Science 10

Unit C: Cycling of Matter in

Living Systems
Table of Contents
The Development of Cell Theory 4
Early Microscopy 4
Spontaneous Generation 5
The Development of the Cell Theory 6
The Cell Theory 6

Developments in Imaging Technology and Staining Techniques 7

Staining 7
Confocal Technology 8
Electron Microscopy 8

Cell Research at the Molecular Level 9

Gene Mapping 9
Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) Technology 9
Three-Dimensional Structure of Molecules 9

The Cell 10
The Cell as an Efficient, Open System 10
Chemical Composition of Cells 10
Cell Structures and Functions 11
Comparing Plant and Animal Cells 14

The Cell Membrane 15

Structure of the Cell Membrane 15
Function of the Cell Membrane 15
The Particle Model of Matter 16
Concentration Gradients 16
Transport Across the Cell Membrane 16
Diffusion 17
Osmosis 17
Facilitated Diffusion 18
Active Transport 19
Endocytosis and Exocytosis 19

Cell Size and Shape 20

The Ratio of Surface Area to Volume 20
Cell Shape 21

Specialization of Cells, Tissues, and Systems in Plants 22

Specialization in Plant Systems 22
Specialization in Plant Tissues 22
 Specialization in Plant Cells 23

Specialization in the Leaf and Gas Exchange 24

Dermal Tissue 24
Ground Tissue 25
Vascular Tissue 25

Transport Systems in Plants 26

Cohesion and Adhesion 26
Water Transport in Plants 26
The Effect of Tonicity on Plant Cells 27
Sugar Transport in Plants 27

Plant Control Systems 28

Phototropism 28
Investigations of Phototropism 28
Gravitropism 29
 The Development of Cell Theory
Learning Outcomes
Explain the relationship between developments in imaging technology and the current understanding
of the cell
● trace the development of the cell theory: all living things are made up of one or more cells and the
materials produced by these, cells are functional units of life, and all cells come from pre-existing
cells

Early Microscopy
Hans and Zacharias Janssen, Dutch lens-makers, invented the
microscope in about 1595, using a two-lens system of an
eyepiece, or ocular lens, and an objective lens.
● This was the first compound microscope, meaning that it
made use of more than one lens to magnify objects.
● The Janssens’ microscope had a magnifying power of
approximately 20X.

In England in 1665, Robert Hooke was using a hand-made

microscope that had a three-lens system.
● Hooke was interested in why cork had its unusual properties:
it was light-weight; could float on water; was firm, yet
compressible under force.
● He examined thin slices and saw many empty chambers
which he called “cells”.
● He did not know then that these tiny chambers were the
remnants of living cells, the simplest functional units of life.

At about the same time as Robert Hooke was studying cork cells, a Dutch businessman,
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, was using a simple single-lens microscope similar to a
magnifying glass.
● Because of van Leeuwenhoek’s skill in making the tiny lenses for his microscopes, he
was able to produce higher magnifications than those of the compound microscopes
of the day (up to 250X).
● He was the first to see the movement of different types of single cells that we now
know as bacteria, sperm, and unicellular protozoa.
● These were the first observations of individual free-living cells surviving as
independent systems.
● Van Leeuwenhoek made careful drawings of his discoveries and named them animalcules.
Spontaneous Generation
The idea that life could emerge spontaneously from non-living matter - called abiogenesis or
spontaneous generation - was widely accepted from the time of the Romans through to the 19th
century.

In 1668, Francesco Redi, an Italian physician and poet, questioned the belief that maggots appeared
spontaneously from raw meat.
● He believed that flies laid their eggs in the meat and set up an experiment to test his hypothesis.
● He set out flasks containing raw meat, but some were sealed, some were covered in gauze, and
some were open to the air.
● Maggots were found only in the flasks that were open and accessible to flies to lay their eggs.
● Despite the evidence, the idea of spontaneous generation continued to thrive.

Think About It!

Identify the manipulated, responding, and controlled variables in Redi’s experiment.

