Dimensional analysis, similitude and

modelling
(CHE F212)
Sundari R
BITS Pilani Instructor incharge
K K Birla Goa Campus
Outline

1. Dimensions and units

2. Dimensional homogeneity

3. Non-dimensionalizing the governing equations

4. Dimensional analysis – Buckingham Pi theorem

5. Similitude

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Dimensions and units

• A dimension is a measure of a physical quantity, while a unit is a way to assign a number to that dimension
• Physical measurable, quantities such as length, mass, time and temperature are called dimensions
• Units are arbitrary names assigned to a particular dimension, adopted as standard for measurement.
• Eg. length is a dimension that is measured in units such as microns, cm, m, km etc.
• There are 7 primary dimensions (also called fundamental or basic dimensions)

All secondary dimensions can be formed by some

combination of the seven primary dimensions.
Derive the (a) dimensions of force and (b) surface tension

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 Dimensional Homogeneity
• law of dimensional homogeneity: Every additive term in an equation must have the same dimensions

• Example: Bernoulli equation

𝜌𝑣 2
𝑝+ + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶
2
Verify that each additive term in the Bernoulli equation has the same dimensions. What are the dimensions of the constant C

𝑝 =Pressure = Force/ Area = {Mass x Length /Time2 x1/ Length2} =m/t2L

𝜌𝑣 2
= density x velocity2 = {Mass/Length3 x Length2 /Time2} = m/t2L
2

𝜌𝑔𝑧 = density x acceleration due to gravity x height = {Mass/Length3 x Length /Time2 x Length} = m/t2L

Thus, the constant C has dimensions: m/t2L

In addition to dimensional homogeneity, calculations are valid only when the units are also homogeneous in each additive
term
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 Non- dimensionalizing the governing equations
The equation of continuity and the Navier-Stoke’s equation are written in 2-D as,

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 =− +𝜇 +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 = 𝜌𝑔 − +𝜇 +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

We use scaling parameters to nondimensionalize the above equations

𝑥𝑐ℎ = 𝑦𝑐ℎ = 𝐿
𝑢𝑐ℎ = 𝑣𝑐ℎ = 𝑈∞

𝑢 𝑣 𝑡 𝑝 𝑥 𝑦
The dimensionless variable can be expressed as 𝑢∗ = 𝑢 , 𝑣 ∗ = 𝑣 , 𝑡 ∗ = 𝑡 , 𝑝∗ = 𝑝 , 𝑥 ∗ = 𝑥 , 𝑦 ∗ = 𝑦
𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 5
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 Non- dimensionalizing the governing equations
The equation of continuity is

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

And the scaling parameters are: 𝑥𝑐ℎ = 𝑦𝑐ℎ = 𝐿, 𝑢𝑐ℎ = 𝑣𝑐ℎ = 𝑈∞

𝑢 𝑣 𝑥 𝑦
The dimensionless variable can be expressed as 𝑢∗ = 𝑢 , 𝑣 ∗ = 𝑣 , 𝑥 ∗ = 𝑥 , 𝑦 ∗ = 𝑦
𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ

Equation of continuity can be re-written as

𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝑣𝑐ℎ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗
+ =0⟹ + =0
𝑥𝑐ℎ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝑦𝑐ℎ 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗

Hence, the dimensionless form of continuity equation is

𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗
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 Non- dimensionalizing the governing equations
The Navier-Stoke’s equation in the X direction is,

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 =− +𝜇 +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

We use scaling parameters to nondimensionalize the above equations 𝑥𝑐ℎ = 𝑦𝑐ℎ = 𝐿, 𝑢𝑐ℎ = 𝑣𝑐ℎ = 𝑈∞ , 𝑡𝑐ℎ = 𝐿/𝑈∞

𝑢 𝑣 𝑡 𝑝 𝑥 𝑦
The dimensionless variable can be expressed as 𝑢∗ = 𝑢 , 𝑣 ∗ = 𝑣 , 𝑡 ∗ = 𝑡 , 𝑝∗ = 𝑝 , 𝑥 ∗ = 𝑥 , 𝑦 ∗ = 𝑦
𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ

The dimensionless equation can be written as,

𝑈∞ 2 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝑈∞ 2 ∗ 𝜕𝑢∗ 𝑈∞ 2 ∗ 𝜕𝑢∗ 𝑝𝑐ℎ 𝜕𝑝∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕 2 𝑢∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕 2 𝑢∗

𝜌 + 𝑢 + 𝑣 =− +𝜇 2 +
𝐿 𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 2 𝐿2 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 2
𝜌𝑈∞ 2
Divide the equation throughout by 𝐿 , we get,
𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜕𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑝∗ 𝜇 𝜕 2 𝑢∗ 𝜕 2 𝑢∗
+𝑢 ∗
+𝑣 ∗
=− ∗ + + 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑐ℎ = 𝜌𝑈∞ 2
𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 𝜌𝑈∞ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 2 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 2
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 Non- dimensionalizing the governing equations
The Navier-Stoke’s equation in the Y direction is,

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 =− + 𝜌𝑔 + 𝜇 +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

We use scaling parameters to nondimensionalize the above equations 𝑥𝑐ℎ = 𝑦𝑐ℎ = 𝐿, 𝑢𝑐ℎ = 𝑣𝑐ℎ = 𝑈∞ , 𝑡𝑐ℎ = 𝐿/𝑈∞

𝑢 𝑣 𝑡 𝑝 𝑥 𝑦
The dimensionless variable can be expressed as 𝑢∗ = 𝑢 , 𝑣 ∗ = 𝑣 , 𝑡 ∗ = 𝑡 , 𝑝∗ = 𝑝 , 𝑥 ∗ = 𝑥 , 𝑦 ∗ = 𝑦
𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ

The dimensionless equation can be written as,

𝑈∞ 2 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ 2 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ 2 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜌𝑈∞ 2 𝜕𝑝∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕 2 𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕 2 𝑣 ∗
𝜌 + 𝑢 + 𝑣 =− + 𝜌𝑔 + 𝜇 2 +
𝐿 𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 2 𝐿2 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 2
𝜌𝑈∞ 2
Multiply the equation throughout by ,
we get,
𝐿
𝜕𝑣 ∗ ∗
𝜕𝑣 ∗ ∗
𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑝∗ 𝑔𝐿 𝜇 𝜕2𝑣 ∗ 𝜕2𝑣 ∗
+𝑢 +𝑣 =− ∗+ + +
𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 𝑈∞ 2 𝜌𝑈∞ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 2 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 2 8
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 Non- dimensionalizing the governing equations
The dimensionless equations are:

𝜕𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗

𝜕𝑢∗ ∗
𝜕𝑢∗ ∗
𝜕𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑝∗ 𝜇 𝜕 2 𝑢∗ 𝜕 2 𝑢∗
+𝑢 +𝑣 =− ∗+ +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 𝜌𝑈∞ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 2 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 2

𝜕𝑣 ∗ ∗
𝜕𝑣 ∗ ∗
𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝑔𝐿 𝜕𝑝∗ 𝜇 𝜕2𝑣 ∗ 𝜕2𝑣 ∗
+𝑢 +𝑣 = − + +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝑈∞ 2 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝜌𝑈∞ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 2 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 2

• The actual flow pattern the equations describe, depends on the values of the two coefficients (dimensionless numbers)

• Writing nondimensional forms of the governing equations, then, can yield insight into the underlying physical phenomena, and indicate
which forces are dominant.

• If we have a model and prototype which are geometrically similar, the results would be the same only if the two coefficients had the same
value.

• How do we determine these coefficients for any fluid flow problem? – Dimensional analysis 9
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 Dimensional analysis
• Consider the steady flow of an incompressible, Newtonian fluid through a long, smooth-walled, horizontal, circular pipe

• What is the pressure drop per unit length that develops along the pipe as a result of friction?

• ∆𝑝𝑙 = 𝑓 𝐷, 𝑣, 𝜌, 𝜇

• How to conduct experiments to determine the effect pressure drop per unit length on other parameters?

• Measure ∆𝑝𝑙 by changing one variable keeping all others constant

• Experiments can get extremely difficult!

