the atoms per unit cell
3
a 3 ... (2)
v
16
Since diamond has cubic structure, the volume of the unit
cell
3
V a ... (3)
Substituting the eqns (2) and (3) in (1) we get
3 3
v a
3 a
3
PF
V 16 16a
3
3
a
3 3.14
3
PF
16 16
Packing factor = 0.34
0.34 100 %
Packing factor 34%
Thus only 34% volume of the unit cell in diamond cubic
structure is occupied by atoms and the remaining 66% volume
is vacant.
7.52 Engineering Physics
Since the packing density is very low, it is termed as
very loosely packed structure.
Note: Packing factor of diamond cubic
1
of packing factor of BCC
2
Table 7.3
Comparison of crystal structures
Body Face Hexagonal
Simple Diamond
centered centered closed
Properties cubic cubic
cubic cubic packed
(SC) (DC)
(BCC) (FCC) (HCP)
Volume of 3 a2 c
3
unit cell a3 a3 a3 a3
2
No. of
atoms per 1 2 4 6 8
unit cell
Co-ordination 6 8 12 12 4
number
Atomic a 3 a
2 a
a 3 a
radius r 2 4 4 2 8
Packing 0.52 0.68 0.74 0.74 0.34
factor
Examples Polonium Iron, Copper, Magnesium, Germanium,
Barium, Aluminium, Zinc, Silicon,
Tungsten Nickel Titanium Carbon
Crystal Physics 7.53
Relation between lattice constant (a) and density ()
Consider a cubic crystal of lattice constant a.
Density of the crystal
3
Volume of the unit cell a
3
Mass of the unit cell a ...(1)
. . Mass
. Density Volume
Number of atoms per unit cell n
Atomic weight of the material M
Avogadro’s number N
Avogadro’s number is the number of atoms or molecules
per kg mole of the substance
M
Mass of each atom
N
Mass of each unit cell Mass of each atom in unit cell
Number of atoms per unit cell
M ... (2)
Mass of each unit cell n
N
(for n atoms per unit cell)
From equations (1) and (2), we have
3 nM
a
N
nM
3
Na
7.54 Engineering Physics
Number of atoms per unit cell Atomic weight
3
Avogadro’s number Lattice constant
3 nM
a
N
From the above expression, the lattice constant ‘a’ is
calculated. as
1/3
nM
a
N
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 7.1
Calculate the lattice constant of Fe.
3
Given: density of iron 7860 kg / m , atomic weight 55.85
26
and Avagadro’s number 6.023 10 atoms / mol
(A.U. May 2013)
Given data
–3
Density of iron 7860 kg m
Atomic weight M 55.85
26 –1
Avagadro’s number N 6.023 10 mol
Number of atoms per unit cell (BCC) = 2
Solution
We know that
nM
3
Na
3 nM
a
N
Substituting the given values, we have
Crystal Physics 7.55
2 55.85
26
6.023 10 7860
3 29 3
a 2.359 10 m
Taking cube root on both sides, we have
3 1/3 29 1/3
a 2.359 10
10
a 2.868 10 metre
10
Lattice constant of Fe 2.868 10 m
7.11 CRYSTAL DIRECTIONS
It is always useful to have a convention or standardized
procedure to specify the directions in a crystal. The procedure
of finding the directions inside the crystal is explained below.
1. Consider any lattice point that lies on the line as origin.
2. Write down the position vector of the next nearest point
on the line in terms of the fundamental translation
vector a, b and c of the unit cell of the crystal, say,
r r1 a r2 b r3 c
3. Now the components of position vector r along the three
directions of a, b, c are r1, r2, r3 respectively. Then the
crystal direction is denoted by [r1 r2 r3].
Let us apply this procedure to find the directions of
OP, OQ and OR of an orthorhombic unit cell
a b c; 90 in Figure 7.29 taking ‘O’ as
origin.
7.56 Engineering Physics
7.29 Crystal directions
(a) Direction of OP
Position vector of OP OP 1 a 1 b 1 c
r1 1; r2 1;r3 1
Direction of OP is represented by [111]
(b) Direction of OQ
Position vector of OQ OQ 1 a 0 b 0 c
r1 1; r2 0; r3 0
Direction of OP is represented by [100]
(c) Direction of OR
Position vector of OR OR 1 a 0 b 1 c
r1 1; r2 0; r3 1
Direction of OP is represented by [101]
Crystal Physics 7.57
It should be understood that the directions [222], [333],
[444], ....... [n r1 n r2 n r3] will all coincide with [1 1 1]. In such
cases the lowest combination of integers i.e., [1 1 1] is used to
specify the direction. If any of the integers is negative, for
example - 3, it should be written as 3 which is read 3 bar.
Given three integers of a direction, a family of directions
with different possible combinations of them, both positive and
negative, is represented with brackets of the type < >. For
example,
a family
of directions
such as [132], [312], [123],
[1 3 2], [1 32], [1 2 3], [1 3 2], [1 3 2] etc., is represented by <132>.
7.12 PLANES IN CRYSTALS
A crystal lattice is considered as a collection of a
set of parallel equidistant planes passing through lattice
points. These planes are known as lattice planes.
These sets of planes may be chosen in many different ways
in the given lattice, for example (a), (b), (c), (d), etc. as in fig.
7.30. Now, the problem that may arise is how to designate
(identify) a plane in a crystal.
Fig. 7.30 Different lattice planes
7.58 Engineering Physics
7.13 MILLER INDICES
Miller introduced a set of three numbers to designate
the orientation of a plane in a crystal. This set of three
numbers is called Miller indices of the concerned plane.
Explanation
The orientation of a plane in a crystal is usually described
in terms of their intercepts on the three axes.
For example, a plane ABC in fig. 7.31 has intercepts of 2
axial units on X-axis, 2 axial units on Y-axis and 1 axial unit
on Z-axis. In other words, the numerical parameters of this plane
are 2, 2 and 1. Hence, its orientation is (2, 2, 1).
Fig. 7.31 Miller indices
Miller suggested that it is better to describe the orientation
of a plane by the reciprocal of coefficient of intercepts (numerical
paraments)
These reciprocals are converted into whole numbers and
they are known as Miller indices of the concerned plane.
Hence, Miller indices of a plane ABC (fig. 7.31) are
1 1
2 : 2 : 1 or simply (112).
Crystal Physics 7.59
We understand that for getting the whole numbers, all
three reciprocals of the co-efficients of intercepts are multiplied
by 2 (LCM). It is noted that multiplying all numerical
parameters by the same number does not change the orientation
of a plane.
The numbers for these planes are written within
parentheses and not in brackets.
The general expression for Miller indices of a plane
is h k l . The symbol for a family of parallel planes is
h k l .
Definition
Miller indices are the smallest possible three integers
that have the same ratios as the reciprocals of the
numerical parameters of the plane concerned on the three
axes.
Procedure for finding Miller indices
Consider a crystal plane. Let us find its Miller indices as
follows.
Step - 1 Find the intercepts of the plane along the coordinate
axes X, Y, Z. The intercepts are measured as multiples
of axial length units
Step - 2 Take the ratio of co-efficient of intercepts (numerical
parameters) p:q:r. ie., X pa, Y qb, Z rc
Step - 3 Take the ratio of reciprocal of numerical parameters
1 1 1
ie., : :
p q r
Step - 4 Reduce the reciprocals into whole numbers. This can
be done by multiplying each reciprocal by a number
obtained after taking LCM (Least Common Multiple)
of the denominators.
Step - 5 Write these integers within parantheses without
commas to get Miller indices.
7.60 Engineering Physics
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEM
Problem 7.2
Obtain Miller indices of a plane whose intercepts are 4,
4 and 2 units along the three axes. (A.U. Jan 2010)
Solution
Numerical parameters are 4, 4, 2.
1 1 1
Reciprocal of these are , ,
4 4 2
LCM of denominators 4, 4 and 2 is 4. Hence, multiplying
by 4, we have 1, 1, 2. Thus, the Miller indices of this
plane is (1 1 2).
Miller indices of cubic crystal planes
While finding Miller indices of a cubic crystal plane, the
following points should be kept in mind.
(i) When a plane is parallel to one of the coordinate axes,
1
it is said to meet that axis at infinity. Since 0, Miller index
for that axis is zero.
(ii) When the intercept of a plane is on the negative part
of any axis, Miller index is distinguished by a bar put directly
over it.
Consider a shaded plane in fig. 7.32 (a). This plane ADEF
cuts X-axis at the point A and it is parallel to Y and Z axes.
If the side of the cube is taken as one unit in length, then
intercepts made by this plane on three axes are
1 : :
Crystal Physics 7.61
The reciprocals of the intercepts are
1 1 1
: :
1
i.e., 1 : 0 : 0
Hence, Miller indices of this plane are (100).
D
E
O A
X
F
Z
Fig. 7.32 (a)
The plane ABC in fig. 7.32 (b) has equal intercepts on the
three axes and hence its Miller indices are (111). Miller indices
of the plane GBAF are (110) as shown in fig. 7.32 (c).