In 1864, the French chemist Louis Pasteur disproved the theory of spontaneous generation.
● Pasteur heated the neck of the flask and bent it into an S-shape, allowing air to reach the boiled
broth, but trapping microorganisms and other particles in the S-bend.
● Nothing grew in this broth, but if the flask was tipped so that the broth reached the S-bend in the
neck or if the neck was broken, there would be microbial growth.
Think About It!
Identify the manipulated, responding, and controlled variables in Pasteur’s experiment.

● Pasteur provided strong evidence that spontaneous generation did not occur and that life arises
through biogenesis.
○ Biogenesis is the development of living things from other living things through reproduction.

The Development of the Cell Theory

It was not until the 1830s, with the improvements in lens technology and the increased number of
observations made by scientists in several countries, that the importance of the cell as the functional
unit of life was recognized.

In 1833, Scottish microscopist Robert Brown identified an important cell structure,

the nucleus, in his study of orchids.
● Brown observed an opaque granular spot within each cell and was the first to
recognize that this cell structure must have some importance for cell function.

In 1838, a German professor of botany, M. J. Schleiden observed that all plants

were composed of cells with nuclei and proposed that the nucleus was the structure responsible for the
development of the remainder of the cell.

Schleiden discussed his work with a friend, Theodor Schwann, who was studying animal physiology.
● When Schwann searched for the opaque spots in animal tissue, he found the nucleus structure that
Brown and Schleiden had identified.
● Schwann and Schleiden proposed that all plants and animals were composed of cells and that the
cell was the basic unit of all organisms.

In 1859, the cell theory was further extended by Rudolf Virchow’s statement that all cells arise only
from pre-existing cells.

The Cell Theory

The cell theory states:
1. All living things are made up of one or more cells and the materials produced by these cells.
2. All life functions take place in cells, making them the smallest unit of life.
3. All cells are produced from pre-existing cells through the process of cell division.

The cell theory applies to all living things regardless of their size, shape, or the number of cells involved.
Developments in Imaging Technology and Staining
Techniques
Learning Outcomes
Explain the relationship between developments in imaging technology and the current understanding
of the cell
● describe how advancements in knowledge of cell structure and function have been enhanced and
are increasing as a direct result of developments in microscope technology and staining
techniques

Light microscopes magnify images through the use of one or more curved lenses and a light source.

The quality of the image seen under a microscope depends on:

1. Magnification: increasing the size of the image produced.
2. Contrast: the difference in light intensity between the image and the adjacent background.
● Manipulating the light source alters the contrast between structures in the specimen and
improves the image.
3. Resolution: the ability to distinguish between two points that are very close together.

Staining
Experiments with stains or colouring agents showed that particular stains
attached to particular parts of the cell, improving the contrast between
internal structures.
● One disadvantage of these techniques is that staining kills the cells, so
it is not possible to view living tissue.
Confocal Technology
Invented in the 1980s, confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) uses a
laser to concentrate light onto a specimen.
● The reflection passes through a tiny opening called the confocal
pinhole and reaches an electronic detector that converts the light into
an image.
● Only the in-focus light can pass through the pinhole to the detector,
resulting in a high resolution image.

Electron Microscopy
In the 1930s at the University of Toronto, James Hillier and Albert Prebus developed the first functional
electron microscope.
● An electron microscope uses a beam of electrons instead of a light wave and is able to produce high
resolution images with greater magnification than light microscopes, however they are quite
expensive.

The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) uses a beam of electrons passed through a very thin
section of the specimen.
● The electrons that pass through the specimen fall on a fluorescent screen or on photographic film
and black-and-white photographs are produced.
● The TEM may operate at magnifications of up to 1 500 000X and has a resolution of about 2.5 nm.
● One of the drawbacks of the TEM is that the specimens are chemically fixed, and therefore no
longer living.