• How to combine these data to obtain the desired general functional relationship for any similar pipe system?
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 Dimensional analysis
• A much simpler approach to this problem is to collect these into two nondimensional combinations
of variables (dimensionless groups) such that

𝐷∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷𝑣𝜌
• =𝑓
𝜌𝑣 2 𝜇

• The results of the experiment could then be represented by a single, universal curve

• We wouldn’t have to use different pipe sizes or even different fluids. It is clear that the experiment
would be much simpler, easier to do, and less expensive

• Non-dimensionalizing gives rise to just 2 variables instead of 5!

Valid for any
• The results presented in the figure will be independent of the system of units we choose to use combination of
smooth walled pipe
and incompressible
• This type of analysis is called dimensional analysis Newtonian fluid

• How are the dimensionless groups obtained? how many dimensionless products are required to
replace the original list of variables? 11
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 Buckingham Pi Theorem
• If an equation involving k variables is dimensionally homogeneous, it can be reduced to a relationship among k-r
independent dimensionless products, where r is the minimum number of reference dimensions required to describe
the variables

• The dimensionless products are frequently referred to as pi terms, and the theorem is called the Buckingham pi
theorem

• Usually, the reference dimensions required to describe the variables will be the basic dimensions M, L, and T or F, L,
and T

• We employ the method of repeating variables to systematically form the pi terms so that we are sure that they are
dimensionless and independent.

• This method consists of 8 steps

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 Method of repeating variables
• Step 1: List all the variables that are involved in the problem – those representing system geometry, fluid properties and
external effects. Variables to be independent!

• Step 2: Express each of the variables in terms of basic dimensions

• Step 3: Determine the required number of pi terms -> number of pi terms is equal to = k-r

• Step 4: Select the number of repeating variables, where the number required is equal to the number of reference
dimensions - each repeating variable must be dimensionally independent of the others, don’t chose a dependent variable

• Step 5: Form a pi term by multiplying one of the nonrepeating variables by the product of the repeating variables, each
raised to an exponent that will make the combination dimensionless

• Step 6: Repeat Step 5 for each of the remaining nonrepeating variables.

• Step 7: Check all the resulting pi terms to make sure they are dimensionless.

• Step 8: Express the final form as a relationship among the pi terms and draw inferences.
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 Method of repeating variables
• Step 1: List all the variables that are involved in the problem
∆𝑝𝑙 = 𝑓 𝐷, 𝑣, 𝜌, 𝜇

• Step 2: Express each of the variables in terms of basic dimensions

𝑀 𝐿 𝑀 𝑀
∆𝑝𝑙 − , 𝐷 − 𝐿, 𝑣− , 𝜌− , 𝜇−
𝐿2 𝑇 2 𝑇 𝐿3 𝐿𝑇
• Step 3: Determine the required number of pi terms. 5 variables (k)- 3 reference dimensions (r) = 2 pi terms

• Step 4: Select the number of repeating variables, where the number required is equal to the number of reference
dimensions- We choose 𝐷, 𝑣 and 𝜌 as the repeating variables

Hence, non-repeating variables are: ∆𝑝𝑙 and 𝜇

• Step 5: Form a pi term by multiplying one of the nonrepeating variables by the product of the repeating variables, each
raised to an exponent that will make the combination dimensionless
𝜋1 = ∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷𝑎1 𝑣 𝑏1 𝜌𝑐1 and 𝜋2 = 𝜇𝐷𝑎2 𝑣 𝑏2 𝜌𝑐2 14
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 Method of repeating variables
• Step 6: Repeat Step 5 for each of the remaining nonrepeating variables.
𝜋1 = ∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷𝑎1 𝑣 𝑏1 𝜌𝑐1 and 𝜋2 = 𝜇𝐷𝑎2 𝑣 𝑏2 𝜌𝑐2