Y Y
A B
O O X
X A
B
C F
Z Z
Fig. 7.32 Miller indices for cubic planes
7.62 Engineering Physics
7.14 INTERPLANAR DISTANCES - ‘d’ SPACING IN
CUBIC LATTICE [Derivation]
Consider a plane ABC in cubic crystal with a as length of
the cube edge as shown in figure 7.33. This plane is one of the
plane of the family of planes whose Miller indices are h k l .
A normal ON is drawn to the plane ABC from the origin
of the cube. Let ON be interplanar spacing d of this of plane.
[Assume that the origin is lying on the plane immediately
next to the plane under consideration.]
' N
A a X
O
' '
C
a
Z
Fig. 7.33 Spacing in cubic lattice
This plane ABC makes the intercepts OA, OB and OC on
the reference axes OX, OY and OZ. , and are the angles
between reference axes OX, OY, OZ and the normal ON
respectively.
We know that Miller indices of a plane are the smallest
integers of the reciprocals of their intercepts. But here, the
intercepts are expressed as reciprocals of Miller indices of the
plane.
Crystal Physics 7.63
1 1 1 ...(1)
i.e., OA : OB : OC : :
h k l
Multiplying by lattice constant a, we have
a a a ..(2)
. OA : OB : OC : :
h k l
a a a ..(3)
OA , OB and OC
h k l
From the geometry of right angles OAN, OBN and OCN
(Fig. 7.34), we have,
Fig. 7.34
ON d hd
cos
OA a a
h
ON d hd
cos
OB a a
k
ON d ld ...(4)
cos
OC a a
l
7.64 Engineering Physics
The law of direction cosines is
2 2 2
cos cos cos 1 (5)
Substituting for cos , cos , cos we have,
2 2 2
hd kd ld
a a a 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
h d k d l d
2
2
2
1
a a a
2
d 2 2 2
2
h k l 1
a
2 2 2 2 2
d h k l a
2
2 a (6)
d 2 2 2
h k l
Taking square root on both sides, we have
2
a
d2 2 2 2
h k l
a
2
h k l
2 2 2
a (7)
d
2 2 2
h k l
The above equation gives relation between
interplanar spacing d, cube edge a and Miller indices
h k l .
Crystal Physics 7.65
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 7.3
The lattice constant for a unit cell of aluminium is
4.049 Å. Calculate the spacing of (220) plane.
(A.U. Dec 2012)
Given data
a 4.049 Å
h 2, k 2, l 0
a
Solution: We know that d
h k
2
l
2 2
Substituting the given values, we have
4.049 Å 4.049 Å 4.049 Å
d220 1.432 Å
2 2 0
2 2 2
44
8
d220 1.432 Å
7.15 CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS
In an ideal crystal (perfect crystal), the atomic arrangement
is perfectly regular and continuous throughout.
But in real crystals due to some reasons the regular
orientation of atoms may be disturbed at a point, along a line
or in a region.
Definition
The disturbance occurred in the regular orientation
of atoms is called crystal defect or imperfection.
7.66 Engineering Physics
The imperfections or defects are always present in the
actual crystal and their effects are often very important in
understanding the properties of crystals.
Some properties of crystal defects are structure sensitive
i.e., properties such as mechanical strength, ductility, crystal
growth, magnetic hysteresis, dielectric strength are greatly
affected by the relatively minor changes in crystal structure
caused by the imperfections.
Some other properties of crystals are
structure-insensitive i.e., properties such as stiffness and
density are not affected by the presence of imperfections.
Classification of crystal imperfections (or Defects)
Crystalline imperfections are classified on the basis of their
geometry as follows:
1. Point Defects
(a) Vacancies
(b) Intersititials
(c) Impurities
2. Line Defects
(a) Edge dislocation
(b) Screw dislocation
3. Surface Defects
(a) Grain boundaries
(b) Tilt boundaries
(c) Twin boundaries
(d) Stacking faults
4. Volume Defects
Cracks
Crystal Physics 7.67
7.16 POINT DEFECTS
Point defects are crystalline irregularities of atomic
dimensions. They are imperfect points like regions in the crystal.
One or two atomic diametre is the typical size of a point
imperfection.
Point defects take place due to imperfect packing of
atoms during crystallisation.
They produce distortion inside the crystal structures.
They produce strain only in its surroundings but they
do not affect the regularity in other parts of the crystal.
Types of point defects
The different types of point defects are
(a) Vacancies
(b) Interstitial
(c) Impurities
(a) Vacancies
A vacancy is the simplest point defect in a crystal. It
refers to a missing atom or vacant atomic site.
Whenever one or more atoms are missing from a
normally occupied position as shown in fig 7.35, the
defect caused is known as vacancy.
Vacancies may be single as shown in figure 7.35 or two
or more of them.
These defects may arise due to imperfect packing during
original crystallisation and thermal vibrations of the
atoms at high temperatures.
7.68 Engineering Physics
Vacancy Di-vacancy
(two missing atoms)
Fig. 7.35
The atoms surrounding the vacancies are displaced inwards
thereby distorting the regularity of arrangement. There are
different kinds of vacancies like Frenkel defect, Schottky
defect, Colour center, etc.
Schottky defect
It refers to the missing of a pair of positive and
negative ions in an ionic crystal.
Here, two oppositely charged ions are missing from an ionic
crystal, therefore a cation-anion divacancy is created, (fig. 7.36)
This is known as schottky defect or schottky imperfection
or iron pair vacancies. Since a pair is missing, electrical
neutrality is maintained.
Fig. 7.36 Schottky defect or pair vacancy
Frenkel Defect
A vacancy associated with interstitial impurity is
called Frenkel defect.
Here a missing atom (responsible for vacancy) occupies
interstitial position (responsible for interstitial defect) ( fig 7.37.)
Crystal Physics 7.69
This defect always occurs in ionic crystal. If a positive ion
moves into an interstitial site in an ionic crystal, a cation
vacancy is created in normal ion site, this vacancy-interstitial
pair is known as Frenkel defect.
Fig. 7.37 Frenkel defect. An ion gets transferred
from lattice site to an interstitial site
Frenkel defect does not change the overall electrical
neutrality of the crystal.
The presence of these defects in ionic crystals causes an
increase in electrical conductivity.
(b) Interstitial defect
When an extra atom occupies interstitial space (i.e.,
voids) within the crystal structure without removing
parent atom, the defect is called interstitial defect.
An atom can enter into interstitial space or void only if
it is smaller than the parent atom otherwise it will produce
atomic distortion or strain because interstitial atom tends to
push the surrounding atoms further apart.
Types of interstitial defect
Interstitial defect has two types
(i) Self interstitial
(ii) Foreign interstitial
(i) Self intertitial
If an atom from same crystal occupies intertitial site, then
it is called self interstitial. (Fig. 7.38 (a))
7.70 Engineering Physics
(ii) Foreign intertitial
If an impurity atom (foreign atom) occupies intertitial site,
then it is called foreign interstitial. (Fig. 7.38(b))
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.38 Interstitial defect
(c) Impurities
When the foreign atoms (impurities) are added to
crystal lattices, they are known as impurities. The defect
is called impurity defect.
The impurity atom may fit in the structure in two ways
giving rise to two kinds of impurity defects. They are
(i) Substitutional impurity defect
(ii) Interstitial impurity defect
(a) Substitutional impurity defect
A substitutional impurity refers to a foreign atom
that replaces a parent atom in the lattice (figure 7.39.)
Substitutional impurities change the electrical properties
enormously.
Fig. 7.39 Substitutional impurity
Crystal Physics 7.71
Example
1. n - type and p - type semiconductors have substitutional
th rd
impurities from V group and III group elements.
A controlled addition of impurity to a very pure
semiconductor is the basis of producing many electronic
devices like diode and transistors.
2. During the production of brass alloy, zinc atoms are
doped in copper lattice. Here, zinc atoms are called as
substitutional impurities.
(ii) Interstitial impurity
An interstitial impurity is a small size atom
occupying the empty space (interstitial) in the parent
crystal, without dislodging any of the parent atoms from
their sites (Fig. 7.40)
Fig. 7.40 Interstitial impurity
An atom can enter into interstitial or empty space only
when it is substantially smaller than parent atom.
Example. In FCC iron, the atomic radius of iron atom is 0.225
nm. The carbon atoms with atomic radius 0.078 nm can occupy
empty spaces in FCC lattice as interstitial impurities.
7.17 LINE DEFECTS OR DISLOCATIONS
(One Dimensional Effect)
The defects due to dislocation or distortion of atoms
along a line are known as line defects.
7.72 Engineering Physics
These defects are also called dislocations. In the
geometrical sense, they are one dimensional defects.
In line defect, a portion of a line of atoms is missing
or displaced from its regular site.
Types of line defects
There are two types of line defects.
(a) Edge dislocation and
(b) Screw dislocation
(a) Edge dislocation
An edge dislocation arises when one of the atomic planes
forms only partially and does not extend through the entire
crystal (fig. 7.41.)
The atomic plane AB abruptly terminates at B. It is viewed
as an extra plane inserted in between a set of parallel planes.