The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), developed in the 1940s, gives information about the surface
features of a specimen.
● Specimens are covered with an electron-dense material like gold, which reflects electrons.
● Electrons bouncing off the surface are picked up by a sensor and a three-dimensional image is
formed.
● The SEM operates up to a magnification of 300 000X and has a resolution of 20 nm.
● One of the drawbacks of the SEM is that the specimens are chemically fixed, and therefore no longer
living.
 Cell Research at the Molecular Level
Learning Outcomes
Explain the relationship between developments in imaging technology and the current understanding
of the cell
● identify areas of cell research at the molecular level

Gene Mapping
Improvements in techniques of molecular biology allowed for mapping of the human genome.
● In 2001, a draft of the complete genetic map of humans was published in the results of the Human
Genome Project.
● The mapping of DNA sequences in genes involves breaking cells down to release their DNA, using
chemical techniques to make many copies of the DNA, and finding the sequence of chemical
subunits through computer analysis.

DNA analysis and gene mapping open up our understanding of the way different parts of the genetic
material work together.
● This knowledge has allowed scientists to manage disease-causing genetic abnormalities and to begin
to target cancer treatments to the genetics of the cancer cells.
● Gene mapping of crop plants has contributed to the development of new varieties that are resistant
to pests or can thrive in drought conditions.

Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) Technology

Fluorescence microscopy is a technique in which scientists attach green fluorescent proteins (GFP) to
certain molecules or parts of cells that they wish to study.
● When the specimen is subjected to ultraviolet light, the fluorescent molecule glows.
● Using GFP technology, scientists can observe molecules, such as hormones and neurotransmitters,
involved in communication between cells.

Three-Dimensional Structure of Molecules

X-ray crystallography uses X-rays, special sensors that analyze patterns of X-ray
scattering, and computer technology to show the details of molecular structure.
● This technique was essential to studies that led to the model of the DNA
molecule.
 The Cell
Learning Outcomes
Describe the function of cell organelles and structures in a cell, in terms of life processes, and use
models to explain these processes and their applications
● describe the cell as a functioning open system that acquires nutrients, excretes waste, and
exchanges matter and energy
● identify the structure and describe, in general terms, the function of the cell membrane, nucleus,
lysosome, vacuole, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes,
chloroplast and cell wall, where present, of plant and animal cells
● compare the structure, chemical composition and function of plant and animal cells, and describe
the complementary nature of the structure and function of plant and animal cells

The Cell as an Efficient, Open System

Cells are efficient, open systems able to carry out all of the life processes.
● Cells are considered to be open systems because they exchange matter and energy with their
environment.
● The life processes carried out by cells include:
○ intake of nutrients
○ removal of waste
○ growth and reproduction
○ exchange of gases

Cells maintain these life processes within specialized membrane-bound structures called organelles.
● Ribosomes are the only organelle not enclosed by a membrane.

Cell Structures and Functions

Cell Structure and Function Photomicrograph

The cell membrane is a protective barrier for the cell: it allows the transport of
materials into and out of the cell; it is important for cell communication.

The nucleus contains DNA, the genetic material of the cell, that directs all cellular
activities. The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope, which has pores to
allow the transport of materials.

The cytoplasm is a gel-like substance inside the cell membrane where the
organelles are suspended; it contains the nutrients required by the cell to carry on
the life processes.
The cell wall is found in plant cells; the cell wall is a rigid frame around the cell
that provides strength and support.

Chloroplasts are found only in plants. They contain a pigment called chlorophyll
that produces a green colour; they are the sites of photosynthesis, the process
which uses energy from the Sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose
(sugar) for the plant’s use and storage. The equation for photosynthesis is:

H2O(l) + CO2(g) → C6H12O6(aq) + O2(g)

Vacuoles are membrane-bound vesicles that store water. Plant cells have a large
central vacuole.

Vesicles are membrane-bound structures that serve to store nutrients, products

of secretion, and fats, depending on the tissue type. Vesicles transport substances
throughout and out of the cell.

Ribosomes are granules that may be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or

free-floating in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.