𝜋1 = ∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷𝑎1 𝑣 𝑏1 𝜌𝑐1

𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = 𝑀1 𝐿−2 𝑇 −2 𝐿𝑎1 𝐿𝑏1 𝑇 −𝑏1 𝑀𝑐1 𝐿−3𝑐1
Equating the powers of M: 1 + 𝑐1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑐1 = −1
Equating the powers of T: −2 − 𝑏1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑏1 = −2
Equating the powers of L: −2 + 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 − 3𝑐1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑎1 =1
∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷
𝜋1 =
𝜌𝑣 2 𝜋2 = 𝜇𝐷𝑎2 𝑣 𝑏2 𝜌𝑐2
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = 𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝐿𝑎2 𝐿𝑏2 𝑇 −𝑏2 𝑀𝑐2 𝐿−3𝑐2
Equating the powers of M: 1 + 𝑐2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑐2 = −1
Equating the powers of T: −1 − 𝑏2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑏1 = −1
Equating the powers of L: −1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 3𝑐2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑎2 = −1
𝜇
𝜋2 =
𝜌𝑣𝐷
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 Method of repeating variables
• Step 7: Check all the resulting pi terms to make sure they are dimensionless.

𝑀 𝑀
∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷 𝐿2 𝑇 2𝐿 𝜇
𝜋1 = = =1 𝜋2 = = 𝐿𝑇 =1
𝜌𝑣 2 𝑀 𝐿 2 𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝑀 𝐿
𝐿
𝐿3 𝑇 𝐿3 𝑇

• Step 8: Express the final form as a relationship among the pi terms and draw
inferences.

∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷 𝜇
= ሙ
𝑓
𝜌𝑣 2 𝜌𝑣𝐷

∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷 𝜌𝑣𝐷
= 𝑓 Dimensional analysis will not provide the form of the function f
𝜌𝑣 2 𝜇
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 Step 1: Selection of variables
• Clearly define the problem. What is the main variable of interest (the dependent variable)?

• Consider the basic laws that govern the phenomenon. Even a crude theory that describes the essential aspects of the
system may be helpful.

• Start the variable selection process by grouping the variables into three broad classes: geometry, material properties, and
external effects.

• Consider other variables that may not fall into one of the above categories. For example, time will be an important variable
if any of the variables are time dependent.

• Be sure to include all quantities that enter the problem even though some of them may be held constant (e.g., the
acceleration of gravity, g). For a dimensional analysis it is the dimensions of the quantities that are important—not specific
values!

• Make sure that all variables are independent. Look for relationships among subsets of the variables
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Guidelines to choose repeating variables

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 Uniqueness of Pi terms
• Step 1: List all the variables that are involved in the problem
∆𝑝𝑙 = 𝑓 𝐷, 𝑣, 𝜌, 𝜇

• Step 2: Express each of the variables in terms of basic dimensions

𝑀 𝐿 𝑀 𝑀
∆𝑝𝑙 − , 𝐷 − 𝐿, 𝑣− , 𝜌− , 𝜇−
𝐿2 𝑇 2 𝑇 𝐿3 𝐿𝑇
• Step 3: Determine the required number of pi terms. 5 variables (k)- 3 reference dimensions (r) = 2 pi terms

• Step 4: Select the number of repeating variables, where the number required is equal to the number of reference
dimensions- We choose 𝐷, 𝑣 and 𝜇 as the repeating variables

Hence, non-repeating variables are: ∆𝑝𝑙 and 𝜌

• Step 5: Form a pi term by multiplying one of the nonrepeating variables by the product of the repeating variables, each
raised to an exponent that will make the combination dimensionless
𝜋1 = ∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷𝑎1 𝑣 𝑏1 𝜇𝑐1 and 𝜋2 = 𝜌𝐷𝑎2 𝑣 𝑏2 𝜇𝑐2 19
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 Uniqueness of Pi terms
• Step 6: Repeat Step 5 for each of the remaining nonrepeating variables.
𝜋1 = ∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷𝑎1 𝑣 𝑏1 𝜇𝑐1 and 𝜋2 = 𝜌𝐷𝑎2 𝑣 𝑏2 𝜇𝑐2