The edge of such a plane forms a line defect and it is
called an edge dislocation.
The atomic row 1 passing through point B has one atom
more than row 2 adjacent to it.
Fig. 7.41 Edge dislocation
Crystal Physics 7.73
Classification of edge dislocation
Edge dislocations are symbolically represented by or T
depending on whether the incomplete plane starts from top or
bottom of the crystal.
These two configurations are referred as
(a) Positive edge dislocation
(b) Negative edge dislocation
(a) Positive edge dislocation
If the extra plane of atoms is above the slip plane of the
crystal than the edge dislocation is called positive as shown in
fig 7.42. It is denoted by the symbol .
(b) Negative edge dislocation
If the extra plane of atoms is below the slip plane than
the edge dislocation is called negative. (fig. 7.42.) It is denoted
by the symbol T.
Fig. 7.42 Positive and Negative edge dislocation
Screw dislocation
Screw dislocation is due to a displacement of atoms
in one part of a crystal relative to rest of the crystal.
The displacement terminates within crystal. This dislocation
forms a spiral ramp around dislocation line (Fig. 7.43).
7.74 Engineering Physics
In a screw dislocation, there is a line of atoms about which
crystal planes are warped to give an effect similar to threads
of a screw.
The row of atoms marking the termination of the
displacement is the screw dislocation. EF indicates the
dislocation line.
Fig. 7.43 Screw dislocation
The term screw represents that one part of the crystal is
moving in spiral manner about dislocation line.
If spiral motion of one part of the crystal is in clockwise
direction then,dislocation is right handed, on the other hand
spiral motion is in anti - clockwise direction then, dislocation
is left handed.
Fig. 7.44 Dislocations in Tungsten Single Crystal
Crystal Physics 7.75
Differences between edge dislocation and screw
dislocation
S.No. Edge Dislocation Screw Dislocation
1. In edge dislocation, an edge of In screw dislocation, only
atomic plane is formed distraction the lattice cell in
internal to the crystal. the immediate vicinity is
produced.
2. It is perpendicular to its It is parallel to its Burger’s
Burger’s vector. vector.
3. It moves in the direction of It moves in a direction
the Burger’s vector. perpendicular to the Burger’s
vector.
4. If incomplete plane is above If the spiral motion of the
the slip plane then it is known dislocation is in clock-wise
as positive edge dislocation. It direction then it is known as
is represented by the symbol right handed screw
. dislocation.
5. If incomplete plane is below If the spiral motion of the
the slip plane then it is known dislocation is in anti-clock
as negative edge dislocation. It wise direction then it is
is represented by the symbol known as left handed screw
T. dislocation.
6. The amount of force required The amount of force required
to form and move an edge to form and move a screw
dislocation is less. dislocation is more.
7.18 BURGER’S VECTORS
The dislocation lines are expressed by a burger vector ‘b’.
It indicates the amount and direction of shift in lattice on slip
plane. The figure 7.45 shows a perfect crystal and a crystal with
a positive edge dislocation.
7.76 Engineering Physics
Consider a point starting from P in (fig. 7.45 (a)) which
moves in a particular direction as shown and it completes atomic
distances in the form of a circuit called “burger circuit” or
“burger loop”.
If the same circuit is drawn starting from P in fig. (7.45
(b)) then the circuit would not complete, this is because of the
presence of a dislocation.
PQ b
(a) Perfect crystal (b) Dislocated crystal
Fig. 7.45
If we wish to arrive at starting point P from Q, then we
must move an extra distance ‘b’ as shown in figure (b). The
vector b P Q connects end point with starting point. This is
burger’s vector of the dislocation.
Fig. 7.46 A transmission electron micrograph of a Titanium
Alloy. The dark lines are the dislocations.
Crystal Physics 7.77
Surface Defects (Plane Defects)
The defects on the surface of material are called
surface defects or plane defects.
They are also known as two dimensional imperfections.
Surface defects are due to a change in the stacking of
atomic planes on or across a boundary.
Some important internal surface defects
(i) Grain boundaries
(ii) Tilt and twist boundaries
(iii) Twin boundaries
(iv) Stacking fault
(i) Grain boundaries
Whenever the grains of different orientations
separate the general pattern of atoms and exhibits a
boundary, the defect caused is called grain boundary.
(Fig. 7.47)
Fig. 7.47 Boundary between two grains
A grain boundary is formed when two growing grain
surfaces meet. The shape of the grain is usually influenced by
the presence of surrounding grains.
7.78 Engineering Physics
This type of defect generally takes place during the
solidification of liquid metal.
(ii) Tilt and twist boundaries
Tilt boundary is another surface imperfection. It is an array
of parallel edge dislocations of same sign (i.e., either T or )
arranged one above other in an array or series (figure 7.48.)
Fig. 7.48 Tilt boundary
Tilt boundary is a type of low angle boundary (i.e., less
than 10).
By rotation of an axis in the boundary, it is possible to
bring the axis of two bordering grains into coincidence, then
b
Angle of tilt, tan
D
D - Dislocation spacing
b - Length of Burger’s vector
When is very small, then tan
b
D
Crystal Physics 7.79
Twist boundaries
Twist boundaries are another type of low angle
boundaries. It consists of atleast two sets of parallel screw
dislocations lying in the boundary. In twist boundary, the
rotation is about an axis normal to the boundary.
(iii) Twin boundaries
Twin boundaries are another surface imperfections.
If the boundaries in which the atomic arrangement on one
side of the boundary is somewhat a mirror image of the
arrangement of atoms of the other side (fig. 7.49,). The defect
caused is called twin boundary.
Fig. 7.49 Twin boundaries
7.19 STACKING FAULTS
It is a kind surface imperfection. Whenever the
stacking of atoms is not in proper sequence throughout
the crystal, defect caused is called stacking fault.
Explanation
Fig. 7.50(a) shows the proper sequence of atomic planes if
we read from bottom to top as A – B – C – A – B – C – A
– B – C.
7.80 Engineering Physics
But fig. 7.49 (b) shows the sequence of atomic planes as
A – B – C – A – B – A – B – A – B – C.
The region in which the stacking fault occurs (A – B – A –
B) forms a thin region of a hexagonal close packing in a FCC crystal.
Fig. 7.50 Stacking fault
7.20 ROLE OF IMPERFECTION IN PLASTIC
DEFORMATIONS
Dislocations and Plastic Deformation
Suppose a crystal is deformed by the application of stresses.
Now, it returns to its original state upon removal of the stresses,
then the deformation is said to be elastic.
However, it does not return to its original state, i.e., retains
a certain amount of deformation, then the deformation is said
to be plastic.
It is generally believed that in most of the crystals the
plastic deformation results from the slip of one part of the
crystal relative to another.
If we confine ourselves with the plastic deformation which
is composed of an increase in length only, then Fig. 7.51 is used
Fig. 7.51 Illustrating increase in length resulting from slip.
The dashed line shows the original cross-section of the crystal.
Crystal Physics 7.81
to explain how such a process may lead to an increase in length
of a crystal under the influence of tension.
Since slip is caused by the presence of dislocation, a
connections between plastic deformation and dislocations must
obviously exist.
Note:
This connection may be guessed directly from a simple
observation:
Suppose a carpet lies on a floor and it is necessary to
displace it by a short distance.
In this analogy the carpet and the floor represent two
adjacent planes of atoms and the requirement is to find with
how small a force one may produce the displacement. There are,
of course, two ways of proceeding.
First, we can apply a force to one end of the carpet,
sufficient in magnitude to cause the whole carpet to slip into
the required position. The magnitude of this force depends on
the attraction between the floor and carpet, and if the carpet
is heavy the magnitude may be quite large.
The second way of displacing the carpet over the floor is
to make a small rack or fold extending across the carpet and
then to cause it to move across the carpet; the fold corresponds
to a fault in the atomic planes, which is a dislocation.
Note that the displacement of the whole carpet caused by
moving the fold right across the carpet is, on completion,
indistinguishable from a that produced by the first method, but
the magnitude of force used in this process is considerably smaller.
This observation suggests the following connection between
plastic deformation and dislocations:
The movement of dislocations in real crystals causes plastic
deformation to appear at comparatively low stress values. These
stress values are found to agree with experimental stress values
which are employed to cause plastic deformation.
7.82 Engineering Physics
Crystal growth
Solidification and Crystallization
Solidification is the transformation of material from
liquid to solid state on cooling.
When the liquid solidifies, the energy of each atom is
reduced. This energy is given out as latent heat during the
solidification process. For a pure metal, it occurs at a fixed
temperature, Ts (Fig. 7.52).
Fig. 7.52 A pure metal solidifies at a fixed temperature Ts
and atoms arrange themselves in some regular manner
During solidification, the disordered structure of the liquid
(constituents of material in liquid state have more velocity, more
collisions and hence have random position) transforms to the
orderly arrangement depending upon the time of solidification.
This solidification process greatly influences the crystal growth.
7.21 GROWTH OF SINGLE CRYSTALS
The crystal growth technique is classified into 6 types.