The endoplasmic reticulum is a series of interconnected small tubes that branch

from the nuclear envelope. Materials can be transported through these tubes.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to it and is associated with

protein synthesis; smooth endoplasmic reticulum is associated with lipid (fat and
oil) production.

Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs in the cell in which digestion of substances

occurs. The various roles of lysosomes include defence against invading bacteria,
destruction of damaged cell organelles, and programmed cell death.
 Cell Structure and Function Photomicrograph

The Golgi apparatus is consists of flat, disc-shaped sacs involved in secretion. The
Golgi receives substances from the endoplasmic reticulum and packages them
into vesicles for transport.

Mitochondria are rod-like structures where reactions occur to convert chemical

energy in sugars into ATP energy that the cell can use. This process is called
cellular respiration. The chemical equation for cellular respiration is:

C6H12O6(aq) + O2(g) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Comparing Plant and Animal Cells

Similarities between plant and animal cells include:
● animal and plant cells have the same basic chemical composition
● animal and plant cells have genetic material in the form of DNA that directs cellular activities.
● animal and plant cells share many of the same organelles.

Differences between plant and animal cells include:

● animal cells have centrioles, which are involved in cell division; plant cells do not have centrioles.
● plant cells have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, a type of carbohydrate, whereas animal cells do
not have cell walls.
● plant cells contain chloroplasts.
● plant cells have a large central vacuole; vacuoles in animal cells tend to be small.

Plant and animal cells are complementary in

nature.
● The products of photosynthesis, performed
by plant cells, are the reactants of cellular
respiration, performed by plant and animal
cells, and vice versa.
 The Cell Membrane
Learning Outcomes
Describe the function of cell organelles and structures in a cell, in terms of life processes, and use
models to explain these processes and their applications
● describe the role of the cell membrane in maintaining equilibrium while exchanging matter
● compare passive transport of matter by diffusion and osmosis with active transport in terms of
the particle model of matter, concentration gradients, equilibrium and protein carrier molecules

Structure of the Cell Membrane

The plasma membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
● This is a double layer of lipids that each have a phosphate group attached.
● The phosphates are hydrophilic and face out into the watery fluids on either side of the membrane
while the lipids are hydrophobic and face toward each other in the inner part of the membrane.
● Proteins are suspended in the phospholipid bilayer, some attaching to the outside of the cell
membrane, some attaching to the inside of the cell membrane, and some running through the
membrane.
● Some surface proteins have sugar molecules
attached.

The currently accepted structure of the cell membrane

was suggested in 1972 and is referred to as the fluid-
mosaic model.
● A mosaic is a collection of different substances held
together by a common material.
● From above, the cell membrane looks like a mosaic of
tiles (the proteins) held together by a fluid, flowing
grout (the lipid bilayer).
● The molecules in the bilayer are constantly moving,
allowing the arrangement of the membrane proteins
to change.

Function of the Cell Membrane

The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is important for maintaining equilibrium or balance inside
the cell.
● The cell needs to keep this equilibrium while allowing some substances in and keeping others out.
● The cell membrane is considered to be selectively permeable, or semi-permeable, because it allows
certain particles to pass through it, but not all particles.
● Generally, the passage of materials through the cell membrane is determined by the size of the
molecules, their charge, and whether they are soluble in lipids.
The Particle Model of Matter
The particle model of matter is useful in explaining the transport of materials across the cell membrane.
The particle model has four main points:
1. All matter is made of particles but the particles in different substances may be different in size and
composition.
2. The particles of matter are constantly moving or vibrating; particles move least in solids and most in
gases. Adding or taking away energy will affect the movement of particles.
3. The particles of matter are attracted to one another or are bonded together.
4. Particles have spaces between them that are smallest in solids, except for ice, and greatest in gases.
The spaces may be occupied by the particles of other substances.

Concentration Gradients
The difference in the concentration of a substance between two areas is called the concentration
gradient.
● Substances tend to move along or with their concentration gradient until equilibrium is reached.
○ Particles are still moving at equilibrium, but they maintain an overall balanced, even
distribution.
● The bigger the difference in concentration, the steeper the concentration gradient and the faster
the molecules of a substance will diffuse.

