CLASS - XI SUBJECT - PHYSICS

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Heat:
Heat is a form of energy which produces in us the sensation of hotness or coldness. For example, if we touch
a piece of ice, heat flows from our body towards ice and we feel cold. Similarly, when we stand near a fire,
heat from the fire flows towards our body and we feel hot.
SI unit of heat. The SI unit of heat is joule (J), and the CGS unit of heat is calorie (cal).
One calorie is defined as amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5 °C to
15.5 °C at a pressure of 1 atm.
1 calorie = 4.186 joule
JOULE'S MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT:
From experiments, Joule established a relation between the work done and heat produced. He showed that
whenever a given amount of work (W) is converted into heat, always the same amount of heat (Q) is produced,
thus W ∝ Q or W=JQ
W
Or J= Q
, If Q=1, then J=W ,

mechanical equivalent of heat may be defined as the amount of work that must be done to produce a unit
quantity of heat.
The proportionality constant J is called Joule's mechanical equivalent of heat.
J = 4.186 J / cal = 4.186 x 10 7 erg / cal ( J is not a physical quantity, It is named conversion factor )
TEMPERATURE:
Temperature is the degree of measurement of hotness or coldness of a body.
Kinetic interpretation of temperature: The temperature of a body is the measure of average kinetic energy of
its molecules. When a body is heated, its molecules moves faster. Their average K.E. increases, this increases
the temperature of the body.

HEAT TEMPERATURE
Heat is a form of energy which produces in us the Temperature is the degree of measurement of
sensation of hotness or coldness. hotness or coldness of a body.

It is a cause, when some heat is supplied to a It is an effect

body, its temperature increases.

It represents the total kinetic energy of the It represents the average kinetic energy possessed
molecules of a body by the molecules of a body. Temperature decides
the direction of flow of heat from one body to
another

Heat flows from high temperature side to low Temperature decides the direction of flow of heat
temperature side irrespective of the amount of heat from one body to another
processed by the bodies in contact

It measured in cal, kcal or joule. It is measured in 0C, 0F or K.

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE:

The device that is used to measure temperature of a body is called thermometer.

A thermometer makes use of some measurable property (called thermometric property) of a substance which
change liner with temperature
There are many properties associated with different materials which change according to the temperature.
We can use one such property to make a particular type of thermometer. For example –
(i) Length of a liquid column in a capillary (Mercury thermometer)
(ii) Pressure of a gas at constant volume (constant volume gas thermometer)
(iii) Volume of a gas at constant pressure (constant Pressure gas thermometer)
(iv) Electrical resistance of a metal wire (platinum resistance thermometer )
(v) Radiated power (Pyrometer)
(vi) Thermally generated voltage (Thermocouple)
For making a thermometer, two standard points are chosen at every scale -

The temperature at which pure ice melts at standard pressure is usually chosen as the lower
fixed point. The temperature at which pure water boils at atmospheric pressure is chosen as
the upper fixed point.
The commonly used scales for measuring temperature are -
(i) The Celsius scale - On this scale,the lower fixed point (ice point) is taken as 0°C and the upper fixed
point(steam point) as 100° C. The interval between the two fixed points is divided into hundred equal
divisions and each division is called 1°C.
(ii) The Fahrenheit scale - On this scale, the lower fixed point is taken as 32°F and the upper fixed point
as 212°F.The interval between them is divided into180 equal divisions and each division is called 1°F.
(iii) The Reaumer scale - On this scale, the lower fixed point is taken as 0°R and the upper fixed point as
80°R. The interval between them is divided into 80 equal divisions and each division is called 1°R.
(iv) The Kelvin scale - On this scale, the lower fixed point is taken as 273.15K and the upper fixed point
as 373.13 K. The interval between the two fixed points is divided into 100 equal divisions.

The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K).

Scale Symbol for each degree LFP UFP Number of divisions on the scale
Celsius °C 0°C 100°C 100
Fahrenheit °F 32°F 212°F 180
Reaumer °R 0°R 80°R 80
Rankine °Ra 460 Ra 672 Ra 212
Kelvin K 273.15 K 373.15 K 100
*Temperature on one scale can be converted into other scale by using the following identity.

Reading on any scale − LFP

= Constant for all scales
UFP − LFP
*All these temperatures are related to each other by the following relationship
C−0 F − 32 K − 273 .15 R− 0 Ra − 460
= = = =
100 212 − 32 373 .15 − 273 .15 80 − 0 672 − 460
C F − 32 K − 273 R Ra − 460
or = = = =
5 9 5 4 10 .6

*The Celsius and Kelvin scales have different zero points but the same size degrees. Therefore any temperature
difference is the same on the Celsius and Kelvin scales (T2 – T1)°C = (T2 – T1) K.
ABSOLUTE SCALE OF TEMPERATURE:
The variation in volume of a gas with temperature
has been shown in the graph –

The graph is a straight line. If we extrapolate the straight line, it meets the temperature exits at
-273.15°C.Thus a gas occupies zero or no volume at -273.15°C.

Moreover, according to the kinetic theory of gases, All molecular motion stops at -273.15°C.
Hence the lowest temperature of -273.15°C, at which a gas is supposed to have zero volume (and zero
pressure) and at which entire molecular motion stop is called the absolute zero of temperature.
In practice, all gases condense to liquids and solids before this temperature is reached.

Lord Kelvin suggested new scale of temperature starting with -273.15 as its zero. This scale of
temperature is know as Kelvin scale or absolute scale. The size of degree on Kelvin scale is same as that
on Celsius scale. Therefore, T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15

Thus ice point (0°C) (lower fixed point)on absolute scale is 273.15 K and the steam point (100° C)(upper fixed
point) is 373.15 K. The absolute scale of temperature is also called thermodynamic scale of temperature.