They are
(i) Melt growth
Crystal Physics 7.83
(ii) Low temperature solution growth
(iii) High temperature solution growth (Flux growth)
(iv) Hydrothermal growth
(v) Gel growth
(vi) Vapour phase growth
Melt Growth Techniques
Melt growth is the process of crystallization by fusion
and resolidification of the starting materials from the melt.
The crystal growth from melt is obtained by various
techniques. The main techniques are:
(a) Czochralski Technique
(b) Bridgman Technique
(c) Verneuil method
(d) Zone melting Technique
7.22 CZOCHRALSKI TECHNIQUE
Principle
It is a crystal pulling technique of growth of crystal
by a gradual layer by layer condensation of melt. It is
based on liquid - solid phase transition initiated by a seed
crystal.
Description of technique
The schematic diagram of this technique is shown in fig.
7.53. The apparatus consists of the following essential parts.
Crucible
Heater
Seed crystal
Crystal holder
7.84 Engineering Physics
The pure material (silicon or germanium) which is to be
grown in the form of a single crystal is taken in the crucible.
The material is heated above the melting point by using
induction heater. Thus, the melt is obtained in the crucible. A
small defect free single crystal, called seed crystal is introduced
into the melt by means of a crystal holder.
A small portion of seed crystal (immersed in the melt) is
initially melted. The temperature is then suitably adjusted for
the growth of seed crystal by the solidification of melt into a
thin layer of crystal.
The seed crystal is rotated and gradually pulled out of the
melt by maintaining the grown crystal and melt interface near
the surface of the melt.
Fig. 7.53 Czochralski method
Thus, a single crystal grows on the seed crystal. The
diameter of the grown crystal is controlled by the temperature
of the melt and rate of pulling.
Crystal Physics 7.85
The seed crystal acts as (i) a nucleation centre i.e., the
solidified material at the surface of the seed will reproduce
single-crystal structure of seed and (ii) heat sink through which
the latent heat of solidification escapes.
The large size cylindrical shaped grown crystal is known
as ingot.
Advantages
This technique provides growth of the crystal from strain
free surface. ie., free from crystal defect.
It can produce large size single crystal.
It allows convenient chemical composition of crystal.
This method enables easy control of atmosphere during
growth.
Limitations
High vapour pressure of the materials can be produced.
Possibility of liquid phase encapsulation during
solidification.
It may produce contamination of melt by the crucible.
Application
Large, single crystals of silicon and germinium (for IC
fabrication) are grown by this method.
7.23 BRIDGMAN TECHNIQUE
It is a common technique used for growing single crystals
from the melt.
Principle
The selective cooling of the molten material to form
single crystal by solidification along a particular
direction.
7.86 Engineering Physics
Types of Bridgman Technique
There are two types of Bridgman techniques of growing
crystals.
They are.
(i) Vertical Bridgman technique
(ii) Horizontal Bridgman technique
In both techniques, the melt in a sealed crucible is
progressively frozen from one end by one of the following
methods.
Moving the crucible down the temperature gradient (ie.,
moving from high temperature region to low temperature
region of the furnace).
Moving the furnace over crucible (crucible is stationary).
By keeping both furnace and crucible stationary and
cooling the furnace steadily along the crucible.
Vertical Bridgman Technique
Description
In this method, the material to be grown in the form of
a single crystal is taken in a cylindrical crucible. The crucible
is made of platinum and tapered conically with pointed tip at
the bottom as shown in the fig 7.54.
The crucible is suspended in the upper furnace until the
material in the crucible is completely melted into a molten liquid.
The crucible is then slowly lowered from upper furnace into
lower furnace with help of an electric motor. The temperature
of the lower furnace is maintained below the melting
temperature of the melt inside the crucible.
Since, the pointed tip enters the lower furnace first, the
melt at this point starts to solidify to form crystal.
Crystal Physics 7.87
Fig. 7.54 Vertical Bridgman Technique of growing crystal
As the crucible is continuously lowered, the solidification
of melt continues to form crystal until all the melt becomes a
solid crystal. Thus, a bulk single pure crystal can be grown in
the crucible by lowering the crucible at steady rate.
Advantages
It is a simple technique.
Control over vapor pressure is possible during growth.
Crucible can be evacuated and sealed. Hence, oxidation
of melt is prevented.
In this technique, control over the shape and size of
growing crystals can easily be achieved.
It enables easy stabilization of temperature gradients.
Limitations
Confinement of crystals may occur.
Crystal perfection is not better than that of the seed.
No visibility of material during growth
7.88 Engineering Physics
Applications
Examples of the crystals grown by this method are
Sodium chloride NaCl
Potassium chloride KCl
Calcium fluoride CaF2
Silver bromide AgBr
7.24 SOLUTION GROWTH TECHNIQUE
It is a simplest method to grow many crystalline materials
which are highly soluble. There are two types of solution growth
techniques in practice.
i(i) Low temperature 35C 100C solution growth.
(ii) High temperature about 1200C solution growth
or flux growth.
Low temperature solution growth
The low temperature solution growth is suitable for the
materials which decompose at high temperature and undergo
phase transformation below the melting point.
The solvents such as ethyl alcohol, acetone, carbon tetra
chloride are used to prepare solution. In some cases, mixture of
different solvents are also used.
The apparatus used to grow the crystal from low
temperature solution growth is shown in fig 7.55.
It consists of a large tank and a constant temperature bath.
The solution is prepared by dissolving the substance (to be
grown) in a solvent.
Crystal Physics 7.89
Fig. 7.55 Low temperature solution growth
The seed crystal is a small piece of same crystalline
substance. This seed crystal is introduced inside the solution and
gently rotated by an electric motor.
The crystallization from solution takes place by the
following three steps
Super saturation of solvent
Growth of crystal nuclei
Successive growth of crystal to get distinct faces
When the solution is super saturated, the growth of seed
crystal is obtained by one of the following procedures
ii(i) Slow cooling of the solution
i(ii) Slow evaporation of solvent
(iii) Temperature gradient
Slow cooling method
In this method, a saturated solution above room
temperature is taken in a bath. A seed crystal is suspended in
the solution and the temperature is reduced at slow rate.
7.90 Engineering Physics
The crystallization begins in the temperature range of
45C – 75C and the lower limit of cooling is the room
temperature. The seed crystal produces a large size single
crystal.
Slow evaporation method
In this method, the super saturation of solution is achieved
by evaporating the solvent at a fixed temperature.
The solute concentration increases and grows into crystal
on a seed crystal. Thus, large size single crystals can be
obtained.
Typical growth conditions involve a temperature
stabilization of about 0.05C and rate of evaporation of a few
3
mm / h of solution is maintained.
Advantages
This is a simple and convenient method of growing single
crystals of large size.
Crystal growth of defect free crystals is possible.
It permits the growth of prismatic crystals by varying
the growth conditions.
Limitations
The growth substance should not react with the solvent.
This method is applicable only for substances which are
fairly soluble in a solvent.
Small crystals are also formed on the walls of the vessel
near the surface of the liquid. These tiny crystals fall
in the solution and hinder the growth of the crystal.
A variable rate of evaporation may affect the quality of
the crystal.
Crystal Physics 7.91
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 7.4
Lattice constant of a BCC crystal is 0.36 nm. Find its
atomic radius. [A.U. Jan 2013]
Given data
9
a 0.36 nm 0.36 10 m
Solution
3
a
For BCC, r
4
substituting the given value, we have
9
0.36 10
3 9
r nm 0.16 10 m
4
r 0.16 nm
Problem 7.5
10
Copper is FCC whose atomic radius is 1.26 10 m.
Calculate its lattice constant. (A.U. May 2012)
Given data
10
r 1.26 10 m.
Solution
a
2
For FCC, r
4
4r
a
2
substituting the given value, we have
7.92 Engineering Physics
10
4 1.26 10
m
2
10
a 3.56 10 m
a 3.56 Å
Problem 7.6
An element has a HCP structure. If the radius of the
atom is 1.605 Å, find the volume of unit cell.
(A.U. Jan 2011)
Given data
10
r 1.605 Å 1.605 10 m
Solution
In the case of HCP,
10 10
a 2r 2 1.605 10 3.21 10 m
Axial ratio of HCP,
c
a
8
3
Substituting for a, we have
c 8
3.20 10
10 3
8
c
10
3.21 10
3
10
c 1.633 3.21 10
Crystal Physics 7.93
10
c 5.24 10 m
2
3 a c
3
Volume of unit cell V
2
10 2 10
3 1.732 3.21 10 5.24 10
V
2
28
2.8 10 28 3
V 1.4 10 m
2
28 3
V 1.4 10 m
Problem 7.7
Copper has a fcc structure and its atomic radius is
1.273 Å. Find (1) lattice parameter and (2) density of
copper.