Transport Across the Cell Membrane

The transport of gases, nutrients, and wastes into and out of the cell is essential for the cell’s survival.
● The cell membrane is the organelle responsible for transport.
● The substances that enter and leave the cell may be ions or molecules or, in some cases,
microorganisms or other cells.
● In a physical sense, all of these substances can be regarded as particles, and their behaviour can be
examined with reference to the particle model of matter.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the natural movement of particles along their concentration gradient - from
an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
● Diffusion is considered to be passive transport because no added energy is required
for it to occur.

Diffusion also occurs in cells.

● Particles that are soluble in lipids and that are small enough to pass through the
pores of the cell membrane will diffuse across the cell membrane along their
concentration gradient.
○ Carbon dioxide, a waste product of cells, leaves the cell by diffusion because
the concentration of the gas inside the cell is greater than its concentration
outside the cell.
○ Oxygen gas diffuses across the cell membrane into the cell, where the
concentration of oxygen tends to be lower.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules along their concentration gradient from an area of higher
water concentration/lower solute concentration to an area of lower water concentration/higher solute
concentration.
● Osmosis is a form of passive transport.
● If there is a concentration gradient across the cell membrane, but the solute molecules are not able
to pass through, there will be a net movement of water molecules through the cell membrane.

To predict the direction in which a net movement of water will occur, we need to compare the solute
concentration.
● A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than that in a cell is said to be hypertonic to
the cell.
○ If the cell is put into this solution, water will leave the cell.
● A solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than that in a cell is said to be hypotonic to the
cell.
○ If the cell is put into this solution, water will enter the cell.
● A solution that has the same concentration of solutes as that in the cell is said to be isotonic to the
cell.
○ If a cell is put into an isotonic solution, there is no net movement of water molecules.
The figure below shows the response of an animal cell to three different conditions in the environment.

Facilitated Diffusion
Substances that are soluble in water but not in lipids, are charged, or are too large to diffuse across the
cell membrane cross by facilitated diffusion.
● Facilitated diffusion is a form of passive transport because no added energy is needed for the
process to occur since particles are moving along their concentration gradient.
● Channel proteins create pores or channels through which small, water-soluble particles move along
the concentration gradient.

● Carrier proteins attach to larger molecules, change shape and physically move the molecule across
the membrane and into the cell.
○ Once the molecule has been transported, the protein returns to its original shape.

Active Transport
Active transport is the movement of particles across the cell membrane against the
concentration gradient using carrier proteins.
● This requires energy input in the form of ATP.
● Active transport is necessary to concentrate materials such as nutrients inside the cell or
for the expulsion of waste materials even though they are at a higher concentration on
the outside of the cell.
● The carrier proteins work almost as a pump to move molecules or ions across the
membrane.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Endocytosis is when a vesicle forms around the particle and the cell membrane pinches off around it so
that the vesicle is inside the cell.
● This occurs when molecules that need to be taken in by the cell are too large to pass across the cell
membrane, even with the help of protein carriers.
● It is a form of active transport because it requires ATP energy for the rearrangement of the cell
membrane.

Exocytosis is when a vesicle surrounds the particle, then fuses with the plasma membrane, releasing its
contents into the surroundings.
● This occurs when the cell must rid itself of large waste particles, or when a secretory cell releases
product molecules.
● It is a form of active transport because it requires ATP energy for the rearrangement of the cell
membrane.
 Cell Size and Shape
Learning Outcomes
Describe the function of cell organelles and structures in a cell, in terms of life processes, and use
models to explain these processes and their applications
● describe cell size and shape as they relate to surface area to volume ratio, and explain how that
ratio limits cell size

The Ratio of Surface Area to Volume

The transport of materials into and out of the cell is critical because these materials will determine how
the cellular processes function.
● If a cell becomes larger and its volume increases, more molecules will need to be transported across
the cell surface to take part in the cell’s functions.
● As the volume increases, the distance any molecule has to travel from the cell surface will increase.