TRIPLE POINTS OF WATER:

The triple point of water is the state at which the three phases of water namely ice, liquid water and water
vapour are equally stable and co-exist in equilibrium. It is unique because it occurs at a specific temperature
of 273.16 K and a specific pressure of 0.46cm of Hg column.
Thus for water, 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =0.46 cm of Hg and 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 273.16 K or 0.01° C

In Modern thermometry, the triple point of water is chosen to be one of the fixed points.
As it is characterised by a unique temperature and pressure, so it is preferred over the conventional fixed
points namely the melting points of ice and boiling point of a water. The melting point of ice and boiling point
of water both change with pressure. Moreover, the presence of impurities changes their values. But the triple
Point of water is independent of the external factors.
In the absolute Kelvin scale, the triple point of a water is assigned the value 273.16 K. The absolute zero is
taken as the other fixed point on this scale.
Advantages of using mercury as a thermometric end substance as compared to other liquids:
(i)Mercury has a uniform coefficient of expansion over a wide range of temperature.
(ii)Mercury is opaque and bright, so its level can be seen easily in a glass tube.
(iii)It does not stick to the walls of the glass tube.
(iv)It is a good conductor of heat and so attains the temperature of the hot body quickly.
(v)It has low specific heat, it absorbs very small amount of heat from the body whose temperature is to be
measured.
(vi)The range of mercury thermometer is quite large because of its low freezing point(-39°C) and high boiling
point (357°C).
(vii)Mercury is non-volatile.
THERMOMETRY: A branch of science which deals with the measurement of temperature of a substance
is known as thermometry.
The linear variation in some physical properties of a substance with change of temperature is the basic
principle of thermometry and these properties are defined as thermometric property (x) of the substance.
Thermometric properties (x) may be as follows-
(i) Length of liquid in capillary
(ii) Pressure of gas at constant volume.
(iii) Volume of gas at constant pressure.
(iv) Resistance of a given platinum wire.
*In old thermometry, freezing point(lower fixed point) (0°C) and steam point(upper fixed point) (100°C) are
taken to define the temperature scale. So if the thermometric property at temperature 0°C, 100°C and t°C are
x0, x100 and x respectively then-
t−0 x − x0 x − x0
= ⇒ t °C = × 100 °C
100 − 0 x100 − x 0 x100 − x0

*In modern thermometry instead of two fixed points only one reference point is chosen (triple point of water
273.16 K) the other is itself 0 K where the value of thermometric property is assumed to be zero.
So if the value of thermometric property at 0 K, 273.16 K and TK are 0, xT and x respectively then
T x x
= ⇒ T = 273.16   K
273.16 xT  xT 
THERMAL EXPANSION:
Thermal expansion is a phenomenon of increase in dimensions of a body when its temperature is increased.
Different types of thermal expansion:
(i) Linear expansion. It is the increase in the length of a metal rod on heating.
(ii) Superficial expansion. It is the increase in the surface area of a metal sheet on heating.
(iii) Cubical expansion. It is the increase in the volume of blocking of heating.
Cause of thermal expansion. All solids consist of atoms and molecules. At any given temperature, these atoms
and molecules are held at equilibrium distance by forces of attraction. When a solid is heated, the amplitude
of vibration of its atoms and molecules increases. The average inter atomic separation increases. This results
in the thermal expansion of the solid.
Linear expansion:
Suppose a solid rod of length L0 is heated through a temperature ΔT and its final (increased) length becomes
L. Let ΔL be the change in length of the solid rod then it is found from experiments that-
ΔL ∝ L0
ΔL ∝ ΔT
Combining the above two factors, we get
ΔL ∝ L0 (ΔT)
ΔL = 𝛼𝛼 L0 (ΔT)
The proportionality constant 𝛼𝛼 is called coefficient of linear expansion. Its value depends on the nature of the
solid.
ΔL Increase in length
α= L0 (ΔT)
, or α = Original length ×Rise in temperature
0
if L0 = 1 m and ΔT= 1 C then ΔL = 𝛼𝛼
Hence the coefficient of linear expansion of the material of a solid rod is defined as the increase in length per
unit length per degree rise in its temperature.
The units of α is 0C-1 or K-1
Now length of the solid after expansion is given by- L = L0 + ΔL
L = L0 [1 + 𝛼𝛼 (ΔT)]
Superficial or Area expansion:
Suppose a metal sheet of area A0 is heated through a temperature ΔT and its final (increased) area becomes
A. Let ΔA be the change in area of the metal sheet then it is found from experiments that-
ΔA ∝ A0
ΔA ∝ ΔT
Combining the above two factors, we get
ΔA ∝ A0 (ΔT)
ΔA = 𝛽𝛽 A0 (ΔT)
The proportionality constant 𝛽𝛽 is called coefficient of area expansion. Its value depends on the nature of the
solid.
ΔA Increase in area
𝛽𝛽 = A0 (ΔT)
, or 𝛽𝛽 = Original area ×Rise in temperature
if A0 = 1 m and ΔT= 1 0C then ΔA = 𝛽𝛽
Hence the coefficient of area expansion of the material of a metal sheet is defined as the increase in area per
unit area per degree rise in its temperature.
The units of 𝛽𝛽 is 0C-1 or K-1
Now area of the metal sheet after expansion is given by- A = A0 + ΔA
A = A0 [1 + 𝛽𝛽 (ΔT)]

Cubical or Volume expansion:

Suppose a solid block of volume V0 is heated through a temperature ΔT and its final (increased) volume
becomes V. Let Δ V be the change in volume of the solid block then it is found from experiments that-
ΔV ∝ V0
ΔV ∝ ΔT
Combining the above two factors, we get
ΔV ∝ V0 (ΔT)
ΔV = 𝛾𝛾 V0 (ΔT)
The proportionality constant 𝛼𝛼 is called coefficient of volume expansion. Its value depends on the nature of
the solid.
ΔL Increase in volume
𝛾𝛾 = L0 (ΔT)
, or 𝛾𝛾 = Original volume ×Rise in temperature
0
if V0 = 1 m and ΔT= 1 C then ΔV = 𝛾𝛾
Hence the coefficient of volume expansion of the material of a solid block is defined as the increase in volume
per unit volume per degree rise in its temperature.
The units of α is 0C-1 or K-1
Now volume of the solid block after expansion is given by- V = V0 + ΔV
V = V0 [1 + 𝛾𝛾 (ΔT)]
Relation between the coefficients of thermal expansion:
* From linear expansion-
Length of the rod after expansion is given by- L = L0 [1 + 𝛼𝛼 (ΔT)]
Squaring on both the sides L2 = L0 2 [1 + 𝛼𝛼 (ΔT)]2
L2 = L0 2 [1 + 𝛼𝛼 2(ΔT)2 + 2 𝛼𝛼 (ΔT)]
Since 𝛼𝛼 is very small, so the term 𝛼𝛼 2 will be very very small. Thus ignoring the term of 𝛼𝛼 2 with the
comparison of other terms- L2 = L0 2 [1 + 2 𝛼𝛼 (ΔT)], A = A0 [1 + 2 𝛼𝛼 (ΔT)]
Comparing it with A = A0 [1 + 𝛽𝛽 (ΔT)]

𝛽𝛽 = 2 𝛼𝛼
* From linear expansion-
Length of the rod after expansion is given by- L = L0 [1 + 𝛼𝛼 (ΔT)]
Doing cube on both the sides L3 = L0 3[1 + 𝛼𝛼 (ΔT)]3
L3 = L0 3[1 + 𝛼𝛼 3(ΔT)3 + 3 𝛼𝛼 (ΔT) + 3 𝛼𝛼 3(ΔT)3]
2 3
Since 𝛼𝛼 is very small, so the term 𝛼𝛼 and 𝛼𝛼 will be very very small. Thus ignoring these terms with the
comparison of other terms- L3 = L0 3[1 + 3 𝛼𝛼 (ΔT)], V = V0 [1 + 3 𝛼𝛼 (ΔT)]
Comparing it with V = V0 [1 + 𝛾𝛾 (ΔT)]
𝛾𝛾 = 3 𝛼𝛼
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION:
(i)A small gap is left between the iron rails of railway tracks. The two rails are joined by fish plates. If no
gap is left between the rails, the rails may bend due to expansion in summer and the train may get derailed.
(ii)Space is left between the girders used for supporting bridges. This allows their expansion during
summer. Moreover, the ends of the girders are placed on metal rollers to allow the expansion and contraction
to take place easily with the change of season.
(iii)The iron ring to be put on the rim of a cart wheel is always of slightly smaller diameter than that of the
wheel. When the iron ring is heated to become red hot, it expands and slips on to the wheel easily. When it is
cooled, it contracts and grips the wheel firmly.
(iv)Clock pendulums are made of invar. Invar is an alloy. It has extremely small temperature coefficient of
expansion. So the length of invar pendulum does not change with the change of season and the clock gives
almost correct time.
(v)A glass stopper jammed in the neck of a glass bottle can be removed by warming the neck of the bottle.
When the neck of the bottle is slightly warmed, its mouth becomes slightly wider. The stopper becomes loose
and comes out easily
(vi)Only platinum wire is used for fusing into glass. This is because the coefficient of thermal expansion
of platinum is almost the same as that of glass.
(vii) Bi-metallic strip: Two strips of equal lengths but of
different materials (different coefficient of linear expansion) Steel Brass

when join together, it is called “bi-metallic strip”, and can be

used in thermostat to break or make electrical contact. This strip
has the characteristic property of bending on heating due to
Higher temperature
unequal linear expansion of the two metal. The strip will bend Room temperature
(A) (B)
with metal of greater α on outer side i.e. convex side.

THERMAL EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS:

Liquids do not have linear and superficial expansion but these only have volume expansion.Since liquids are
always to be heated along with a vessel which contains them so initially on heating the system (liquid + vessel),
the level of liquid in vessel falls (as vessel expands more since it absorbs heat and liquid expands less) but
later on, it starts rising due to faster expansion of the liquid.
The actual increase in the volume of the liquid = The apparent increase in the volume of liquid + the increase
in the volume of the vessel.
*Liquids have two coefficients of volume expansion.
(i) Co-efficient of apparent expansion (γa) : It is due to apparent (that appears to be, but is not) increase
in the volume of liquid if expansion of vessel containing the liquid is not taken into account.
Apparent expansion in volume (∆V ) a
γa = =
Initial volume × ∆θ V × ∆T
(ii) Co-efficient of real expansion (γr) : It is due to the actual increase in volume of liquid due to heating.
Real increase in volume (∆V ) r
γr = =
Initial volume × ∆θ V × ∆T
 (∆V )Vessel
(iii) Also coefficient of expansion of flask γ Vessel =
V × ∆T
(iv) γ Real = γ Apparent + γ Vessel

(v) Change (apparent change) in volume in liquid relative to vessel is

∆Vapp = V γ app ∆T = V (γ Real − γ Vessel )∆T = V (γ r − 3α )∆T
α = Coefficient of linear expansion of the vessel.

ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER: Generally matter expands on heating and contracts on cooling.
In case of water, it expands on heating if its temperature is greater than 4°C. In the range 0°C to 4°C, water
contracts on heating and expands on cooling, i.e. γ is negative. This behaviour of water in the range from 0°C
to 4°C is called anomalous expansion.
This anomalous behaviour of water causes ice to form first at the surface of a lake in cold weather. As
winter approaches, the water temperature increases initially at the surface. The water there sinks because of
its increased density. Consequently, the surface reaches 0°C first and the lake becomes covered with ice.
Aquatic life is able to survive the cold winter as the lake bottom remains unfrozen at a temperature of about
4°C.
At 4°C, density of water is maximum while its specific volume is minimum.
max

min
Anomalous
behaviour

Anomalous
behaviour
volume

Density

0°C 4°C Temperature 0°C 4°C Temperature

(A) (B)

VARIATION OF DENSITY WITH TEMPERATURE:

Most substances (solid and liquid) expand when they are heated, i.e., volume of a given mass of a substance
 1 1
increases on heating, so the density should decrease  as ρ ∝  . For a given mass ρ∝ ⇒
 V V
ρ′ V V V 1
= = = =
ρ V′ V + ∆V V + γV∆θ 1 + γ ∆θ
ρ
⇒ ρ′ = = ρ (1 + γ ∆θ )−1 = ρ (1 − γ ∆θ )
1 + γ ∆θ

EXPANSION OF GASES:
Gases have no definite shape, therefore gases have only volume expansion. Since the expansion of container
is negligible in comparison to the gases, therefore gases have only real expansion.
(1) Coefficient of volume expansion : At constant pressure, the unit volume of a given mass of a gas,
increases with 1°C rise of temperature, is called coefficient of volume expansion.
∆V 1
α= × ⇒ Final volume V ′ = V (1 + α∆T )
V0 ∆T
∆P 1
(2) Coefficient of pressure expansion : β = ×
P ∆T
∴ Final pressure P′ = P(1 + β ∆T )
 For an ideal gas, coefficient of volume expansion is equal to the coefficient of pressure expansion i.e.
1
α=β = °C −1
273

SPECIFIC HEAT:
The specific heat of a substance may be defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
unit mass of the substance through one degree.
It depends on the nature of the substance and its temperature.
If an amount of heat ΔQ is needed to raise the temperature of M mass of a substance through ΔT, then
specific heat is given by
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
c = 𝑀𝑀×𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥

The CGS unit of specific heat is cal g-1 C-1 and the SI unit is J kg-1K-1.
Clearly, the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of M mass of a substance through ΔT is
ΔQ = M c (ΔT)
MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT:
The molar specific heat of substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
one mole of the substance through one degree.
It depends on the nature of the substance and its temperature.
If an amount of heat AQ is required to raise the temperature of n moles of a substance through A T, then
molar specific heat is given by
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
C = 𝑛𝑛×𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
The CGS unit of molar specific heat is cal mol-1oC-1 and SI unit is J mol-1K-1
Therefore, the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of n moles of a substance through ΔT is
ΔQ = n C (ΔT)
HEAT CAPACITY OR THERMAL CAPACITY:
The heat capacity of a body is defined as the amount of heat required to raise its temperature through one
degree.
By definition, the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a body is equal to specific
heat c. So heat required for m mass is mx c
∴Heat capacity = Mass xSpecific heat
Or S = mc (The CGS unit of heat capacity is cal/OC and the SI unit is J/K )
SPECIFIC HEAT OF LIQUID (WATER):
Among all known solids and liquids specific heat of water is maximum i.e. water takes more time to heat and
more time to cool w.r.t. other solids and liquids.
It is observed that by increasing temperature, initially specific heat of water goes on decreasing, becomes
minimum at 37°C and then it start increasing. Specific heat of water is –
1 cal cal J
= 1000 = 4200 (This value is obtained between the temperatures 14.5°C to 15.5°C)
gm × °C kg × °C kg × °C

1.0089
The variation of specific heat with temperature for water
Sp. heat cal/g C°

1.004
is shown in the figure.
1.000
Usually this temperature dependence of specific heat is neglected.
0.996
20 40 60 80 100
Temp. in °C

As specific heat of water is very large; by absorbing or releasing large amount of heat its temperature changes
by small amount. This is why, it is used in hot water bottles or as coolant in radiators.
SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES:
In case of gases, heat energy supplied to a gas is spent not only in raising the temperature of the gas but also
in expansion of gas against atmospheric pressure. Hence specific heat of a gas, which is the amount of heat
energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of gas through a unit degree shall not have a single or
unique value.
(i) If the gas is compressed suddenly and no heat is supplied from outside i.e. ∆Q = 0, but the temperature of
the gas raises on the account of compression.
Q 0
⇒ c= = =0
m(∆T ) m(∆T )
(ii) If the gas is heated and allowed to expand at such a rate that rise in temperature due to heat supplied is
exactly equal to fall in temperature due to expansion of the gas. i.e. ∆θ = 0
Q Q
⇒ c= = =∞
m(∆T ) 0
(iii) If rate of expansion of the gas were slow, the fall in temperature of the gas due to expansion would be
smaller than the rise in temperature of the gas due to heat supplied. Therefore, there will be some net rise in
temperature of the gas i.e. ∆T will be positive.
Q
⇒ c= = Positive
m(∆T )
(iv)If the gas were to expand very fast, fall of temperature of gas due to expansion would be greater than rise
in temperature due to heat supplied. Therefore, there will be some net fall in temperature of the gas i.e. ∆θ
will be negative.
Q
⇒ c= = Negative
m(−∆T )
Hence the specific heat of gas can have any positive value ranging from zero to infinity. Further it can even
be negative. The exact value depends upon the mode of heating the gas.
*Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of gas by one 0C under constant pressure is
defined as specific heat capacity at constant pressure. It is denoted as CP.
*Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a gas by one 0C under constant volume is
defined as specific heat capacity at constant volume. It is denoted as CV.

*Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of gas by one 0C under constant pressure is
defined as molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure.
*Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas by one 0C under constant volume is
defined as molar specific heat capacity at constant volume.
Water Equivalent : Water equivalent of a body is defined as the mass of water which would absorb or evolve
the same amount of heat as is done by the body in rising or falling through the same range of temperature. It
is represented by W.
If m = Mass of the body, c = Specific heat of body, ∆T = Rise in temperature.
Then heat given to body ∆Q = mc∆T ….. (i)
If same amount of heat is given to W gm of water and its temperature also rises by ∆T. Then
heat given to water Q = W × 1 × ∆T … (ii) [As c water = 1 ]

From equation (i) and (ii) ∆Q = mc∆T = W × 1 × ∆T

⇒ Water equivalent (W) = mc gm [ Unit : Kg (S.I.) Dimension : [ ML0 T 0 ] ]
Unit of thermal capacity is J/kg while unit of water equivalent is kg. Thermal capacity of the body and its
water equivalent are numerically equal. If thermal capacity of a body is expressed in terms of mass of water
it is called water-equivalent of the body.
LATENT HEAT AND PHASE (STATE) CHANGE:
Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas. Any state of a substance can be changed into another by
heating or cooling it. The transition of a substance from one state to another is called a change of state.
The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of a substance at constant temperature and
pressure is called latent heat of the substance.
If m mass of a substance undergoes a change from one state to another, then the amount of heat required
for the process is Q=mL
SI unit of latent heat = J kg -1 CGS unit of latent heat = cal g-1
Latent heat of fusion-The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of a substance from
solid to liquid at its melting point is called latent heat of fusion or latent heat of melting.
It is denoted by Lf
Latent heat of vaporisation-The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of a substance
from liquid to vapour at its boiling point is called latent heat of vaporisation or latent heat of boiling. It is
denoted by Lv.

HEATING CURVE:
If to a given mass (m) of a solid, heat is supplied at constant
rate P and a graph is plotted between temperature and time,
the graph is as shown in figure and is called heating curve.
From this curve it is clear that-
(1) In the region OA temperature of solid is changing with
time so, Q = mc S ∆T ⇒ P ∆t = mc S ∆T [as Q = P∆t]
1
But as (∆T/∆t) is the slope of temperature-time curve, cs ∝
Slope of line OA

i.e. specific heat (or thermal capacity) is inversely proportional to the slope of temperature-time curve.
(2) In the region AB temperature is constant, so it represents change of state, i.e., melting of solid with melting
point T1. At A melting starts and at B all solid is converted into liquid. So between A and B substance is partly
solid and partly liquid. If LF is the latent heat of fusion.
P(t 2 − t1 )
Then Q = mL F or LF = [as Q = P(t 2 − t1 ) ] , or LF ∝ length of line AB ,i.e. Latent heat of fusion
m
1
is proportional to the length of line of zero slope. [In this region specific heat ∝ =∞]
tan 0

(3) In the region BC temperature of liquid increases so specific heat (or thermal capacity) of liquid will be
1
inversely proportional to the slope of line BC i.e., cL ∝
Slope of line BC

(4) In the region CD temperature is constant, so it represents the change of state, i.e., boiling with boiling point
T2. At C all substance is in liquid state while at D in vapour state and between C and D partly liquid and partly
gas. The length of line CD is proportional to latent heat of vaporisation
1
i.e., LV ∝ Length of line CD [In this region specific heat ∝ =∞]
tan 0

(5) The line DE represents gaseous state of substance with its temperature increasing linearly with time. The
reciprocal of slope of line will be proportional to specific heat or thermal capacity of substance in vapour state.
CALORIMETRY: The branch of physics that deals with the measurement of heat is called calorimetry .
Principle of calorimetry or the law of mixtures. Whenever two bodies at different temperatures are placed in
contact with one another, heat flows from the body at higher temperature to the body at lower temperature till
the two bodies acquire the same temperature.
The principle of calorimetry states that the heat gained by the cold body must be equal to the heat lost by the
hot body, provided there is no exchange of heat with the surroundings
Heat gained = Heat lost
This principle is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy and useful for solving problems relating
to calorimetry.

EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON MELTING POINT:

The melting point of those substances which expand on melting (e.g., paraffin wax, phosphorus, sulphur,
etc.) increases with the increase in pressure while the melting point of those substances which contract on
melting (e.g., ice, cast iron, bismuth etc.) decreases with increase in pressure.
Effect of pressure on freezing point of ice Regelation: When two pieces of ice are pressed against one another
for few seconds and then released, they get frozen at the surface of contact. As the pressure is increased, the
melting point of ice is lowered and ice melts. When pressure is released the water so formed (at a temperature
< 00C) immediately freezes again. This phenomenon of refreezing is called regelation.
The phenomenon in which ice melts when pressure is increased and again freezes when pressure is removed
is called regelation (re = again; gelare = freeze)
Practical applications of regelation:
1. By pressing snow in our hand, we can transform it into a snow-ball. When snow is pressed, its crystals melt.
As the pressure is released,water refreezes forming a snow-ball.
2. When the wheels of cart pass over snow, ice melts due to increase in pressure exerted by the wheels. When
pressure is released, water so formed refreezes on the wheels. That is why wheels are covered with ice.
3. Skating is possible due to the formation of water layer below the skates. Water is formed due to the increase
of pressure and it acts as a lubricant.
4. The ice of a glacier, pressed against the sides of its valley melts, and in this way adopts itself to the shape
of the valley.

EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON BOILING POINT:

The boiling point of water increases with the increase in pressure and decreases with the decrease in pressure.

Practical Applications:
1. Cooking is difficult at mountains. The atmospheric pressure at mountains is much lower than that at plains,
so water starts boiling at a temperature much lower than 100 0C Hence cooking is difficult.
2. The pressure inside a pressure cooker is increased much above the atmospheric pressure by not allowing
the steam to escape. This increases the boiling point. Hence the vegetables are cooked inside a pressure
cooker in a shorter time.