𝜋1 = ∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷𝑎1 𝑣 𝑏1 𝜇𝑐1

𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = 𝑀1 𝐿−2 𝑇 −2 𝐿𝑎1 𝐿𝑏1 𝑇 −𝑏1 𝑀𝑐1 𝐿−𝑐1 𝑇 −𝑐1
Equating the powers of M: 1 + 𝑐1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑐1 = −1
Equating the powers of T: −2 − 𝑏1 − 𝑐1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑏1 = −1
Equating the powers of L: −2 + 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 − 𝑐1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑎1 = 2
∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷2
𝜋1 =
𝑣𝜇 𝜋2 = 𝜌𝐷𝑎2 𝑣 𝑏2 𝜇𝑐2
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = 𝑀1 𝐿−3 𝐿𝑎2 𝐿𝑏2 𝑇 −𝑏2 𝑀𝑐2 𝐿−𝑐2 𝑇 −𝑐2
Equating the powers of M: 1 + 𝑐2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑐2 = −1
Equating the powers of T: −𝑏2 − 𝑐2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑏1 = 1
Equating the powers of L: −3 + 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 𝑐2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑎2 =1
𝜌𝑣𝐷
𝜋2 =
𝜇
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Uniqueness of Pi terms

𝜋1 = ∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷𝑎1 𝑣 𝑏1 𝜇𝑐1 𝜋1 = ∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷𝑎1 𝑣 𝑏1 𝜌𝑐1

𝜋2 = 𝜌𝐷𝑎2 𝑣 𝑏2 𝜇𝑐2 𝜋2 = 𝜇𝐷𝑎2 𝑣 𝑏2 𝜌𝑐2
∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷2 ∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷
𝜋1 = 𝜋1 =
𝑣𝜇 𝜌𝑣 2
𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝜇
𝜋2 = 𝜋2 =
𝜇 𝜌𝑣𝐷

∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷2 𝜌𝑣𝐷 ∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷 𝜌𝑣𝐷

= 𝜙1 = 𝜙
𝑣𝜇 𝜇 𝜌𝑣 2 𝜇

There is not a unique set of pi terms which arises from a dimensional analysis, the number required is fixed in
accordance with the pi theorem

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 Dimensionless correlation of
experimental data
The relationship between the pressure drop per unit length along a smooth-walled, horizontal pipe and the variables that affect the pressure drop is to be
determined experimentally. In the laboratory the pressure drop was measured over a 5-ft length of smooth-walled pipe having an inside diameter of 0.496 in. The
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
fluid used was water at 60 oF (𝜇 = 2.34 𝑥 10−5 lb s/ft2, 𝜌 = 1.94 ). Tests were run in which the velocity was varied and the corresponding pressure drop
𝑓𝑡3

measured. The results of these tests are shown below.

Make use of these data to obtain a general relationship between the pressure drop per unit length and the other variables.

∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷 𝜌𝑣𝐷
Step 1: = 𝜙1 from dimensional analysis
𝜌𝑣 2 𝜇

Note the flow in the pipe is turbulent

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Dimensionless correlation of
experimental data

−0.25
∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷2 𝜌𝑣𝐷
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛: = 0.15
𝑣𝜇 𝜇

∆𝑝𝑙 𝐷2 𝜌𝑣𝐷 −0.25

𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶ 𝑣𝜇
= 0.1582 𝜇
for 4000 < Re < 105
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 Example 1
A thin rectangular plate having a width w and a height h is located so that it is normal to a moving stream of fluid as
shown in the Fig. Assume the drag, D, that the fluid exerts on the plate is a function of w and h, the fluid viscosity
and density, 𝜇 and ρ respectively, and the velocity V of the fluid approaching the plate.

Determine a suitable set of pi terms to study this problem experimentally.

𝜋1 = 𝑓(𝜋2 , 𝜋3 )

𝐷 ℎ 𝜇
= 𝑓 ,
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑤 2 𝑤 𝑤𝜌𝑉

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 Example 2
Some children are playing with soap bubbles, and you become curious as to the relationship between soap bubble
radius and the pressure inside the soap bubble. You reason that the pressure inside the soap bubble must be
greater than atmospheric pressure, and that the shell of the soap bubble is under tension, much like the skin of a
balloon. You also know that the property surface tension must be important in this problem. Not knowing any other
physics, you decide to approach the problem using dimensional analysis. Establish a relationship between pressure
difference ∆𝑃 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 − 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 , soap bubble radius R, and the surface tension 𝜎𝑠 of the soap film