Maintaining a high surface area to volume ratio of a cell is needed for the cell to effectively transport
oxygen, nutrients, and wastes at a rate that sustains cellular activities.
● As the volume of a cell increases, the surface area-to-volume ratio decreases, thus cells tend to be
small in size.
● The greater the surface area to volume ratio, the more efficient cell transport will be.

Surface Area to Volume Ratio Formulas

Surface area of a cube: SA=6 s 2
Volume of a cube: V =s 3
Surface area of a rectangular prism: 2 wl+ 2 hl+ 2hw
Volume of a rectangular prism: V =lwh
SA
Surface area to volume ratio:
V

Example Problem
Determine the surface area to volume ratio for cube-shaped cells with the side lengths listed. Which cell
would be most efficient in transporting substances?
a) 1.0cm b) 2.5cm c) 4.0cm
Try It!
Determine the surface area to volume ratio of a rectangular prism that has:
length = 2.5 cm; width = 2.0 cm; and height = 1.0 cm

Think About It!

Explain, in your own words, why cells tend to be small in size.

Cell Shape
Many cells are specialized to increase surface area.
● Intestinal cell membranes have hair-like projections called microvilli to allow for the rapid
absorption of nutrients

● Red blood cells have a biconcave shape to allow for the rapid transport of carbon dioxide and
oxygen.
 Specialization of Cells, Tissues, and Systems in
Plants
Learning Outcomes
Analyze plants as an example of a multicellular organism with specialized structures at the cellular,
tissue and system levels
● explain why, when a single-celled organism or colony of single-celled organisms reaches a certain
size, it requires a multicellular level of organization, and relate this to the specialization of cells,
tissues and systems in plants
● describe how the cells of the leaf system have a variety of specialized structures and functions;
i.e., epidermis including guard cells, palisade tissue cells, spongy tissue cells, and phloem and
xylem vascular tissue cells to support the process of photosynthesis

Specialization in Multicellular Organisms

When an organism grows in size, it is essential that some specialization occurs to deal with different
functions.

Plants are multicellular organisms made up of many parts, each performing its own important function.
● Groups of cells performing the same function together are called tissues.
● Tissues contributing to the same function form organs which are part of organ systems.
○ E.g., the leaf is an organ that is a part of the shoot organ system and its main purpose is to carry
out the process of photosynthesis.

Specialization in Plant Systems

The plant has two organ systems:
1. The shoot system is everything that is above ground; it includes the stem, leaves, buds, flowers, and
fruits, and tubers (swollen stems that store food, for example potatoes) even though they are under
the ground.
2. The root system is everything underground, but also includes aerial roots even though they are
above ground.

Specialization in Plant Tissues

There are three main types of plant tissues:
1. Dermal tissue or epidermis is the outer layer of cells; typically one
or two cell layers thick.
● The dermal tissue of the shoot system is primarily involved in
gas exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen and protecting the
plant.
● Dermal tissue of the root system is responsible for the uptake
of water and minerals from the soil.
○ Root cells produce tiny hair-like projections called root
hairs to increase the surface area for absorption of water
and minerals.
2. Ground tissue makes up the majority of the plant and is found as a layer beneath the epidermis.
● In the stem, it provides strength and support to the plant.
● In the roots, it is involved in food and water storage.
● In the leaves, it is the location where photosynthesis occurs.