Atomic weight of copper 63.5
26 –1
Avagadro’s number 6.02 10 mol (A.U. Jan 2012)
Given data
Atomic radius for fcc system r 1.273 Å
10
1.273 10 m
Atomic weight of copper M 63.5
26 1
Avagadro’s number N 6.02 10 mol
Number of atoms per unit cell n 4
Solution
4r
Lattice parameter a
2
7.94 Engineering Physics
10
4 1.273 10
a
1.414
10
Lattice constant a 3.60 10 m
nM
We know that density 3
Na
Substituting the given values, we have
4 63.5
26 10 3
6.02 10 3.60 10
3
Density of copper 9043 kg m
Problem 7.8
- iron of atomic weight 55.85 solidifies into BCC
3
structure and has a density 7860 kg m . Calculate the
radius of an atom. (A.U. Dec 2012)
Given data
Atomic weight M 55.85
3
Density 7860 kg m
Number of atoms per unit cell for BCC 2
26 1
Avagadro’s number N 6.023 10 mol
Solution
nM
We know that 3
Na
3 nM
a
N
Crystal Physics 7.95
1 3
nM
a
N
Substituting the given values, we have
1 3
2 55.85
a 26
6.023 10 7860
30 1/3
a 23.59 10
10
a 2.869 10 m
a
3
Atomic radius for BCC, r
4
10
2.869 10 1.732
r
4
10
r 1.242 10 m
r 1.242 Å
Problem 7.9
Ge crystallizes in diamond (form) structure with 8 atoms
per unit cell. If the lattice constant is 5.6 Å Calculate
its density. (A.U. May 2012)
Given data
Number of atoms per unit cell n 8
10
Lattice constant a 5.6 Å 5.6 10 m
Atomic weight, M 72.59
Avagadro’s number, N 6.02 10
26
mol
–1
[ ...
2 1.414 ]
7.96 Engineering Physics
Solution
nM
We know that 3
a N
Substituting the given values, we have
8 72.59
10 3 26
5.6 10 6.02 10
580.72
4
1057.208 10
3
5492.96 kg m
Problem 7.10
Lithium crystallizes in BCC structure. Calculate the
lattice constant, given that the atomic weight and
3
density for lithium are 6.94 and 530 kg m respectively.
(AU. Jan 2011)
Given Data
Atomic weight M 6.94
3
Density 530 kg m
No. of atoms per unit cell for BCC, n 2
26 1
Avagadro’s number 6.02 10 kg mol
Solution
nM
We know that 3
a N
3 nM
a
N
Crystal Physics 7.97
1/3
nM
a
N
Substituting the given values, we have
1/3
2 6.94
a 26
530 6.02 10
29 1/3
a 4.35 10
10
a 3.516 10
a 3.516 Å
Problem 7.11
Calculate the number of atoms per unit cell of a metal
with lattice parameter 2.9 Å. Given molecular weight
3
55.85, density 7870 kg m and Avagadro’s number
26 1
6.02 10 mol (A.U. May 2012)
Given data
10
Lattice parameter a 2.9 Å 2.9 10 m
Molecular weight 55.85
3
Density 7870 kg m
26 1
Avagadro’s number, N 6.02 10 mol
Solution
nM
We know that 3
a N
3
a N
n
M
7.98 Engineering Physics
Substituting the given values, we have
10 3 26
2.9 10 7870 6.02 10
n
55.85
n 2
(Guess whether the metal is SC / BCC / FCC) Ans: BCC
Problem 7.12
Copper has FCC structure and its atomic radius is
0.1278 nm. Calculate its density. Take the atomic weight
of copper as 63.5. (A.U. May 2011)
Given data
9
Atomic radius r 0.1278 nm 0.1278 10 m
Atomic weight 63.5
26 1
Avagadro’s number N 6.02 10 mol
Number of atoms per unit cell for FCC, n 4
Solution
We know that atomic radius for FCC
2 a
r
4
4r
a
2
substituting the given values, we have
9
4 0.1278 10
2
9
a 0.3614 10 m
Crystal Physics 7.99
nM
Density 3
a N
Substituting the given values, we have
4 63.5
9 3 26
0.3614 10 6.02 10
3
8939 kg m
Problem 7.13
Silicon has the same structure as diamond and a bond
length of 0.2351 nm. Estimate its density.
(A.U. Jan 2010)
Given data
In the case of diamond cubic structure,
9
Bond length 2r 0.2351 nm 0.2351 10 m
9
Atomic radius r 0.11755 10 m
. .
Number of atoms per unit cell n 8 ( . diamond
structure)
Atomic weight M for silicon 28.09
26 1
Avagadro’s number N 6.02 10 mo l
Solution
8r
We know that for diamond structure a
3
9
8 0.11755 10
substituting for r, we have
3
9
a 0.543 10 m
7.100 Engineering Physics
nM
We know that 3
Na
Substituting the given values, we have
8 28.09
26 9 3
6.02 10 0.543 10
3
2331 kg m
Problem 7.14
Calculate the interplanar spacing of three important
planes (100), (110) and (111) of a simple cubic system.
(A.U. Jan 2013)
Solution
a
d100 a
2 2 2
1 0 0
a a
d110
1 1 0
2 2 2
2
a a
d111
2
1 1 1
2 2
3
Problem 7.15
The distance between (110) plane in a BCC structure is
2.03 Å. What is the size of unit cell? (A.U. Jan 2011)
Given data
d110 2.03 Å
h 1, k 1, l 0
Solution:
a
We know that dhkl
h k l
2 2 2
Crystal Physics 7.101
a dhkl
h k l
2 2 2
Substituting the given values,
a d110
2 2
1 1 0
2
a 2.03 Å
2
size of unit cell 2.87 Å
Problem 7.16
Show that for a simple cubic system
d100 : d110 : d111 : :
6 : 2 .
3 : (A.U. Jan 2013)
Solution
Distance d between the adjacent planes is given by
a
d
h k l
2 2 2
a
Hence, d100 a
2 2 2
1 0 0
a a
d110
2
1 1 0
2 2
2
a a
d111
2 2 2
1 1 1 3
a a
d100 : d110 : d111 0 : :
2
3
Multiplying by
6 and dividing by a on R.H.S., we have
6 a
6 a
6 a
d100 : d110 : d111 : :
a 2 a
3 a
7.102 Engineering Physics
d100 : d110 : d111 6 :
3 :
2
Problem 7.17
Find Miller indices of a set of parallel planes that make
intercepts in the ratio 3a : 4b on the X and Y axes and
are parallel to Z axis, a, b, c being primitive vectors of
the lattice. Also calculate the interplaner distance of the
planes taking the lattice to be a cubic with
a b c 2Å. [A.U. April 2010]
Solution:
We have pa : qb : rc 3a : 4b : c
Lattice constant a 2Å
where p, q and r are intercepts along X, Y and Z axes
p:q:r 3:4:
1 1 1 1 1 1
: : : :
p q r 3 4
We know that Miller indices of a plane are the smallest
integers of the reciprocals of its intercepts. Thus, Miller indices
of the given set of planes are (4 3 0).
Interplaner distance is given by
a
d
h k l
2 2 2
Substituting the given values, we have
2
d
2 2 2
4 3 0
Crystal Physics 7.103
2
d
16 9 0
2
25
2
d Å
5
d 0.4 Å
Interplanar distance of planes d 0.4 Å
Problem 7.18
Determine spacing between (i) (100) planes (ii) (110)
planes (iii) (111) planes in NaCl crystal having a lattice
constant a 5.64 Å. [A.U. April 2013]
Given data
10
Lattice constant a 5.64 Å 5.64 10 m
Solution
a
d
h k l
2 2 2
For [100] planes
10
a 5.64 Å 5.64 10 m
Here h 1, k 0, l 0
10
5.64 10
d100
2 2 2
1 0 0
10
d100 5.64 10 m
7.104 Engineering Physics
d100 5.64 Å
For [110] planes
10
a 5.64 10 m
Here h 1, k 1, l 0,
10
5.64 10
d110
2 2 2
1 1 0
10
5.64 10 10
d110 4 10 m
2
d110 4 Å
For [111] planes
10
a 5.64 10 m
Here h 1, k 1, l 1
10
5.64 10
d111
2 2 2
1 1 1
10
5.64 10 10
d111 3.26 10 m
3
d111 3.26 Å
Problem 7.19
Calculate the interplanar distance for (321) plane in
simple cubic lattice with interatomic spacing equal to
4.12 Å. (A.U May 2012)
Crystal Physics 7.105
Given data
h 3, k 2, l1
10
a 4.12 Å 4.12 10 m
Solution
a
We know that d
h k l
2 2 2
Substituting the given values, we have
10 10
4.12 10 4.12 10
d
3 2 1
2 2 2
941
10
4.12 10
d
14
10
4.12 10
d
3.74165
10
d 1.011 10 m
d 1.10 Å
Problem 7.20
Lattice constant of copper is 0.38 nm. Calculate the
distance between (110) planes. (A.U. Jan 2013)
Given data
9
a 0.38 nm 0.38 10 m
h1 k1 l0
7.106 Engineering Physics
Solution
a
We know that d
2 2 2
h k l
Substituting the given values, we have
9
0.38 10
d
2 2 2
1 1 0
9
0.38 10 9
0.27 10
2
d 0.27 nm
ANNA UNIVERSITY PART - A ‘2’ Marks
Q&A
1. What is a space lattice? (A.U. May 2008, Dec 2009)
It is an array of points in three dimensions in which every
point has an identical surroundings.