MODES OF TRANSFER OF HEAT:

Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three different methods.
(i) conduction,
(ii) convection and
(iii) radiation
THERMAL CONDUCTION:
It is a process in which heat is transmitted from one part of a body to another at a lower temperature through
molecular collisions, without any actual flow of matter.

Solids are heated through conduction. When one end of a metal rod is heated, the molecules at the hot end
vibrate with greater amplitude. So they have greater average kinetic energy. As these molecules collide with
the neighbouring molecules of lesser kinetic energy, the energy is shared between them. The kinetic energy
of the neighbouring molecules increases. This energy transfer takes place from one layer to the next, without
the molecules leaving their average location. This way, heat is passed to the colder end of the rod.

STEADY STATE AND TEMPERATURE GRADIENT:

(Variable state, steady state and temperature gradient)
In the process of conduction, each cross-section of the rod receives heat from the adjacent cross-section of the
hotter side. A part of this heat is absorbed by the cross-section itself whose temperature increases, another
part is lost into the atmosphere by convection and radiation from the sides of cross-section and the rest is
conducted to the next cross-section. In this state the temperature of every cross-section of the rod goes on
increasing with time. The rod is said to be in the variable state of heat conduction.
Suppose the sides of the rod are covered with some insulating material so that no heat is lost from the sides
to the surroundings. After some time, a steady state is reached when the temperature of every cross-section of
the rod becomes constant. In this state, no heat is absorbed by the rod.
This state of the rod when temperature of every cross-section of the rod becomes constant and there is no
further absorption of heat in any part is called steady state. During steady state
(i) the temperatures of two different parts of the rod are different, but the temperature of each part remains
constant.
(ii) every transverse section of the rod is an isothermal surface.
(iii) the temperature decreases as we move away from the hot end.
(iv) the quantity of heat flowing per second through every cross-section is constant
The rate of change of temperature with distance in the direction of flow of heat is called temperature
gradient.
If T1 and T2 are the temperatures of two isothermal surfaces separated by distance x, then
𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2
Temperature gradient = 𝑥𝑥

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:
As shown in Fig, let us consider a block of a material of cross-sectional area A and thickness x. Suppose its
opposite faces are at temperatures Tl and T2 then-
It is found that the amount of heat Q that flows from hot to cold face during the steady state
(i)is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area A,
(ii)is directly proportional to the temperature difference (T1— T2 ) between
the opposite faces,
(iii)is directly proportional to time t for which the heat flows,
(iv)is inversely proportional to thickness x of the block, and
(v)depends on the nature of the material of the block
𝐴𝐴(𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2 )𝑡𝑡
∴Q∝ 𝑥𝑥
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2 )𝑡𝑡
or Q = 𝑥𝑥
The proportionality constant K is called coefficient of thermal conductivity of the given material. Its value
depends on the nature of the material.
** If A = 1m2, T1 - T2 = 10C , t = 1sec, 𝑥𝑥 = 1m , then Q = K
Hence, the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a material may be defined as the quantity of heat that
flows per unit time through a unit cube of the material when it’s opposite faces are kept at a temperature
difference of one degree.
**If the area of cross-section is not uniform or if the steady state condition is not reached, then we consider a
thin layer of the material normal to the direction of heat flow. If A be the area of the cross-section at a place,
dx be a small thickness along the direction of heat flow and dT be the temperature difference across this
thickness dx, then the rate of flow of heat or heat current H is given by -
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
H = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = -KA 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The quantity 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
is called the temperature gradient. The negative sign indicates that 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
is negative in the
direction of flow of heat i.e., temperature decreases along the positive x-direction. Thus the negative sign in
the above equation ensures that K is positive.

𝑄𝑄 . 𝑥𝑥
Units and dimensions of K: The numerical value of K is K = 𝐴𝐴(𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇 )𝑡𝑡
1 2

𝐽𝐽 .𝑚𝑚
∴SI unit of K = 𝑚𝑚2 . 𝐾𝐾 . 𝑠𝑠 = Js-1 m-1 K-1 or Wm-1K-1
CGS unit of K = cal s-1 cm-1 OC-1
�ML2 T−2 �.[L]
Dimension of K = [L2 ].[K][T]
= [MLT-3K-1]

HEAT CURRENT AND THERMAL RESISTANCE:

We know that charge flows in a circuit due to potential difference between its two points. The flow of charge
per unit time is called electric current. Similarly, heat flows in a conductor due to temperature difference
between its two points. The flow of heat per unit time is called heat current, denoted by H.
Q
Thus H = t
, Its SI unit is Js-1 or watt (𝑤𝑤)
V
From Ohm’s law, electric resistance is given by R = I as electric resistance is the ratio of the potential
difference and the electric current.
Similarly, the ratio of the temperature difference between the ends of a conductors to the heat current
through it is called thermal resistance, denoted by RH .
ΔT ΔT
Thus RH = 𝐻𝐻
, As Q = K A Δx t
Q ΔT
∴H = t = K A Δx t
ΔT Δx
And RH = 𝐻𝐻
= 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾

Hence greater the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a material, smaller is the thermal resistance of rod
of that material.
K K
Units and dimensions from RH = ΔT/ H, so SI unit of RH = Js−1
= 𝑊𝑊 = KW-1
[K]
Dimension of RH [ML2 T−2 ].[T−2 ]
= [M-1 L-2 T3K]

APPLICATIONS OF CONDUCTIVITY IN DAILY LIFE:

(i) In winter, a metallic handle appears colder than the wooden door. In winter, the human body is at a
higher temperature than the surrounding objects. As we touch the metallic handle (good conductor), heat flows
from our body to the handle and feels cold. But no heat flows from our body to the wooden door (bad
conductor), so it does not feel that cold as the metallic handle.
(ii) Cooking utensils are provided with wooden handles. Wood is a bad conductor of heat. A wooden
handle does not allow heat to be conducted from the hot utensil to the hand. So we can easily hold the hot
utensils with the help of wooden handles.
(iii)A new quilt is warmer than an old quilt. A new quilt contains more air in its pores as compared to the
old quilt. As air is bad conductor of heat, it does not allow heat to be conducted away from our body to the
surroundings and we feel warmer in it.
(iv)Birds swell their feathers in winter. By doing so the birds enclose air between their feathers and the body.
Air is poor conductor of heat. It prevents the loss of heat from the bodies of the birds to the surroundings and
as such they do not feel cold in winter.
(v)Ice is packed in saw dust. Saw dust and air trapped inside it are poor conductors of heat. This prevents the
conduction of heat from the surroundings to the ice which may otherwise melt the ice.
(vi)Eskimos make double wall houses of the blocks of ice. Air trapped between the two walls of ice does not
allow the heat to be conducted away from the inside of the house to the colder surroundings
(vii)When a wire gauge is placed over the burning Bunsen's burner,the flame does not go beyond the gauge.
Copper is a very good conductor of heat. The copper gauge absorbs most of the heat. Therefore, the
temperature of the gas above the gauge is not high enough to ignite the gas.
(viii)A refrigerator is provided with insulated walls. Generally, fibre glass is used as an insulating material.
This is done to minimise the chances of heat flowing into the refrigerator from outside.

CONVECTION:
It is the process by which heat flows from the region of higher temperature to the region of lower temperature
by the actual movement of the material particles.
Fluids (liquids and gases) are heated mainly by the process of convection in which buoyancy and gravity play
an important role. when a fluid is heated from below, the hot portion at the bottom expands and becomes less
dense. Because of buoyancy, this lighter portion rises up. The denser colder fluid takes its place by moving
downwards. Thus convection current is set up in the fluid. The actual movement of a liquid can be seen by
colouring the liquid with potassium permanganate crystals placed at the bottom of the vessel.
Natural convection is responsible for the origin of different types of winds in the atmosphere.

PHENOMENA BASED ON THERMAL CONVECTION:

(i)In regulating the temperature of human body. In the human body, the heart acts as the pump that
circulates blood through different parts of the body, transferring heat by forced convection. This maintains a
remarkably constant body temperature
(ii) In maintaining comfortable room temperature in cold countries:In cold countries during winter, the
outside temperature is much below from 0 OC while the room temperature is comfortably maintained around
200 C . However, the inside air close to the glass window is cooler than 20 0 C while the outside close to the
window is warmer than the chilling temperature of the atmosphere. Thus heat is continuously transferred from
the room to the outside by convection of air inside the room, conduction across the glass pane and again
convection of air outside. But this heat loss is compensated by the heating system provided in the room.
(iii) In the formation of trade winds. Natural convection plays an important role in the formation of trade
winds. The surface of the earth and hence the air above it near the equator gets strongly heated by the sun.
The heated air expands and rises upwards. The colder air from polar region rushes in towards the equator.
This produces northward wind in northern hemisphere and southward in southern hemisphere. Due to rotation
of the earth about its axis from west to east, the air close to the equator has an eastward speed of 1600 km/h ,
while it is zero close to the poles. As a result, the actual direction of the wind in the northern hemisphere is
north east and in the southern hemisphere, south west. These winds are called trade winds. In ancient times,
the traders used these winds to find the direction of motion of their sailing vessels.
(iv) Land and sea breezes. These are local convection currents. Specific heat of water is higher than that of
soil. So land and hence air above it is heated faster in summer during day time than air above the sea. The air
above land expands and rises and its place is taken up by the colder air from sea to land and is called sea
breeze. At night the landgets cooled faster than water. So colder air flows from land to sea and is called land
breeze.
RADIATION: It is the process by which heat is transmitted from one place to another without heating the
intervening medium.
When we stand near a fire, we feel warmth because of the heat we receive by the process of radiation. The
heat from the sun reaches the earth by the process of radiation, covering millions of kilometers of the empty
space or vacuum.

NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING:

Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of cooling (or rate law of loss of cooling heat) of a body is directly
proportional to the temperature different between the body and its surrounding provide the temperature
difference is small.
This is in accordance with Newton’s law of cooling that a hot water bucket cools fast initially until it gets
lukewarm after which it stay so for a longer time.

Let us consider a hot body at temperature T and To be the temperature of its

surroundings then According to Newton’s law of cooling
Rate of loss of heat ∝ Temperature difference between the body and its
surroundings
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Or - ∝ (𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇0 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Or - 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇0 ) ……(1)

where k is a proportionality constant depending upon the area and nature of the surface of the body.

REFLECTANCE, ABSORPTANCE AND TRANSMITTANCE:

Reflectance: It is defined as the ratio of the amount of thermal energy reflected by a body in a certain time to
the total amount of thermal energy falling upon the body in the same time.
𝑅𝑅
∴Reflectance (r) = 𝑄𝑄

Absorptance: It is defined as the ratio of the amount of thermal energy absorbed by a body in a certain time
to the total amount ofthermal energy incident upon the body in the same time
𝐴𝐴
∴Absorptance (a) = 𝑄𝑄

Transmittance: It is defined as the ratio of the amount of thermal energy transmitted by a body in a certain
time to the total amount of thermal radiation incident on it in the same time.
𝑇𝑇
∴Transmittance (t) = 𝑄𝑄

The reflectance, absorptance and transmittance of a body depend upon nature of the surface of the body and
wavelength of incident radiation. However, these quantities do not depend on the nature of the material of the
body. Hence for radiations of different wavelength, a given body may have different values of reflectance,
absorptance and transmittance.

Reflectance + Absorptance + Transmittance = 1.