𝜋1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡

∆𝑃 𝜎𝑠
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑅

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 Example 3
A stirrer is used to mix chemicals in a large tank. The shaft power 𝑊ሶ supplied to the stirrer blades is a function of
stirrer diameter D, liquid density ρ, liquid viscosity µ, and the angular velocity ω of the spinning blades. Use the
method of repeating variables to generate a dimensionless relationship between these parameters. Show all your
work and be sure to identify your Π groups, modifying them as necessary

𝜋1 = 𝑓(𝜋2 )

𝑊ሶ 𝜇
= 𝑓
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5 𝜌𝜔𝐷2

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Common dimensionless groups

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 Dimensional analysis and Similitude

Dimensional analysis:

• To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments (physical and/or numerical) and in
the reporting of experimental results

• To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model performance

• To predict trends in the relationship between parameters

• A model is a representation of a physical system that may be used to predict the behavior of the system in some desired
respect. The physical system for which the prediction is made is the prototype

• In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are performed on a geometrically scaled model, rather than on the
full-scale prototype

• With the successful development of a valid model, it is possible to predict the behavior of the prototype under a certain
set of conditions.
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 Dimensional analysis and Similitude
• There are three necessary conditions for complete similarity between a model and a prototype.
• Geometric similarity - the model must be the same shape as the prototype but may be scaled by some constant scale
factor.

• Kinematic similarity - At all locations, the velocity in the model flow is proportional to that at corresponding locations in
the prototype flow, and points in the same direction. Geometric similarity is a prerequisite for kinematic similarity.

• Dynamic similarity - is achieved when all forces in the model flow scale by a constant factor to corresponding forces in
the prototype flow (force-scale equivalence). Kinematic similarity is a necessary but insufficient condition for dynamic
similarity

• In a general flow field, complete similarity between a model and prototype is achieved only when there is geometric,
kinematic, and dynamic similarity

• To ensure complete similarity, the model and prototype must be geometrically similar, and all independent
dimensionless groups must match between model and prototype
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 Dimensional analysis and Similitude
• 𝜋1 = 𝑓(𝜋2 , 𝜋3 , 𝜋4 … . . , 𝜋𝑘−𝑟 ) where 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 , 𝜋4 … . . , 𝜋𝑘−𝑟 are independent 𝜋 terms and 𝜋1 is the dependent
𝜋 term

• To ensure complete similarity, the model and prototype must be geometrically similar, and all independent
dimensionless groups must match between model and prototype

• Under these conditions the dependent 𝜋 of the model (𝜋1,𝑚 ) is guaranteed to also equal the dependent 𝜋
of the prototype (𝜋1,𝑝 )

• If 𝜋2,𝑚 = 𝜋2,𝑝 , 𝜋3,𝑚 = 𝜋3,𝑝 , 𝜋4,𝑚 = 𝜋4,𝑝 ………………………….. 𝜋𝑘−𝑟,𝑚 = 𝜋𝑘−𝑟,𝑝

• Then, 𝜋1,𝑚 = 𝜋1,𝑝

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 Dimensional analysis and Similitude
• Consider the design of a new sports car, the aerodynamics of which is to
be tested in a wind tunnel.

• To save money, it is desirable to test a small, geometrically scaled model

of the car rather than a full-scale prototype of the car

• The two dimensionless groups in this problem are

𝐹𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐿
𝜋1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋2 =
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿2 𝜇

• In the problem at hand there is only one independent 𝜋 term, i.e. 𝜋2

• Thus, if 𝜋2,𝑚 = 𝜋2,𝑝 , then 𝜋1,𝑚 = 𝜋1,𝑝

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 Example 4 - Similitude
The aerodynamic drag of a new sports car is to be predicted at a speed of 50.0 mi/h at an air temperature of 25°C. Automotive engineers build a one fifth scale
model of the car to test in a wind tunnel. It is winter and the wind tunnel is located in an unheated building; the temperature of the wind tunnel air is only about
5°C. Determine how fast the engineers should run the wind tunnel in order to achieve similarity between the model and the prototype. The aerodynamic drag
force on the model car is measured with a drag balance. Several drag readings are recorded, and the average drag force on the model is 21.2 lbf. Predict the
aerodynamic drag force on the prototype (at 50 mi/h and 25°C).