2. What is a unit cell? (A.U. May 2011, Jan 2009)
It is the smallest volume of a solid from which the entire
crystal structure can be constructed by repetition in
three-dimension.
3. Name the seven crystal systems. (A.U. Jan 2010)
(i) Cubic
(ii) Tetragonal
(iii) Orthorhombic
(iv) Monoclinic
(v) Triclinic
(vi) Rhombohedral
(vii) Hexagonal
Crystal Physics 7.107
4. What is primitive cell? (A.U. May 2011)
A primitive cell is the simplest type of unit cell which
contains only one lattice point per unit cell.
5. Name the crystal structure of the following:
(a) Gold (b) Germanium (c) Barium (d) Zinc
(A.U. Dec 2008)
(a) Gold - FCC (b) Germanium - Diamond cubic
(c) Barium - BCC (d) Zinc - HCP
6. Bismuth has a b c 4.74 Å and angles 60.
What is its crystal structure? (A.U. Nov 2008)
Given a b c 4.74 Å, 60
Since a b c and 90
The crystal structure of Bismuth is trigonal
(Rhombohedral).
7. What are Bravais lattices? (A.U. May 2010, Jan 2012)
There are only 14 ways of arranging points in 3 -
dimensional space such that the environment looks same from
each point. ie., there are 14 possible types of space lattices out
of the seven crystal systems. These 14 space lattices are called
Bravais lattices.
8. Give the values of number of atoms in unit cell for
SC, BCC, FCC and HCP. (A.U. Jan 2008, 2009)
Number of
Type of Structure atoms in
unit cell
Simple Cubic (SC) 1
Body Centred Cubic (BCC) 2
Face Centred Cubic (FCC) 4
Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) 6
7.108 Engineering Physics
9. Define coordination number. (A.U. Dec 2010)
It is the number of nearest neighbouring atoms that any
atom has in the given crystal structure.
10. Give the coordination numbers for SC, BCC, FCC,
HCP and Diamond (A.U. May 2009)
Coordination
Type of Structure
number
Simple Cubic (SC) 6
Body Centred Cubic (BCC) 8
Face Centred Cubic (FCC) 12
Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) 12
Diamond 4
11. Define atomic radius. (A.U. Jan 2011)
The half of the distance between nearest neighbouring
atoms in a crystal is known as atomic radius. The atomic radius
is denoted by ‘r’ and it is usually expressed in terms of the
cube edge ‘a’ (lattice parameter).
12. Obtain the formula for atomic radius ‘r’ in terms of
lattice constant ‘a’ for simple cubic. (A.U. Dec 2009)
In simple cubic structure,
2r a
a
r
2
Face of the SC unit cell
Crystal Physics 7.109
13. Arrive at an expression for atomic radius in terms of
lattice constant for BCC. (A.U. May 2012)
In BCC, along the body diagonal AG,
r 2r r a
3
4r a
3
3 a
r
4
14. Derive an expression for atomic radius in terms of
lattice parameter for FCC. (A.U. Jan 2011)
For FCC, along any face diagonal,
r 2r r a
2
4r a
2
2 a
r
4
15. Define packing factor. What is its unit?
(A.U. April 2011, May 2012, May 2013)
It is the ratio of volume of atoms in unit cell to the volume
of the unit cell. It has no unit, since it is a ratio of same physical
quantity.
16. Calculate packing factor in the case of simple cubic
structure. (A.U. Dec 2012)
Volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell v
Packing factor
Volume of unit cell V
4 3
1 r
3
3
a
a
For SC, r
2
7.110 Engineering Physics
4 3
1 r
3
Packing factor 3
a
3
4 a
3 2
PF 3
a
3
4 a
3 23 3.14
PF 0.52
a
3 6 6
PF 52%
17. Calculate packing factor of body centred cubic
crystal. (A.U. May 2013)
Volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell
Packing factor
Volume of the unit cell
4 3
2 r
3
3
a
Number of atoms per unit cell 2
3 a
For BCC, Atomic radius r
4
3
4 3 a
2
3 4
Packing factor 3
a
3 3
3 a
8
3 4
3
3
a
Crystal Physics 7.111
3
8 3 3
3 64
3
0.68
8
PF 68%
18. Calculate the packing factor of face centred cubic
crystal. (A.U. May 2012)
Volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell
Packing factor
Volume of unit cell
Number of atoms per unit cell = 4
4 3
4 r
3
Packing factor 3
a
2 a
Atomic radius r
4
3
4 2 a
4
3 4
Packing factor 3
a
3 3
16
2 a
3 4
3
3
a
2
16 2
2
3 64
2
0.74
6
PF 74%
7.112 Engineering Physics
c
19. State ratio and packing factor for HCP.
a
(A.U. Jan 2010)
c
a
8
3
c
1.6333
a
Packing factor 0.74
2
3
PF 74%
20. What are Miller indice? (A.U. May 2010, Jan 2011)
A set of three numbers to designate a plane in a crystal
is known as Miller indice of the concerned plane, symbolised by
hkl
The reciprocal of the intercepts made by the plane on the
cryptallographic axes which are reduced to smallest integers.
21. Give the expression for interplanar spacing for a
cubic system interms of lattice constant and Miller
indices. (A.U. Jan 2012)
a
Interplanar spacing d
2
h k l
2 2
a lattice constant
h, k, l Miller indice
22. Sketch the (101) plane in a cubic system.
(A.U. May 2008, Jan 2009)
Crystal Physics 7.113
23. Sketch (111) plane for a cubic crystal.
(A.U. May 2010, Jan 2011)
24. Obtain Miller indices of a plane whose intercepts are
b
a, , 3c in a simple cubic unit cell. (A.U. Jan 2010)
2
b
Actual intercepts are a, , 3c
2
1
Numerical parameters are 1, , 3
2
1
Reciprocals of the above 1, 2,
3
3, 6, 1
Miller indices of the plane is 3 6 1
ADDITIONAL PART - A Q & A
1. What are crystalline materials? Give example.
Crystalline materials are materials in which the atoms are
arranged in an orderly fashion throughout in a three
dimensional space. Example: Copper, silver, etc.,
2. What is an amorphous solid? Give example.
It is a type of solid in which the atoms are not arranged
in an orderly fashion. (randomly).
7.114 Engineering Physics
3. What is a crystal?
A crystal is a three dimensional solid composed of a
periodic and regular arrangement of atoms.
4. What are lattice points?
The points in the space to represent position of atom or
group of atoms of the crystal are called lattice points.
5. What is basis?
The crystal structure is formed by associating with every
lattice point a unit assembly of atoms or molecules (ie, one or
more atoms or molecules). This unit assembly is called the basis
or pattern.
6. What are the differences between crystalline and
non-crystalline material.
S. Crystalline Non-crystalline
No material material
(i) They have a definite and They don’t have definite
regular geometrical shapes geometrical shape.
which extend throughout the
crystal.
(ii) They are anisotropic. They are isotropic.
(iii) They are most stable. They are less stable.
(iv) Example: NaCl, KCl, Cu, Example: Plastic, glass,
Au, etc. rubber, etc.
7. What are the lattice parameters of an unit cell?
The intercepts on the axes a, b and c and interfacial angles
, and are called lattice parameters of an unit cell.
8. Define inter-atomic distance and interplanar distance.
Interatomic distance: It is the distance between the centres
of any two nearest atoms.
Crystal Physics 7.115
Inter-planer distance: It is the perpendicular distance
between any two parallel planes.
9. What is the relation between lattice constant ‘a’ and
density ‘’ of the crystal?
nM
3
Na
where,
n Number of atoms in unit cell
M atomic weight
26 1
N Avagadro’s number 6.023 10 mol
10. What is meant by loosely packed crystal structure?
Give an example of this type of material.
The loosely packed crystal structure has the packing factor
less than 0.74. That is, in which more vacant site is available.
Simple cubic polonium and body centred cubic sodium are
examples for loosely packed crystal structures.
11. What is meant by closely packed structure? Give one
example for this.
Closely packed structure has the highest packing factor of
0.74. Here the atoms are closely packed leaving a small space
as vacant site in the crystal. Face centred cubic copper and
hexagonal close packed magnesium are examples to this closely
packed structure.
12. Define diamond structure Give example.
Germanium, silicon and diamond possess a structure which
is a combination of two interpenetrating FCC sub-lattices shifted
1
along the body diagonal by th of cube edge.
4
It is loosely packed structure with packing factor 34%.
7.116 Engineering Physics
13. What is crystal defect?
The deviation from the regularity of arrangement of atoms
is called crystal imperfection or crystal defect.