3. Vascular tissue is responsible for the transport of materials throughout the plant.
● Xylem tissue moves water and dissolved minerals from the roots up the stem to the
leaves where these substances are used in photosynthesis.
○ Xylem vessels are thick-walled tubes.
○ As the cylindrical cells mature, they fuse together and the walls at each end
become perforated.
○ The contents of the cytoplasm break down, and the cells die, leaving the non-living
cell walls attached together like a long straw.
● Phloem tissue transports sucrose and other dissolved sugars from the leaves to other
parts of the plant.
○ Phloem vessels are formed from individual long sieve tube cells, which have
perforated end walls, through which the cytoplasm extends.
○ The sieve tube cells remain alive, but lose their nuclei at maturity.
○ In many plants, sieve tube cells are connected to small, nucleated companion cells
that appear to direct their activities.
 Specialization in the Leaf and Gas Exchange
Learning Outcomes
Analyze plants as an example of a multicellular organism with specialized structures at the cellular,
tissue and system levels
● describe how the cells of the leaf system have a variety of specialized structures and functions;
i.e., epidermis including guard cells, palisade tissue cells, spongy tissue cells, and phloem and
xylem vascular tissue cells to support the process of photosynthesis
● explain and investigate the gas exchange system in plants; i.e., lenticels, guard cells, stomata and
the process of diffusion

Dermal Tissue
The cells of the epidermis are clear to allow the light needed for photosynthesis to enter the leaf.

Specialized cells in the epidermis, called guard cells, form tiny openings called stomata that allow gas
exchange to happen.
● The majority of stomata are found in the lower epidermis on the underside of the leaf to prevent
water loss.
● Oxygen gas and carbon dioxide gas diffuse along their concentration gradients between the air and
the leaf through the stomata.

The guard cells that surround the stomata control whether they are open or closed.
● Light striking the leaf stimulates the guard cells to accumulate potassium ions by active transport.
○ As a result, the number of particles present in the guard cells increases, water enters by
osmosis, and the guard cells swell up under increased turgor pressure, opening the stoma.
● When light is not striking the leaf, the potassium ions are no longer being actively transported into
the guard cells.
○ The potassium ions will diffuse out of the guard cells, water will follow by osmosis, and the
stomata will close.

Water is continually being lost from the plant by transpiration through the stomata.
● In conditions where water is not readily available, the turgor pressure decreases and guard cells
become limp, closing the stomata to prevent water loss.
● Stomata also close at night to prevent water loss.

In woody plants, the epidermis of the stem is replaced by cork and bark during the secondary growth
stage of development.
● Lenticels are pores found on the stems of woody plants that provide a pathway for gas exchange
and transpiration.

Ground Tissue
Between the upper epidermis and the lower epidermis of the leaf are specialized ground tissues called
mesophyll.
● The palisade tissue is found just below the upper epidermis.
○ The cells are tightly packed together to maximize exposure to the Sun.
○ Responsible for photosynthesis, so they contain many chloroplasts.
● Between the palisade tissue cells and the lower epidermis is the spongy mesophyll tissue.
○ The increased space between cells allows for gases to diffuse throughout the leaf.
○ The cells of the spongy mesophyll tissue also contain some chloroplasts for photosynthesis.

Vascular Tissue
The xylem and phloem tissues are bundled in a vascular bundle that forms the veins of the leaf.
● The vascular tissue provides the leaf with the water needed for photosynthesis and transports the
sugars formed in photosynthesis throughout the plant.
● The vascular bundles of the leaf are direct extensions of the vascular bundles of the stem.
○ They branch into finer veins within the spongy mesophyll.
 Transport Systems in Plants
Learning Outcomes
Analyze plants as an example of a multicellular organism with specialized structures at the cellular,
tissue and system levels
● explain and investigate the transport system in plants; i.e., xylem and phloem tissues and the
processes of transpiration, including the cohesion and adhesion properties of water, turgor
pressure and osmosis; diffusion, active transport and root pressure in root hairs

Cohesion and Adhesion

The attraction of water molecules to other water molecules is called
cohesion.
● This property is due to the polar nature of the water molecule.
○ The slightly positive end of one water molecule attracts the slightly
negative end of other water molecules, holding them together.

The attraction of water molecules to molecules of other substances is called

adhesion.
● Because of their polar nature, water molecules are also attracted to molecules of other substances.

Water Transport in Plants

Root pressure pushes water upward in a plant.
● Dissolved minerals are present in the cells of the root as a result of active transport, thus producing
a higher solute concentration inside the cell.
● Through the process of osmosis, water is drawn into the cells, creating positive pressure that forces
fluid up the xylem.