ABSORPTIVE AND EMISSIVE POWERS:
Absorptive power: The absorptive power of a body for a given wavelength is defined as the ratio of amount
of heat energy absorbed in a certain time to the total heat energy incident on it in the same time within a unit
wavelength range around the wavelength𝜆𝜆 . It is deno𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡d by 𝑎𝑎𝜆𝜆 . A perfect black body absorbs all the heat
radiations incident upon it. So its absorptive power is unity.The absorptive power is a dimensionless quantity
Emissive power: The amount of heat energy radiated by a body per second depends upon (i) the area of its
surface, (ii) the temperature of its surface and (iii) the nature of its surface. The strength of emission is
measured by a quantity called emissive power.
The emissive power of a body at a given temperature and for a given wavelength 𝜆𝜆is defined as the amount of
radiant energy emitted per unit time per unit surface area of the body within a unit wavelength range around
the wavelength. The SI unit of emissive power is J s-1 m-2 or Wm-2
Emissivity:The emissivity of a body is defined as the ratio of the heat energy radiated per unit time per unit
area by the given body to the amount of heat energy radiated per unit time per unit area by a perfect black
body of the same temperature i.e., it is the ratio of the emissive power (e) of a body to the emissive power
𝑒𝑒
(E) of a black body at the same temperature. It is denoted by ε= 𝐸𝐸
It is dimensionless quantity. Its value lies between 0 and 1. The emissivity of a perfect black body is 1.

BLACK BODY:
A black body is one which neither reflects nor transmits but absorbs whole of the heat radiation incident on
it. The absorptive power of a perfect black body is unity.
When a black body is heated to a high temperature, it emits radiations of all possible wavelengths within a
certain wavelength range. The radiations emitted by a block body are called full or black body radiations.

In practice, a surface coated with lamp black or platinum black absorbs 95 to 97% of the incident radiation.
But on heating, it does not emit full radiation spectrum. So it acts as a black body only for absorption of heat
radiation. It is observed that if a hollow cavity is heated, the radiation coming out from its inner surface
through asmall opening is a full radiation spectrum.
Such a radiation is called cavity radiation. Hence small opening of a heated hollow cavity acts as a perfect
black body both for absorption and emission of heat radiation.
Fery's black body consists of a hollow double walled metal sphere coated inside with lamp black and nickel
polished from outside. Heat radiations entering the sphere through the small opening are completely absorbed
due to multiple reflections. The conical projection opposite the opening prevents direct reflection.

KIRCHHOFF'S LAW:
Kirchhoff's law of heat radiation states that at any given temperature, the ratio of the emissive power to the
absorptive power corresponding to the certain wavelength is constant for all bodies and this constant is equal
to emissive power of the perfect black body at the same temperature and corresponding to the same
wavelength
If 𝑒𝑒𝜆𝜆 and 𝑎𝑎𝜆𝜆 are the emissive and the absorptive powers of a body corresponding to wavelength 𝜆𝜆,
𝑒𝑒
Then𝑎𝑎𝜆𝜆 = 𝐸𝐸𝜆𝜆 (constant) …… (1)
𝜆𝜆
GREENHOUSE EFFECT:
This is the phenomenon which keeps the earth's surface
warm at night.
The radiation from the sun heats up the earth. Due to its
lower temperature, the earth re-radiates it mostly in the
infrared region. These infrared radiations cannot pass
through the lower atmosphere, they get reflected back by
gas molecules. Low lying clouds also reflect them back to
the earth. These radiations heat up the objects on the earth's
surface and so keep the earth's surface warm at night.

STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW:
This law states that the total heat energy emitted by a perfect black body per second per unit area is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of its surface. Thus
E ∝ T4 or E =𝜎𝜎 T4
If H is the rate of radiant energy emitted by a black body of surface area A, then the Stefan-Boltzmann law
takes the form H = EA = 𝜎𝜎 T4 ( 𝜎𝜎 is a universal constant called Stefan Boltzmann constant)
The above relation was first deduced experimentally by Stefan and later proved theoretically by Boltzmann
and hence is known as Stefan-Boltzmann law
In SI units 𝜎𝜎 = 5.67x10-8 Js-1 m-2 K– 4 = 5.67x10-8Wm-2 K-4
In CGS unit ,𝜎𝜎 = 5.67x10-5 erg s-1 cm-2 K-4
If a black body is in an enclosure at temperature To, then the rate at which the black body absorbs radiation
from the enclosure is 𝜎𝜎T04 . Therefore, the net loss of energy by the black body per unit time per unit area is
E =𝜎𝜎(T4 – T04)
If the body is not a perfect black body and has emissivity ε, then above relations get modified as follows;
E =ε𝜎𝜎 T4
E =ε𝜎𝜎 (T4 – T04)

WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW:

The total energy radiated by a black body is not uniformly distributed over all the wavelengths but is maximum
for a particular wavelength λm . The value of λm decreases with the increase of temperature.
Wien’s displacement law states that the wavelength (λm) corresponding to which the energy emitted by a black body
is maximum is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature (T).
Mathematically,
1
𝜆𝜆m∝ 𝑇𝑇
or 𝜆𝜆m T = b where b is Wien’s constant. Its value is 2.9 x 10-3mK

When an iron piece is heated in a hot flame, its color first becomes dull red, then reddish yellow and finally
white. This observation is an accordance with Wien’s law because with increasing temperature, the emission
of energy is maximum corresponding to smaller wavelength.

Wien’s law can be used to estimate the surface temperatures of the moon, sun and other stars. Light from the
moon shows a maximum of intensity at 𝜆𝜆m, = 14 𝜇𝜇m. By applying Wien’s law, the temperature of the surface
of the moon turns out to be 200 K. Similarly, solar radiation shows a maximum at 𝜆𝜆m= 4753 Å.This
corresponds to a surface temperature of 6060 K.