14. What various types of defects.
(i) Point defects (zero dimensional)
(a) Impurity defect
(i) Substitutional impurity defect
(ii) Interstitial impurity defect
(b) Vacancies
(i) Frenkel defect
(ii) Schottky defect
(ii) Line defects (one dimensional)
(a) Edge dislocation
(b) Screw dislocation
(iii) Surface defects (two dimensional)
(a) Grain boundaries
(b) Twin boundaries
(c) Tilt boundaries
(d) Stacking faults
(e) Ferromagnetic domain walls
(iv) Volume defects (three dimensional)
(a) Cavities or voids
(b) Cracks and holes
15. What is impurity defect? What are types of impurity
defects?
A foreign substance added to a crystal is called impurity.
The impurity atom may fit in the structure in two ways giving
rise to two kinds of impurity defects.
(i) Substitution impurity defect
(ii) Interstitial impurity defect
Crystal Physics 7.117
16. What are vacancies?
Vacancies are empty atomic sites. Vacancies may occur as
a result of imperfect packing during the original crystallization
or they may arise from the thermal vibrations of atoms at higher
temperatures.
There are different kinds of vacancies like Frenkel defect,
Schottky defect, Colour centers etc.
17. What is Frenkel defect?
A vacancy associated with interstitial impurity is called
Frenkel defect.
18. What is Schottky defect?
If an atom is missing from its lattice site, the vacancy is
called Schottky defect.
19. What is line defect? What are its type?
The defect along a line is called line defect. There are two
types of line defects
(i) Edge dislocation and
(ii) Screw dislocation.
20. What is burger’s vector?
The magnitude and the direction of the displacement due
to edge dislocation are defined by a vector called Burger’s vector.
21. What are twin boundaries?
If the atomic arrangement on one side of the boundary is
the mirror image of the arrangement on the other side the defect
is called twin boundaries.
22. What is stacking fault?
This defect arises due to defect in the stacking of atomic
planes. In some cases a part of certain atomic plane will be
missing where as in some other cases a portion of extra atomic
plane is present, changing the sequence of arrangement of
atoms.
7.118 Engineering Physics
23. Mention the various crystal growing techniques.
Melt growth
Low temperature solution growth
High temperature solution growth (Flux growth)
Growth from vapour.
24. What is melt growth? Mention two methods of melt
growth.
Melt Growth is the process of crystallization by fusion and
resolidification of the starting materials from molten state (melt).
(i) Czochralski and (ii) Bridgman methods
25. What are the major practical factors to be considered
during the growth of crystals from melt?
volatility
chemical reactivity
melting point
26. What is basic principle of Czochralski method of
growing crystal?
It is a crystal pulling technique from the melt. The process
is based on a liquid-solid phase transition driven by a seed
crystal in contact with the melt.
27. What are the advantages of Czochralski method?
Crystal growth from defect free surface
Large oriented single crystals can be grown
This technique provides convenient chemical composition
Easy control of atmosphere
28. What are the limitations of Czochralski method?
High vapor pressure affects the quality of crystal materials
Liquid phase encapsulation
Possible contanmination of the melt by the crucible
No reproductivity of the crystal shape
Crystal Physics 7.119
29. What is basic principle of Bridgman technique?
A common technique for growing single crystals involves
selective cooling of the molten material, so that solidification
occurs along a particular crystal direction.
In this technique, the melt in a sealed crucible is
progressively frozen from one end.
30. What are the advantages of Bridgman technique?
Simple technique
Control over vapor pressure
Crucible can be evacuated and sealed
Control of shape and size of growing crystals
Stabilization of thermal gradients
31. What are limitations of Bridgman technique?
Confinement of crystals
Crystal perfection is not better than that of the seed
No visibility
32. What is basic principle of slow evaporation method?
In this method, the saturated solution is kept at a
particular temperature and provision is made for evaporation of
solvent for growth of crystal.
33. What are advantages of slow evaporation method?
This is a simple and convenient method of growing single
crystals of large size.
Growth of defect free crystals is possible.
Permits the growth of prismatic crystals by varying the
growth conditions.
Only method which can be used for substances that
undergo decomposition before melting.
7.120 Engineering Physics
34. What are the disadvantages of slow evaporation
method?
(i) The growth substance should not react with the solvent.
(ii) This method is applicable only for substances which are
fairly soluble in a solvent.
ANNA UNIVERSITY PART - B (16 Marks) Questions
1. Define the terms ‘Atomic radius’ and packing factor.
Calculate the above for SC, BCC and FCC structures.
(A.U. Dec 2012)
2. Calculate the number of atoms per unit cell, coordination
number and packing factor for FCC and BCC structures.
(A.U. Dec 2013)
3. Describe the structure of a HCP crystal. Give details about
its atomic radius, atomic packing factor and axial ratio.
(A.U. April 2013)
4. What is packing factor? Prove that the packing factor of
HCP is 0.74. (A.U. May 2012)
5. (i) Show that the atomic packing factor of FCC and HCP
are the same.
(ii) What are Miller indices ? Explain how they are
determined. (A.U. Dec 2012)
6. What are Miller indices? Sketch two successive (110) planes.
Show that for a cubic lattice the distance between two
successive plane h k l is given by
a
d
h k l
2 2 2
(A.U. May 2012)
7. (i) What are Bravais lattices?
(ii) Derive an expression for the interplanar spacing in a
cubic structure. (A.U. Jan 2009)
8. (i) Define Atomic radius and packing factor.
Crystal Physics 7.121
(ii) Describe a HCP structure. Show that for an HCP
structure c/a
8/3 and hence calculate the packing
factor for the HCP structure. (A.U. Jan 2009)
9. (i) What are Miller indices?
(ii) Derive an expression for the interplanar spacing of
hkl planes of a cubic structure.
(A.U. Jan. 2009, Jan 2010, Jan 2013)
10. Determine the coordination number and packing density for
a hexagonally close packed structure. Show that a HCP
structure demands an axial ratio of 1.633. (A.U. Jan 2010)
11. (i) What are Bravais lattices? Describe using diagrams of
unit cell the different Bravais lattices and their grouping
into the seven crystal systems.
(ii) Describe the arrangement of atoms in FCC and HCP
structures and show that both these structures have the
same atomic packing factor. (A.U. Jan 2010, 2011)
12. Explain diamond cubic structure and obtain its atomic
packing factor. (A.U. Jan 2010)
13. Give the procedure for finding Miller indices of crystal
planes. (A.U. Jan 2010)
14. (i) Draw the standard crystal systems with their lattice
parameters. What are Bravias lattices?
(ii) Explain the procedure to obtain the Miller indices of
crystal planes. Also deduce a relation between Miller
indices and the inter-planar distance. (A.U. Jan 2011)
15. (i) What is packing factor? Obtain packing factors for SC,
BCC and FCC lattices.
(ii) Describe the crystal structure of diamond.
(A.U. Jan 2011)
16. Describe the diamond structure. What type of bond is
present in diamond? (A.U. Jan 2012)
7.122 Engineering Physics
ADDITIONAL PART - B (16 Marks) Questions
1. (a) Explain (i) space lattice (ii) Basis (iii) unit cell
(b) Explain the various types of crystal systems with an
example for each.
2. What are the lattice parameters of a unit cell? Describe
Bravais lattices.
3. Explain crystal defects in a detailed manner.
4. Explain any two crystal growing techniques.
5. Describe Bridgmann method of crystal growth. Mention its
advantages and disadvantages.
6. Explain Czochralski method of growing crystal. Mention the
merits and demerits.
7. Describe the solution growth of crystal and list out its
advantages and disadvantages.
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. In a SC crystal system, the closest distance between its
neighbouring atoms is 2.62 Å. Calculate the spacing between
(100), (110) and (111) planes.
2.62Å 2.62Å
(Ans: 2.62 Å, , )
2
3
2. Calculate the lattice constant of Molybdenum with BCC
3 3
structure and density of 10.2 10 kg/m . The atomic weight
of Molybdenum is 95.94. (Given Avagadro number is
26
6.02 10 ) (Ans: 3.149 Å)
3. The lattice constant of a metal with cubic lattice is equal
3
to 2.88 Å. The density of the metal is 7.20 gm/cm . Calculate
the number of unit cell present in 1 kg of metal.
(Ans: 5.8 1024)
Crystal Physics 7.123
4. Determine the spacing between (i) (100) planes (ii) (110)
planes and (iii) (111) planes in a NaCl crystal having
lattice constant a 5.64 Å
(Ans: d100 5.64 Å, d110 3.99 Å, d111 3.26 Å)
5. Copper crystallises in the FCC structure. The density and
3
atomic weight of copper are 8960 kg/m and 63.54
respectively. Calculate its lattice constant.
(Ans: 3.6 Å )
6. Zinc has a HCP structure. The height of the unit cell is
4.94 Å. The centres of the atoms are 2.7 Å apart. Calculate
the volume of the unit cell and density of zinc.
(Ans: 9.1 10 29 m3, 7160 kg m3)
7. The atomic packing efficiency of a crystal is 68% and the
closest distance of approach between its neighbouring atom
is 2.62 Å. Calculate density of the crystal if the mass of
its one atom is 50.04 amu. (Ans. 6000 kg/m2)
8. Ni has FCC structure with lattice constant 3.52 Å. Calculate
the interplanar spacings for (a) (101) plane (b) (123) plane
(c) (320) plane.