The evaporation of water through the

stomata in the process of
transpiration creates a tension or
transpiration pull.
● Adhesion of water molecules to
the sides of the xylem vessels
helps water travel up the sides of
the xylem vessels.
● As each water molecule
evaporates into the surroundings,
it creates a pull on the adjacent
water molecules due to cohesion.
● This transpiration pull is enough
to draw the water up the xylem
vessels to the leaves.
Sugar Transport in Plants
Pressure-flow theory explains how phloem transports the products of photosynthesis from the place
where they are manufactured, the leaves, also called the source, to the places where they will be used
or stored, called the sink.
● At the leaf, sugar is actively transported into the phloem vessel and water follows by osmosis.
● The increased pressure inside the phloem vessel pushes the phloem sap through the vessel to the
rest of the plant.
● Sugars are actively transported into adjacent cells to be used in growth, respiration, and other life
processes, or to be stored in the roots, stems, or leaves.
● As the sugars leave the phloem vessel, water also moves out into surrounding cells, decreasing
pressure in the phloem vessel.
● This pressure difference maintains a constant flow of dissolved sugars down the phloem vessel.
 Plant Control Systems
Learning Outcomes
Analyze plants as an example of a multicellular organism with specialized structures at the cellular,
tissue and system levels
● explain and investigate phototropism and gravitropism as examples of control systems in plants
● trace the development of theories of phototropism and gravitropism

Phototropism
Phototropism is the directional growth of a plant in response to the stimulus of light.
● Stems exhibit positive phototropism, meaning that they grow toward light.
○ This allows the shoots to obtain the sunlight required for photosynthesis.
● Roots show a weak negative phototropism because they grow away from the light.
○ This allows roots to grow into the soil and obtain water and minerals.

Investigations of Phototropism
In 1880, Charles and Francis Darwin investigated which part of the plant detected and responded to the
phototropic stimulus.
● The seedlings with the tips covered did not respond to light, and so they were able to conclude that
the tip of the stem was the area responsible for the detection of the light stimulus.
● Plants with everything except the tips buried still showed a growth response toward the light.
● The Darwins inferred that the cells of the tip were somehow communicating with the cells in the
area of the bending.
In 1913, Peter Boysen-Jensen investigated how the tip was communicating with the
area of elongation.
● The area of elongation was lower on the stem and facing away from the light
source.
○ It was called the area of elongation because the phototropic response was
created by the elongation of cells on the side of the leaf facing away from the
light, causing the leaf to bend toward the light.
● Boysen-Jensen snipped off the tip of the grass seedlings, covered the stump with
gelatin, and replaced the tip—phototropism continued normally.
● He then tried the same procedure using a thin slice of the mineral mica instead of
the gelatin—phototropism was not observed.

● Boysen-Jensen concluded that whatever was responsible for communicating stimulus information
from the tip to the area of elongation was able to diffuse through the gelatin, but not through the
mica.
● He suggested that the growth response could only be accomplished as a result of a chemical moving
from the tip to the area of elongation.

In 1926, F. W. Went investigated the specific substance responsible for initiating the phototropic
response.
● He was able to isolate this chemical substance that was later given the name auxin.
● Since then, analysis of the chemical substance has indicated that the auxin is a hormone, a chemical
compound that is manufactured in one area and transported to another location where it has the
ability to initiate a physiological response—in this case, cell elongation.

Gravitropism
Gravitropism is the growth of plants in response to Earth’s gravitational force.
● Stems grow against the gravitational force, exhibiting negative gravitropism.
● Roots grow toward the gravitational force, exhibiting positive gravitropism.
● Scientists believe that plants rely on heavy starch particles in specialized cells as indicators of gravity.
○ If a plant is tipped, the starch grains shift and settle in a new location due to gravity.
○ When the starch grains do this in the root cells, it is thought that the movement is detected by
the plant, and a growth response results.