Assumptions:

1. Compressibility of the air is negligible.

2. The wind tunnel walls are far enough away to not interfere with the aerodynamic drag on the model car.

3. The model is geometrically similar to the prototype.

4. The wind tunnel has a moving belt to simulate the ground under the car. (The moving belt is necessary in order to achieve kinematic similarity everywhere in
the flow, in particular underneath the car)

Properties:
For air at atmospheric pressure and at T = 25°C, ρ =1.184 kg/m3 and µ = 1.849 x 10-5 kg/m · s.
Similarly, at T = 5°C, ρ = 1.269 kg/m3 and µ = 1.754 x 10-5 kg/m · s.
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 Similitude
• The actual values of the dimensional parameters (density, velocity, etc.) are irrelevant.

• As long as the corresponding independent dimensionless parameter sets are set equal to each other, similarity is
achieved—even if different fluids are used.

• Suppose the engineers had used a water tunnel (instead of a wind tunnel) to simulate their one fifth scale model, using the
properties of water at room temperature (20 oC),

𝜇𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝐿𝑝 1.002 x 10 −3 1.184
𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣𝑝 = 50 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 5 = 16.1 mi/hr
𝜇𝑝 𝜌𝑚 𝐿𝑚 1.849 x 10 −5 998

• This explains why automobile or aircraft performance can be simulated in a water tunnel, and the performance of a
submarine can be simulated in a wind tunnel.

• Incomplete similarity – when we are unable to match the independent non dimensional group between the model and
prototype although they are geometrically similar.
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 Incomplete Similarity
Suppose we purchase a one-sixteenth scale die-cast model of a tractor-trailer rig. The model and the prototype are
geometrically similar- even in the details such as side mirrors, mud flaps, etc. The model truck is 0.991 m long, corresponding
to a full-scale prototype length of 15.9 m. The model truck is to be tested in a wind tunnel that has a maximum speed of 70
m/s. The air in the wind tunnel is at the same temperature and pressure as the air flowing around the prototype. We want to
simulate flow at 𝑣𝑝 = 60 mi/h (26.8 m/s) over the full-scale prototype truck.

𝐿𝑚 𝑣𝑚 𝜌𝑚 𝐿𝑝 𝑣𝑝 𝜌𝑝
𝑅𝑒𝑚 = 𝑅𝑒𝑝 ⟹ =
𝜇𝑚 𝜇𝑝

𝜇𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝐿𝑝
𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣𝑝 = 26.8 𝑥 16 = 429 m/s
𝜇𝑝 𝜌𝑚 𝐿𝑚

Whereas the maximum achievable speed in a wind tunnel is only 70 m/s

Moreover, the flow would be supersonic, since the speed of sound in air at room
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 Incomplete Similarity
It is clearly not possible to match the model Reynolds number to that of the prototype with this model and wind tunnel
facility.

What to do?

• Testing a larger model in a larger wind tunnel. Automobile manufacturers typically test with three-eighths scale model cars
and with one-eighth scale model trucks and buses in very large wind tunnels. Bigger the model, more expensive the tests
are!

• Use a different fluid for the model tests. For example, water tunnels can achieve higher Reynolds numbers than can wind
tunnels of the same size, but they are much more expensive to build and operate.

• Run the wind tunnel at several speeds near the maximum speed, and then extrapolate our
results to the full-scale Reynolds number – Viable for many wind tunnel experiments as the
drag coefficient for bluff bodies becomes independent of Re
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 Incomplete Similarity
• Run the wind tunnel at several speeds near the maximum speed, and then extrapolate the results to the full-scale
Reynolds number – Viable for many wind tunnel experiments as the drag coefficient for bluff bodies becomes independent
of Re

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Outline

✓ Dimensions and units

✓ Dimensional homogeneity

✓ Non-dimensionalizing the governing equations

✓ Dimensional analysis – Buckingham Pi theorem

✓ Similitude

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