(Ans. 2.49 10 10 m, 9.41 10 11 m and 9.76 10 11 m)
9. Diamond crystallizes in ZnS structure. Calculate its density,
given that the cube edge for diamond is 3.57 Å and the
atomic weight of carbon is 12.01.
(Ans. 3508 kg/m3 Take n 8 since,
Zns structure consists of two inter penetrating FCC structure)
10. The interplanar spacing of (110) plane is 2 Å for a cubic
crystal. Find out the atomic radius.
2 Å, Assuming FCC structure r 10 10 m)
(Ans. a 2
Anna University
Model Question Papers
Model Question Papers MQP1
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
(Common to all branches)
(Regulations - 2017)
MODEL QUESTION PAPER - I
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks
Answer ALL questions
PART – A (10 2 20 marks)
1. What is stress - strain diagram?
2. What are advantages of I-shape girder?
3. What is damped oscillations?
4. What is the function of resonator cavity in laser.
5. What is thermal insulation?
6. What is a refrigenator?
7. State Planck’s hypothesis.
8. Mention the physical significances of the wave function.
9. What is a unit cell?
10. Give the co-ordination numbers for SC, BCC, FCC, HCP
and Diamond.
Part – B
11. (a) Deduce an expression for the couple to produce a unit
twist in a long cylindrical wire fixed at one end. How is it
used in the determination of modulus of rigidity of a wire.
(8 + 8)
(Or)
(b) Derive an expression for depression at the free end of
a cantilever due to load. Explain the experiment to
determine the young’s modulus of the cantilever beam.
(8 + 8)
MQP2 Engineering Physics
12. (a) With suitable diagram explain how laser action is
achieved in homojunction and heterojunction Ga-As laser.
(8 + 8)
(Or)
(b) Derive expression for acceptance angle and numerical
aperture of an optical fiber. Bring out the differences
between step index and graded index fiber.
(12 + 4)
13. (a) Describe theory and experiment to find thermal
conductivity of conductor by Forbe’s method. (8 + 8)
(Or)
(b) Explain the concept of thermal insulation. What is solar
power? Describe the working of solar water heater.
(4 + 2 + 10)
14. (a) Define is compton effect? Derive an expression for the
wavelength of the scattered photon. (2 + 14)
(Or)
(b) Solve Schrodinger wave equation for a particle in a
one-dimensional box. Sketch the wave function and
probability distribution function of the particle. (16)
15. (a) Explain HCP structure and obtain its atomic packing
factor and c / a ratio.
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain Czochrolski method of growing crystal.
Mentions the merits and demerits.
(ii) Calculate the lattice constant of Molybdenum with
3 3
BCC structure. Given density of 10.2 10 kg/m , atomic
weight of Molybdenum is 95.94 and Avagadro number
26
6.02 10 .
Model Question Papers MQP3
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
(Common to all branches)
(Regulations - 2017)
MODEL QUESTION PAPER - II
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks
Answer ALL questions
PART – A (10 2 20 Marks)
1. Name the factors which affect the elasticity of a body.
2. What is bending beam moment?
3. Define progressive wave.
4. What do you mean by population inversion?
5. Write down an expression for the amount of heat conducted
through a compound media of two layers.
6. What is an oven?
7. Find the lowest energy of the electron confined to move in
a one dimensional box of length 1 Å.
31
Given me 9.1 10 kg
34
h 6.625 10 Js
8. What is tunnelling effect?
9. Define Miller Indices.
10. Define atomic packing factor.
Part - B
11. (a) What is cantilever? Derive an expression for the
depression at the free end of a cantilever when the other
end is rigidly fixed (assume the weight of the cantilever is
negligible). (16)
(Or)
MQP4 Engineering Physics
(b) Derive an expression for the elevation at the centre of
a beam which is loaded at both ends. Describe an
experiment to determine Young’s modulus of beam by
uniform bending.
12. (a) For atomic transitions, derive Einstein relations and
hence deduce the expressions for the ratio of spontaneous
emission rate and stimulated emission rate. (16)
(Or)
(b) Explain the construction and working of displacement
and pressure fibre optic sensors.
8 8
13. (a) Write short note on expansion joints and bimetallic
strips. 8 8
(Or)
(b) Give theory and experiment to find thermal conductivity
of a bad conductor by Lee’s method.
8 8
14. (a) (i) Explain Planck’s quantum hypothesis
(ii) Derive planck’s radiation law.
8 8
(Or)
(b) Derive Schrodinger (i) time independent and (ii) time
dependent equation for matter waves.
8 8
15. (a) Define the terms atomic radius and packing factor.
Calculate the above for SC, BCC and FCC structures.
(16)
(Or)
(b) Explain any two crystal growing techniques.
8 8
Model Question Papers MQP5
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
(Common to all branches)
(Regulations - 2017)
MODEL QUESTION PAPER - III
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks
Answer ALL questions
PART – A (10 2 20 marks)
1. What are the uses of stress - strain diagram?
2. Define neutral axis.
3. What is forced oscillations?
4. A step index optical fibre has a core refractive index of 1.5
and cladding refractive index of 1.48. Calculate the critical
angle at the core cladding interface.
5. Define coefficient of linear expansion.
6. Define co-efficient of thermal conductivity and mention its
unit.
7. State Compton effect.
8. Write down Schroedinger time independent and dependent
wave equations.
9. What is a primitive cell? Give an example.
10. An element has FCC structure with atomic radius 0.144
nm. Find its lattice constant.
Part - B
11. (a) (i) Derive an expression for internal bending moment
of the beam. (8)
(ii) Derive an expression for depression at the free end of
cantilever due to load. (8)
(Or)
MQP6 Engineering Physics
(b) Describe with necessary theory, the method of
determining the Young’s modulus of the beam of
rectangular cross-section by non-uniform bending. (16)
12. (a) Give the theory of damped oscillations. Form the
differential equation and it solutions for damped oscillation.
(16)
(Or)
(b) Explain the construction and working of Nd-YAG laser
with neat diagram. (16)
13. (a) (i) Derive an expression for the flow of heat through
the compound media. (8)
(ii) A solid of square of side 50 cm and thickness 10
cm is contact with steam at 100C on one side. A block
of ice at 0C rests on the other side of the solid. 5 kg
of ice is melted in one hour. Calculate the thermal
conductivity of the solid. (8)
(Or)
(b) Write a note on heat exchangers and refrigerators
. 8 8
14. (a) (i) Derive Plank’s law of radiation. (12)
(ii) In a Compton scattering experiment the incident
photons have a wavelength of 3Å. What is the
wavelength of scattered photon if they are viewed at
an angle of 60 to the direction of incidence?
3
Given: me 9.1 10 kg;
34
h 6.625 10 Js;
8 1
c 3 10 ms (4)
(Or)
(b) Explain with a neat diagram the working of scanning
tunnelling microscope. (16)
Model Question Papers MQP7
15. (a) (i) Describe any one method of growing single crystal
from melt along with advantages and limitations of the
method. (8)
(ii) Describe diamond and HCP structures. (8)
(Or)
(b) (i) What is packing factor? Prove that the packing
factor of HCP is 0.74. 2 10
(ii) Copper has fcc structure and its atomic radius is
1.273 Å. Find lattice parameter and density of copper
(4)
UNIT – I
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
UNIFORM BENDING
NON- UNIFORM BENDING
I-SHAPED GRIDERS
UNIT – II
WAVES AND OPTICS
OSCILLATORY MOTION
LASER Light characteristics
Nd – YAG LASER
HOMOJUNCTION SEMI CONDUCTOR LASER
HETEROJUNCTION SEMI CONDUCTOR LASER
OPTICAL FIBER CABLE
NUMERICAL APERTURE
TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBRES
FIBRE OPTIC DISPLACEMENT FIBRE OPTIC PRESSURE
SENSOR SENSOR
UNIT – III
THERMAL PHYSICS
THERMAL EXPANSIONS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
EXPANSION JOINTS
BIMETALLIC STRIPS
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF REFRIGERATOR
LEE’S DISC METHOD
SOLAR WATER HEATER
UNIT – IV
QUANTUM PHYSICS
BLACK BODY RADIATION
ENERGY SPECTRUM BLACK BODY RADIATION CURVE
COMPTON EXPERIMENT
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION
SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE
UNIT – V
CRYSTAL PHYSICS
SIMPLE CUBIC (SC) STRUCTURE BODY CENTRED CUBIC (BCC)
STRUCTURE
FACE – CENTRED CUBIC (FCC) HEXAGONAL CLOSE – PACKED
STRUCTURE (HCP) STRUCTURE
DIAMOND CUBIC (DC) STRUCTURE
CZOCHRALSKI METHOD VERTICAL BRIDGEMANN TECHNIQUE
MELTS – CRYSTAL GROWTH
LOW TEMPERATURE SOLUTION CRYSTAL GROWTH
MILLER INDICES
CRYSTAL IMPERFECTION
BURGER VECTORS
STACKING FAULT
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